GENERAL BIO 2 : Genetic Engineering

Mrs. Paredes| Week 1

GENETICS TRAITS
- scientific study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in - any characteristic that can be passed from parent to
organisms. It explores how traits are passed on from one offspring
generation to the next and the role of genes in determining
various characteristics, such as health, appearance, and
personality. HEREDITY
- passing of traits from parent to offspring
GENES
-which are sections of DNA found in every human cell, carry GENETICS
information that influences an individual's traits. - study of heredity

GENETICISTS
GENOTYPE
-are the scientists who study genes and their role in heredity
and genetic disorders - gene combination for a traits; (RR, Rr, rr)

PHENOTYPE
GREGOR JOHANN MENDEL (1822-1884) - the physical feature resulting from a genotype; (red, white)
- Responsible for the laws governing Inheritance of
Traits TYPES OF GENETIC CROSSES
- Austrian monk 1. MONOHYBRID CROSS
- Studied the Inheritance of traits in Pea Plants - Cross involving a single trait
- Developed the Laws of Inheritance - Ex: flower color
- Mendel’s work was not recognized until the turn of
the 20th century 2. DIHYBRID CROSS
- Between 1856 and 1863, Mendel cultivated some - Crossing involving a two traits
28,000 pea plants - Ex: flower color & plant height
- He found that the plants’ offspring retained traits of
the parents PUNNETT SQUARE
- Called the “Father of Genetics” - Used to help solve genetics problem
- Site of the Experimental Garden: CZECH - Allow geneticists to predict the possible genotypes
REPUBLIC and phenotypes of offspring

PARTICULATE INHERITANCE
 Mendel stated that physical traits are inherited as
“particles”
 Mendel did not know that the “particles” were
actually Chromosomes & DN

EXAMPLE: How to Make a Punnett Square

Both parents are heterozygous for yellow-pea allele (Yy)

Step 1: Make the grid

Place the alleles of the gametes of one parent along the top of
a grid and those of the other parent along the left-hand side.

GENETIC TERMINOLOGY

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 -Gene combination involving 2 dominant or 2
recessive genes
- example: (RR, rr ); also called pure
HETEROZYGOUS
- gene combination of one dominant & one recessive
allele
Step 2: Fill in the grid - example: (Rr); also called hybrid
Combine the parent alleles inside the boxes. The letters show
the genotypes of the offspring. Why peas, Pisum sativum?
 Can be grown in a small area
 Produce lots of offspring
 Produce pure plants when allowed to self-pollinate
several generations
 Can be artificially cross-pollinated

REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

POLLEN
Step 3: Fill in the offspring
- contains sperm produced by the stamen.
Use the Law of Dominance to determine the phenotype ration
-carries sperm to the egg for fertilization:
of the offspring.
 SELF FERTILIZATION- can occur in the same
flower
 CROSS FERTILIZATION- can occur between
flowers

OVARY- contains eggs found inside the flower

DESIGNER “GENES”
 ALLELES- two forms of a gene (dominant &
recessive)
 DOMINANT- stronger of two genes expressed in the
hybrid; represented by a capital letter (R)
 RECESSIVE- gene that shows up less often in a
cross; represented by a lowercase letter (r)

Genotype & Phenotype in Flower

Mendel’s Experimental Methods
Genotype of alleles:
- Mendel hand-pollinated flowers using a paintbrush
R- red flower - He could snip the stamens to prevent self-
r- yellow flower pollination.
- All genes occur in pairs, so 2 alleles affect a - Covered each flower with a cloth bag
characteristic - He traced traits thru the several generations
- Possible combinations are:
Genotypes: RR Rr rr PROCESS BY MENDEL:
Phenotypes: RED RED YELLOW 1. Removed stamens from purple flower
2. Transferred pollen from stamens of white flower to
carpel of purple flower
GENOTYPES 3. Pollinated carpel matured into pod
4. Planted seeds from pod
HOMOZYGOUS GENOTYPE
5. Examined offspring: all purple flowers

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  The theoretical or expected ratio of plants producing
How Mendel Began round or wrinkled seeds is 3 round : 1 wrinkled
1. Self-pollination  Mendel’s observed ratio was 2.96 : 1
2. Fertilization  The discrepancy is due to statistical error
3. Germination  The larger the sample the more nearly the results
approximate to the theretical ratio
-Mendel produced pure strains by allowing the plants to self-
pollinate for several generations.
Generation “Gap”
1. PARENTAL P1 GENERATION
Eight Pea Plant Traits
SEED SHAPE Round (R) Wrinkled (r) -the parental generation in a breeding experiment
SEED COLOR Yellow (Y) Green (y) 2. F 1 GENERATION
POD SHAPE Smooth (S) Wrinkled (s) -the first generation offspring in a breeding experiment. (1st
POD COLOR Green (G) Yellow (g) filial generation)
SEED COAT Gray (G) White (g)
-from breeding individuals from the P1 generation
COLOR
FLOWER Axial (A) Terminal (a) 3. F 2 GENERATION
POSITION -the second generation offspring in a breeding experiment.
PLANT Tall (T) Short (t) (2nd filial generation)
HEIGHT
-from breeding individuals from the F1 generation
FLOWER Purple (P) White (p)
COLOR

Pea Plant Characteristics Studied by Mendel

Character Dominant Trait Recessive Trait
Studied
SEED SHAPE Smooth Wrinkled
SEED COLOR Yellow Green
POD SHAPE Inflated Wrinkled
POD COLOR Green Yellow
FLOWER Purple White
COLOR
FLOWER On stem At tip
POSITION
sSTEM LENGTH Tall Dwarf

Mendel’s Experimental Results P1 Monohybrid Cross

Dominant Recessive Ratio of dominant to
Trait Trait recessive in F2 generation
SMOOTH Wrinkled 2.96:1 (5,474 smooth,
SEED seed 1,850 wrinkled
YELLOW Green seed 3.01:1 (6,022 yellow, 2,001
SEED green)
INFLATED Wrinkled 2.95:1 (822 inflated, 299
POD pod wrinkled)
GREEN Yellow pod 2.82:1 (428 green, 152
POD yellow)
PURPLE White 3.14:1 (705 purple, 224
FLOWER flower white)
FLOWER Flower at 3.14:1 (651 along stem,
ON STEM tip 207 at tip)
TALL STEM Dwarf stem 2.84:1 (787 tall plants, 277
dwarfs)
Average 3:1
ratio, all
traits:

Did the observed ratio match the theoretical ratio? F 1 Monohybrid Cross
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 Alleles for different traits are distributed to sex cells
(& offspring) independently of one another
This law can be illustrated using dihybrid crosses

Dihybrid Cross
A breeding experiment that tracks the inheritance of two
traits.
Mendel’s “Law of Independent Assortment”
a. Each pair of alleles segregates independently during
gamete formation
b. Formula: 2n (n=# of heterozygotes)
F 1 Monohybrid Cross
 Heterozygous x heterozygous
 Offspring:
25% Homozygous dominant (RR)
50% Heterozygous (Rr)
25% Homozygous Recessive (rr) INTRODUCTION
 Offspring called F2 generation TOPIC
 Genotypic ratio is 1:2;1 SUB-TOPIC

 Phenotypic Ratio is 3:1

Law of Dominance
In a cross of parents that are pure for contrasting
traits, only one form of the trait will appear in the next
generation.
All the offspring will be heterozygous and express
only the dominant trait
RR X rr yields all Rr (round seeds)

Law of Segregation
During the formation of gametes (eggs/sperm), the
two alleles responsible for a trait separate from each other.
Alleles for a trait are then “recombined” at
fertilization, producing the genotype for the traits of the
offspring

Law of Independent Assortment

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