Unit 3 Environment Science

Unit 3 Environment Science
Atmospheric Composition
The Earth’s atmosphere is composed of a mixture of different gases12345. Here is the
approximate composition by volume:
 Nitrogen (N2): 78.08%1
 Oxygen (O2): 20.95%1
 Argon (Ar): 0.93%1
 Carbon Dioxide (CO2): 0.04%1
In addition to these, the atmosphere contains trace amounts of other gases, including neon,
helium, methane, krypton, and xenon1. It also contains a variable amount of water vapor, on
average around 1% at sea level, and 0.4% over the entire atmosphere1.
The composition of the atmosphere can vary depending on altitude, weather, and human
activities1. For example, the concentration of water vapor decreases with altitude. Also,
human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, can increase the concentration of carbon
dioxide, methane, and other greenhouse gases1.
It’s important to note that the atmosphere is not uniform and is divided into several layers
based on temperature and other properties. These include the troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere1.
The Earth’s atmosphere is divided into five main layers1[1]2[2]3[3]44:

1. Troposphere: This is the lowest layer of our atmosphere, extending upward to about
10 km (6.2 miles or about 33,000 feet) above sea level22. We humans live in the
troposphere, and nearly all weather occurs in this lowest layer22. Most clouds appear
here, mainly because 99% of the water vapor in the atmosphere is found in the
troposphere22.
2. Stratosphere: The stratosphere extends from the top of the troposphere to about 50
km (31 miles) above the ground22. The infamous ozone layer is found within the
stratosphere22. Ozone molecules in this layer absorb high-energy ultraviolet (UV)
light from the Sun, converting the UV energy into heat22.
3. Mesosphere: Above the stratosphere is the mesosphere. It extends upward to a height
of about 85 km (53 miles) above our planet22. Most meteors burn up in the
mesosphere22.
4. Thermosphere: The layer of very rare air above the mesosphere is called the
thermosphere22. High-energy X-rays and UV radiation from the Sun are absorbed in
the thermosphere, raising its temperature to hundreds or at times thousands of
degrees22.
5. Exosphere: The outermost layer of the atmosphere is the exosphere11. This layer
gradually fades away into the realm of interplanetary space11.
Each layer has its own specific traits, such as temperature, pressure, and composition 22. The
layers are influenced by weather, climate, and space phenomena, and they vary in height and
thickness22.
The tropopause and mesopause are boundaries between different layers of the Earth’s
atmosphere12345.
1. Tropopause: The tropopause is the boundary that separates the troposphere (the
lowest layer of the atmosphere) from the stratosphere (the second lowest layer)1234. It
is the atmospheric level where the air ceases to cool with increased altitude and
Unit 3 Environmental 1
becomes dry, devoid of water vapor1234. The height of the tropopause varies depending
on its location and the Earth’s season. It is greatest at Earth’s equator and lowest
above the poles2.
2. Mesopause: The mesopause is the boundary between the mesosphere and the
thermosphere, the third and fourth layers of the Earth’s atmosphere respectively5. It is
the point of minimum temperature in the atmosphere, with temperatures as low as -
100 °C (-148 °F or 173 K)5. The mesopause is usually located at heights of 85-95 km,
and it is the site of the coldest temperatures in the atmosphere5.
The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth’s atmosphere1234. Here are some details about it:
 It contains 80% of the total mass of the planetary atmosphere and 99% of the total
mass of water vapor and aerosols1234.
 The troposphere is where most weather phenomena occur1234.
 The average height of the troposphere is 18 km (11 mi; 59,000 ft) in the tropics; 17
km (11 mi; 56,000 ft) in the middle latitudes; and 6 km (3.7 mi; 20,000 ft) in the
high latitudes of the polar regions in winter1234.
 The term troposphere derives from the Greek words tropos (rotating) and sphaira
(sphere) indicating that rotational turbulence mixes the layers of air and so determines
the structure and the phenomena of the troposphere1234.
 The rotational friction of the troposphere against the planetary surface affects the flow
of the air, and so forms the planetary boundary layer (PBL) that varies in height from
hundreds of meters up to 2 km (1.2 mi; 6,600 ft)1234.
 Atop the troposphere is the tropopause, which is the functional atmospheric border
that demarcates the troposphere from the stratosphere1234.
 The layer has the largest concentration of nitrogen1234.
 The Earth’s planetary atmosphere contains, besides other gases, water vapor and
carbon dioxide, which produce carbonic acid in rainwater1234.
The stratosphere is the second layer of Earth’s atmosphere, located above the troposphere
and below the mesosphere12345. Here are some key details about it:
 It extends from about 8 km above the poles (18 km above the equator) to about 50
km15.
 In the stratosphere, the temperature rises with increasing height15. This increase in
temperature is a result of the absorption of the Sun’s ultraviolet (UV) radiation by the
ozone layer12.
 The ozone layer is located in the stratosphere and it absorbs high-energy ultraviolet
(UV) light from the Sun, converting the UV energy into heat12.
 The stratosphere is characterized by a rise in temperature with altitude2. Its top
temperature is around 270 K2.
 The stratosphere is very dry, with very little water vapor in the air 2.
 Winds in the stratosphere can far exceed those in the troposphere, reaching near 60
m/s (220 km/h; 130 mph) in the Southern polar vortex1.
 The air in the stratosphere lacks the instability and updrafts that characterize the
troposphere below2.
 The stratosphere is home to the notorious ozone layer2. This layer’s ozone molecules
absorb high-energy ultraviolet (UV) light from the Sun and transform it into heat2.
 The stratosphere is the only layer where temperature inversion occurs3. This is the
region where the ozone layer is located3.
 The stratosphere is very dry, with very little water vapor in the air2. As a result, this
layer has few clouds2.
The mesosphere is the third layer of Earth’s atmosphere, located directly above the
stratosphere and directly below the thermosphere1234. Here are some key details about it:
 The mesosphere extends from about 50 to 85 km (31 to 53 miles) above our

planet123.
 In the mesosphere, temperature decreases as altitude increases1234. This
characteristic is used to define its limits: it begins at the top of the stratosphere
(sometimes called the stratopause), and ends at the mesopause, which is the coldest
part of Earth’s atmosphere, with temperatures below −143 °C (−225 °F; 130 K)1234.
 The exact upper and lower boundaries of the mesosphere vary with latitude and with
season (higher in winter and at the tropics, lower in summer and at the poles), but the
lower boundary is usually located at altitudes from 47 to 51 km (29 to 32 mi; 154,000
to 167,000 ft) above sea level, and the upper boundary (the mesopause) is usually
from 85 to 100 km (53 to 62 mi; 279,000 to 328,000 ft)1.
 The stratosphere and mesosphere are sometimes collectively referred to as the
“middle atmosphere”, which spans altitudes approximately between 12 and 80 km
(7.5 and 49.7 mi) above Earth’s surface1.
 The mesosphere is the layer of the atmosphere where meteors burn up into small
fragments of dust4. The mesosphere has little impact on weather patterns, pollution
transport, and water vapor availability4.
 The air is very thin in the mesosphere, similar to a vacuum4.
The thermosphere is the fourth layer of Earth’s atmosphere, located directly above the
mesosphere and below the exosphere123. Here are some key details about it:
 The thermosphere extends from about 80 km (50 mi) above sea level to about 600
km (375 mi)123.
 Within this layer of the atmosphere, ultraviolet radiation causes
photoionization/photodissociation of molecules, creating ions123.
 The thermosphere thus constitutes the larger part of the ionosphere123.
 Thermospheric temperatures increase with altitude due to absorption of highly
energetic solar radiation123.
 Temperatures are highly dependent on solar activity, and can rise to 2,000 °C (3,630
°F) or more123.
 Despite the high temperature, an observer or object will experience low temperatures
in the thermosphere, because the extremely low density of the gas (practically a hard
vacuum) is insufficient for the molecules to conduct heat123.
 A normal thermometer will read significantly below 0 °C (32 °F), at least at night,
because the energy lost by thermal radiation would exceed the energy acquired from
the atmospheric gas by direct contact123.
 The dynamics of the thermosphere are dominated by atmospheric tides, which are
driven predominantly by diurnal heating123.
 The thermosphere is uninhabited with the exception of the International Space
Station, which orbits the Earth within the middle of the thermosphere between 408
and 410 kilometres (254 and 255 mi) and the Tiangong space station, which orbits
between 340 and 450 kilometres (210 and 280 mi)123.
The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth’s atmosphere123. Here are some key details
about it:
 The exosphere extends from about 600 km (375 mi) above sea level to about 10,000
km (6,200 miles)123.
 This layer separates the rest of the atmosphere from outer space123.
 The exosphere is a thin, atmosphere-like volume surrounding a planet or natural
satellite where molecules are gravitationally bound to that body, but where the density
is so low that the molecules are essentially collision-less2.
 The most common molecules within Earth’s exosphere are those of the lightest
atmospheric gases. Hydrogen is present throughout the exosphere, with some helium,
carbon dioxide, and atomic oxygen near its base2.
 The lower boundary of the exosphere is called the thermopause or exobase2. It is
also called the critical altitude, as this is the altitude where barometric conditions no
longer apply2.
 The exosphere can be considered a part of the interplanetary medium or outer space2.
 The exosphere produces Earth’s geocorona2.
 The exosphere is very, very big. That means that to get to outer space, you have to be
really far from Earth1.
 The exosphere has gases like hydrogen and helium, but they are very spread out.
There is a lot of empty space in between1.
 There is no air to breathe, and it’s very cold1.
The tropopause is the boundary that separates the troposphere (the lowest layer of the
atmosphere) from the stratosphere (the second lowest layer)12. Here are some key details
about it:
 The tropopause extends to high altitudes in the tropical latitudes and extends to low
altitudes in the polar latitudes1.
 It is the atmospheric boundary that demarcates the troposphere from the stratosphere 1.
 The tropopause is a thermodynamic gradient-stratification layer that marks the end of
the troposphere1.
 It is approximately 17 kilometres (11 mi) above the equatorial regions, and
approximately 9 kilometres (5.6 mi) above the polar regions1.
 The tropopause is the atmospheric level where the air ceases to cool with increased
altitude and becomes dry, devoid of water vapor1.
 The tropopause is the boundary that demarcates the troposphere below from the
stratosphere above, and is part of the atmosphere where there occurs an abrupt change
in the environmental lapse rate (ELR) of temperature, from a positive rate (of
decrease) in the troposphere to a negative rate in the stratosphere1.
 The tropopause is defined as the lowest level at which the lapse rate decreases to
2°C/km or less, provided that the average lapse-rate, between that level and all other
higher levels within 2.0 km does not exceed 2°C/km1.
 The tropopause is a first-order discontinuity surface, in which temperature as a
function of height varies continuously through the atmosphere, while the temperature
gradient has a discontinuity1.
 The troposphere is the lowest layer of the Earth’s atmosphere; it starts at the planetary
boundary layer, and is the layer in which most weather phenomena occur1.
 The troposphere contains the boundary layer, and ranges in height from an average of
9 km (5.6 mi; 30,000 ft) at the poles, to 17 km (11 mi; 56,000 ft) at the Equator1.
 A measurement of the tropospheric and the stratospheric lapse rates helps identify the
location of the tropopause, since temperature increases with height in the stratosphere,
and hence the lapse rate becomes negative1.
 The tropopause location coincides with the lowest point at which the lapse rate is less
than a prescribed threshold1.
 Since the tropopause responds to the average temperature of the entire layer that lies
underneath it, it is at its maximum levels over the Equator, and reaches minimum
heights over the poles1.
 On account of this, the coolest layer in the atmosphere lies at about 17 km over the
equator1.
 Due to the variation in starting height, the tropopause extremes are referred to as the
equatorial tropopause and the polar tropopause1.
 Given that the lapse rate is not a conservative quantity when the tropopause is
considered for stratosphere-troposphere exchanges studies, there exists an alternative
definition named dynamic tropopause1.
The mesopause is the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere, the third
and fourth layers of Earth’s atmosphere respectively1. It is usually located at heights of 85-95
km, and it is the site of the coldest temperatures in the atmosphere12. Temperatures as low as
100 K (-173°C) have been measured at the mesopause by rockets2.
In the last 10 years, observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies have shown that in
fact there are two mesopauses - one at about 85 km and a stronger one at about 100 km (62
mi), with a layer of slightly warmer air between them1. Another feature is that the summer
mesopause is cooler than the winter (sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly). It is
due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and
downwelling at the winter pole1.
In recent years, the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change
associated with increases in CO2. Unlike the troposphere, where greenhouse gases result in
the atmosphere heating up, increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due
to increased radiative emission1. Observations do show a decrease in temperature of the
mesopause, though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study1.
The Earth’s energy balance, also known as Earth’s energy budget, accounts for the balance
between the energy that Earth receives from the Sun and the energy the Earth loses back into
outer space12. Here are some key details about it:
 Incoming Energy: The Earth receives energy from the Sun in the form of solar
radiation. This energy is composed of ultraviolet (UV), visible light, and infrared (IR)
radiation2.
 Outgoing Energy: The Earth loses energy back into space in the form of longwave
radiation. This includes the heat radiated by the Earth’s surface, the atmosphere, and
clouds2.
 Absorption and Reflection: Of all the solar energy reaching the Earth, about 30% is
reflected back into space from the atmosphere, clouds, and surface of the Earth.
Another 23% of the energy is absorbed by the water vapor, clouds, and dust in the
atmosphere, where it is converted into heat. Just under half (47%) of the incoming
solar radiation is absorbed by the land and ocean, and this energy heats up the Earth’s
surface2.
 Energy Exchange: The energy absorbed by the Earth returns to the atmosphere
through three processes; conduction, radiation, and latent heat (phase change)2.
 Energy Balance: When the incoming and outgoing energy fluxes are in balance,
Earth is in radiative equilibrium and the climate system will be relatively stable 12.
Global warming occurs when Earth receives more energy than it gives back to space,
and global cooling takes place when the outgoing energy is greater12.
 Human Impact: Many factors, both natural and human, can cause changes in Earth’s
energy balance, including changes in the greenhouse effect, which affects the amount
of heat retained by Earth’s atmosphere; variations in the sun’s energy reaching Earth;
changes in the reflectivity of Earth’s atmosphere and surface2.
The balance of incoming and outgoing heat on Earth is referred to as its energy budget. As
with any budget, to maintain constant conditions the budget must be balanced so that the
incoming heat equals the outgoing heat2.
The principles of heat transfer, the model of Earth as a black body, and the concept of albedo
are all crucial in calculating Earth’s energy balance12.
1. Heat Transfer: The Earth’s energy balance involves the transfer of heat in several
ways2:
o Radiation: The Earth receives energy from the Sun in the form of solar
radiation and loses energy back into space in the form of longwave radiation2.
Radiation is the process of heat transfer through electromagnetic waves. The
rate of heat transfer by radiation can be described by the Stefan-Boltzmann
Law:
Q=ϵ ⋅ σ ⋅ A ⋅ ( T 4s −T 4sur ) Q=ϵ ⋅ σ ⋅ A ⋅ (Ts 4 −Tsur 4 )
where:
o Q is the heat transfer per unit time,
o ε is the emissivity of the surface,
o σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant,
o A is the area of the radiating surface,
o T_s is the absolute temperature of the surface,
o T_sur is the absolute temperature of the surroundings2.
o Conduction: Heat is transferred from the Earth’s surface to the atmosphere

through direct contact2.
Conduction is the process of heat transfer through direct contact. The rate of
heat transfer by conduction can be described by Fourier’s Law:
T hot −T cold
Q=k ⋅ A ⋅ Q=k ⋅ A ⋅dThot −Tcold
d
where:
o k is the thermal conductivity of the material,
o A is the area through which heat is being transferred,
o T_hot and T_cold are the temperatures of the hot and cold regions
respectively,
o d is the thickness of the material1.
Conduction (Fourier’s Law):
d
Rcond =
k⋅A
where:
(d) is the thickness of the material,
(k) is the thermal conductivity of the material,
(A) is the area through which heat is being transferred2
o Convection: Heat is also transferred through the bulk movement of air3.

Convection is the process of heat transfer through the movement of a fluid
such as air or water. The rate of heat transfer by convection can be described
by Newton’s Law of Cooling:
Q=hc ⋅ A ⋅ ( T s −T f ) Q=hc ⋅ A ⋅ ( Ts −Tf )
where:
o h_c is the convective heat transfer coefficient,
o A is the area through which heat is being transferred,
o T_s is the surface temperature,
o T_f is the fluid temperature1.
(Newton’s Law of Cooling):
1
Rconv = Rconv = hc ⋅ A 1
hc ⋅ A
where:
(h c) is the convective heat transfer coefficient,
(A) is the area through which heat is being transferred
In heat transfer, the concept of thermal resistance can be applied in both series and parallel
configurations, similar to electrical resistance in an electrical circuit 1. Here’s how it works:
Series Thermal Resistance:
When different layers of material are stacked together (such as in a composite

wall), the heat must pass through each layer sequentially. This is analogous to
resistances connected in series in an electrical circuit. The total thermal
resistance (R_total) is the sum of the individual resistances (R1, R2, …, Rn):
Rtotal=R 1+ R 2+ …+…∈¿dividual resistance can be calculated as:
di
Ri= ∨/∧Ri =ki ⋅ Adi
k i⋅ A
1
Ri=
hc ⋅ A
where (d i ¿ is the thickness of the layer, (k i) is the thermal conductivity of the
material, and (A) is the area through which heat is being transferred1.
Parallel Thermal Resistance:
When there are different paths for heat to flow (such as heat flowing through a
wall and a window), this is analogous to resistances connected in parallel in an
electrical circuit. The total thermal resistance is given by:
1 1 1 1
= + + ... +
R total R1 R2 Rn
Again, each individual resistance can be calculated as:
di
Ri= ∨/∧Ri =ki⋅ Ai di
k i ⋅ Ai
1
Ri=
hc ⋅ A
where ( Ai ¿ is the area of the individual path1.
These concepts are fundamental in understanding heat transfer through composite

systems and can be used to design effective insulation, heat sinks, and other thermal
management solutions1.
When conduction, convection, and radiation occur together, the total heat
transfer can be calculated by adding the heat transfer due to each mode1. The
composite equation for this is:
Qtotal=Q conduction+Qconvection +Qradiation
where:
 (Q total ) is the total heat transfer,
 (Q conduction ), (Q convection ), and (Q radiation) are the heat transfers due to
conduction, convection, and radiation respectively.
This total thermal resistance can be used to calculate the rate of heat transfer
(Q) across a system using the formula:
ΔT
Q= Q=Rtotal ΔT
Rtotal
where ( Δ T ) is the temperature difference across the system1. This is analogous to

Ohm’s law in electrical circuits, where the current (I) is equal to the voltage
difference (( Δ V )) divided by the resistance ®, i.e., ( I =Δ V / R)
o Latent Heat Transfer: This involves the transfer of heat during phase
changes of water, such as evaporation and condensation2.
1
.
*Solar
energy hits
earth at=S
2
πR
*Out of this
Albedo Disc Earth

2. Earth as a Black Body: The Earth is often modeled as a black body that absorbs all
incoming solar radiation and re-emits it as thermal radiation. The power radiated by a
blackbody is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann Law (as mentioned above).
3. Albedo: Albedo is the measure of the reflectivity of the Earth’s surface. It plays a
crucial role in the Earth’s energy balance as it determines how much of the incoming
solar radiation is reflected back into space5. The overall albedo of the Earth
significantly affects the equilibrium temperature of the Earth5.
Albedo (α) is the measure of the reflectivity of the Earth’s surface. It is defined as
the ratio of the amount of electromagnetic radiation reflected by a surface to the
amount that hits it. In terms of solar radiation and Earth, it’s given by:
Ereflected
α= α =Eincident Ereflected
Eincident
where:
o E_reflected is the solar energy reflected by Earth=SA α ,
o E_incident is the solar energy that hits Earth=SA.
o A= π R 2 where R=- radius of earth=6400 km
4. Energy Balance: The balance of incoming and outgoing heat on Earth is referred to
as its energy budget. This can be represented as:
Energy absorbed=
' 4
SA ( 1−α )=σ A T (Black body , ε =1)S (1−α )=σT 4
where:
o S is the solar constant (the amount of solar electromagnetic radiation per unit
area, measured on the outer surface of Earth’s atmosphere)
=1370watt/sq.m(Currently),
o α is the Earth’s albedo=0.31,
o σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant=5.67x10−8 W/m2 K 4
o T is the absolute temperature of the Earth as a black body.
o A= π R 2 where R=- radius of earth=6400 km
A =surface area of earth=4 π R where R=- radius of earth=6400 km
' 2
o
T e=¿ ¿ =¿ ¿= ¿ ¿=254K=−19 ℃
The average surface temperature is 15℃ . The reason for this deviation(34℃ ¿ is the
radiation emitted from the earth’s surface(which was earlier absorbed). This does not
account for the radiation emitted which interacts with the atmosphere and causes
greenhouse effect.
(
A black body is an idealized physical body that absorbs all incident electromagnetic
radiation, regardless of frequency or angle of incidence1. This absorbed energy is then
emitted as thermal radiation, a process known as black-body radiation2.
Here’s a bit more detail:
 The radiation emitted by a black body in thermal equilibrium with its environment is
called black-body radiation2.
 The spectrum of this radiation has a specific, continuous range of wavelengths that
depend only on the body’s temperature2.
 As the temperature of a black body decreases, the emitted thermal radiation decreases
in intensity and its maximum moves to longer wavelengths2.
 To stay in thermal equilibrium, a black body must emit radiation at the same rate as it
absorbs3. So, it must also be a good emitter of radiation, emitting electromagnetic
waves of as many frequencies as it can absorb, i.e., all the frequencies3.
It’s important to note that many ordinary objects can be approximated as black bodies
because the thermal radiation they spontaneously emit is similar to black-body radiation 2. For
example, the Sun’s radiation, after being filtered by the Earth’s atmosphere, is a good
approximation of black-body radiation2. Similarly, a piece of metal heated to high
temperatures will emit radiation that can be approximated as black-body radiation 3.)
(The Earth, like a black body, absorbs all incident solar radiation and emits it back into
space as thermal radiation. This is a key part of the Earth’s energy balance and is crucial for
maintaining the planet’s average temperature.
However, it’s important to note that the Earth is not a perfect black body. While it absorbs a
lot of the Sun’s radiation, it also reflects some of it back into space. This reflection is due to
the Earth’s albedo (α), which is the measure of the reflectivity of the Earth’s surface.
Moreover, the Earth’s atmosphere also plays a significant role in this process. Some of the
absorbed solar radiation is trapped by the atmosphere, particularly by greenhouse gases,
leading to the greenhouse effect. This effect helps to warm the Earth’s surface and makes life
on Earth possible.
So, while the Earth does emit all the radiation it absorbs, the processes involved are complex
and influenced by many factors, including the composition of the atmosphere and the Earth’s
surface.)
These equations are fundamental to understanding the Earth’s energy balance and how it is
affected by various factors.
By considering these factors, scientists can calculate the Earth’s energy balance and study the
effects of various factors on the Earth’s climate12. For instance, an increase in the Earth’s
albedo due to increased ice cover would lead to more solar radiation being reflected back into
space, potentially leading to global cooling5. Conversely, an increase in greenhouse gases
would lead to more heat being trapped in the atmosphere, potentially leading to global
warming2.
Greenhouse effect
The Greenhouse Effect is a natural process that warms the Earth’s surface. It is caused by
the presence of certain gases in the atmosphere, known as greenhouse gases, which include
water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and others1.
Here’s how it works:
1. The Sun’s radiations warm the Earth’s surface during the day2.
2. At night, when the Earth cools down, the heat is radiated back into the atmosphere2.
3. During this process, the heat is absorbed by the greenhouse gases in the Earth’s
atmosphere2.
4. This absorption of heat makes the surface of the Earth warmer, making the survival of
living beings on Earth possible2.
However, due to increased levels of greenhouse gases, primarily due to human activities, the
temperature of the Earth has increased considerably2. This is often referred to as global
warming2.
The major contributors to the greenhouse gases are factories, automobiles, deforestation, etc 2.
The burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, farming, and industrial waste are some of the major
causes of the greenhouse effect2.
It’s important to note that without the greenhouse effect, Earth’s average surface temperature
would be only about −19 °C (0 °F)1. So, while the greenhouse effect is essential for life on
Earth, the challenge is to manage it in a way that prevents harmful levels of global warming.
Energy Balance/ Heat Budget
The terms “Global Energy Balance” and “Heat Budget” are often used interchangeably in the
context of Earth’s climate system1234. Both terms refer to the balance between the energy that
Earth receives from the Sun and the energy the Earth radiates back into outer space1234.
 The Global Energy Balance or Heat Budget accounts for the balance between the
energy that Earth receives from the Sun, and the energy the Earth loses back into
outer space1234.
 The energy received from the Sun is known as incoming solar radiation or
insolation1234.
 The energy radiated back into space from the Earth is known as outgoing longwave
radiation1234.
 The balance between these two—incoming and outgoing radiation—is what keeps the
Earth’s temperature relatively stable1234.
 Any imbalance in this energy budget can lead to global warming or cooling1234.
So, while the terms might be slightly different, they both refer to the same fundamental
concept of how energy is balanced in the Earth’s climate system1234
The Earth’s Heat Budget refers to the balance between incoming heat absorbed by the Earth
and outgoing heat escaping it in the form of radiation1. This balance is crucial in maintaining
the Earth’s average temperature1.
1. The Earth receives heat from the Sun in the form of solar radiation, also known as
insolation1.
2. Of the total insolation received 342 W/sq.m at the top of the atmosphere,
approximately 107 W/Sq.m (77 from atmosphere and 30 from earth)are reflected back
to space. This reflected amount of radiation is called the albedo of the Earth1.
3. The remaining 235 are absorbed, 67 within the atmosphere and 168 by the Earth’s
surface1.
4. The Earth radiates back these 390 W/sq.m in the form of terrestrial radiation1. Of
these, 40 are radiated to space directly and the remaining 350 are absorbed by the
atmosphere1.
5. The 350+67 W/sq.m is absorbed by the atmosphere and 324 is sent back to earth’s
surface which absorbs it and 165+30 is sent to space.
6. Convection/evaporation heat transfer from earth to atmosphere is 24 W/sq.m.
Condensation heat to atmosphere 78
7. Thus, the total radiation returning from the Earth and the atmosphere respectively is
168+67 and 107 back to space. ( which balance the total of 342 received from the
Sun1.
Heat Energy Energy Energy Energy rec Energy Energy Net

Budget lost. received lost lost rec Energy
Earth 168+30- -390 -78-24 324 0
30
Atmosphere 67 350+78+24 -324- 0
165-30
Space -342 77+30 40 165+30 0
Total -342 342 -390 492 -621 519
This equilibrium between the insolation (short waves) and the terrestrial radiation (long
waves) is what is referred to as the heat budget of the Earth1. If the incoming heat and the
outgoing heat were not balanced, then Earth would be getting either too warmer or cooler1.
However, these are perfectly balanced, so the Earth is neither too warm nor too cold.
Emitted by atmosphere -165+30
107 reflected
Solar radiation 342 W/sq.m Passes through atmosphere-40
Incoming Solar Radiation
Convection Transfe to atm. gasesr-24
67 W/sq.m absorbed
By atmosphere Condensation
/Latent Heat to
atmosphere-78 Absorbed by Green
House Gases-350
Reflected by cloud, aerosol
and atmosphere-77 W/sq.m.
Surface radiation-390
30 W/sq.m Absorbed by surface=168

Reflected by Back radiation by greenhouse gases
surface which is Absorbed by surface-324
Earth’s surface
Incoming Solar Energy-1370W/sq.m x π R 2

Solar radiation on Earth per sq m= 1370 π R 2/ 4 π R2 =342 W/sq.m
1. Incoming radiation
Incoming (W/Sq.m) Out going (W/Sq.m)
Solar Radiation 342 Absorbed by atmosphere- 67
Reflected solar radition
a.Reflected by cloud/Aerosol/ 77
atmosphere-
b.Reflected by Surface 30
Total of a+b=107
Absorbed by surface 168
Total 342 Total 342
α = 107/342=0.31= Earth’s Albedo
Since the earth’s temperature is 15℃
Energy radiated by the earth’s surface per sq m= σ 4 π R 2 T 4 /4 π R2 =5.67x10−8 .288 4=¿390
W/sq.m
2. Outgoing radiation
Radiated by the surface Distribution
Surface 390 Passes through atmosphere 40
Back Radiation by Green 324
House gases
Radiation with the gases 26
Total 390 390
3. Convection/Evaporation heat Transfer to the atmosphere-24 W/Sq.m

4. Condensation of Water vapour heat to atmosphere – 78 W/sq. m
Energy Balance on earth’s surface, atmosphere and space
Rate of energy Gain Rate of Energy Loss
Earth’s Surface 168+324+30=522 78+24+30+390=522
Atmosphere 67+350+78+24=519 165+30+324=519
Space 107+40+165+30=342 342
168+(67) + (107) 342
Surface+Atm+space space
Impact of greenhouse gases on the global climate and cosequences on sea water level
Greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O),
ozone (O3), and fluorinated gases, have a significant impact on the global climate12. They
trap heat in the Earth’s atmosphere, leading to a rise in the planet’s average temperature, a
phenomenon commonly referred to as global warming12.
Here are some of the impacts of greenhouse gases on the global climate:
1. Temperature Rise: Increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere

lead to an increase in the Earth’s average surface temperature over time 3.
2. Weather Patterns: Rising temperatures can lead to changes in precipitation patterns
and storm severity3.
3. Health Impact: They also contribute to respiratory diseases from smog and air
pollution4.
4. Extreme Weather Events: Climate change caused by greenhouse gases can lead to
extreme weather events, food supply disruptions, and increased wildfires4.
As for the sea-level rise, it’s primarily caused by two factors related to global warming:
1. Thermal Expansion: As the ocean warms due to increased temperatures, the water
expands. This thermal expansion is one of the major contributors to sea-level rise56.
2. Melting of Ice: The added water from the melting of ice sheets and glaciers also
contributes to the rise in sea levels56.
The consequences of sea-level rise are significant:
1. Coastal Flooding: Higher sea levels lead to increased coastal flooding, especially
during high tides and storms5.
2. Erosion: Rising sea levels can accelerate coastal erosion, leading to loss of land5.
3. Impact on Coastal Communities: Coastal communities and cities could face
significant risks, including displacement of people7.
4. Damage to Ecosystems: Rising sea levels can also damage important ecosystems,
including wetlands, mangroves, and coral reefs7.
It’s important to note that the rate of sea-level rise is accelerating. For instance, global sea
level has risen 8–9 inches (21–24 centimeters) since 1880, and it set a new record high in
2022, being 101.2 mm (4 inches) above 1993 levels5. If we continue on a high greenhouse
gas emissions pathway, models project that average sea level rise for the contiguous United
States could be 2.2 meters (7.2 feet) by 2100 and 3.9 meters (13 feet) by 21505.
Therefore, mitigating the effects of greenhouse gases through strategies like reducing fossil
fuel consumption, increasing the use of renewable energy, and implementing sustainable
practices is crucial for our future12.
Greenhouse gases have a significant impact on both agriculture and marine food chains.
Here’s how:
Impact on Agriculture:
1. Temperature Changes: Changes in temperature can cause shifts in crop planting

dates and can make certain regions unsuitable for specific crops1. This can lead to
decreased agricultural productivity2.
2. Extreme Weather Events: Increased frequency of extreme weather events such as
droughts and floods can hinder farming practices and damage crops1.
3. Changes in Crop Yield: Rising temperatures and levels of atmospheric carbon
dioxide can lead to changes in crop yield. Some crops may benefit from higher CO2
levels and warmer temperatures, but others may see a decrease in yield34.
4. Pests and Diseases: Changes in climate can also affect the prevalence and
distribution of pests and diseases, which can further impact crop yield34.
Impact on Marine Food Chains:
1. Ocean Warming: The ocean absorbs about 90 percent of the heat generated by rising
emissions. As the ocean warms, it can lead to a loss of marine biodiversity, changes in
species distribution, and coral bleaching56.
2. Ocean Acidification: Increased absorption of CO2 by the oceans leads to ocean
acidification, which can harm marine life, particularly shell-building animals and
coral reefs56.
3. Impact on Plankton: Plankton, which form the foundation of the ocean’s food chain,
are sensitive to water temperatures and oxygen concentrations. They can die off if the
water gets too warm, causing food shortages for animals farther up the food chain7.
4. Algal Blooms: Increased nutrient runoff can trigger harmful algal blooms that can
deplete oxygen levels in the water, creating “dead zones” where other marine life
cannot survive8.
These impacts can have significant effects on food security and livelihoods, particularly for
communities that rely heavily on agriculture and fishing. It’s crucial to develop and
implement strategies to mitigate these impacts and adapt to changing conditions 3456.
Global warming refers to the long-term increase in Earth’s average temperature. It’s
primarily caused by human activities, especially the burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil, and
gas, which release greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane
(CH4) into the Earth’s atmosphere12. These GHGs trap heat from the sun, causing the planet’s
temperature to rise, a phenomenon known as the greenhouse effect12.
Here are some of the major consequences of global warming:
1. Extreme Weather: Global warming is leading to an increase in extreme weather

events, such as heatwaves, droughts, heavy rainfall, and stronger hurricanes2. These
events can cause widespread destruction and loss of life2.
2. Rising Sea Levels: The warming climate is causing polar ice sheets and glaciers to
melt, which is leading to a rise in sea levels12. This can result in coastal flooding and
the displacement of people living in low-lying areas12.
3. Impact on Wildlife: Many plant and animal species are being affected by changing
climates. Some species are moving to cooler areas, altering local ecosystems, while
others are facing extinction due to loss of habitat12.
4. Ocean Acidification: As the ocean absorbs more CO2, it becomes more acidic. This
can harm marine life, particularly shell-building animals and coral reefs 12.
5. Impact on Agriculture: Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns can affect
crop yields and food production. Some areas may become unsuitable for farming,
threatening food security2.
6. Health Risks: Global warming can also lead to health problems, including heat-
related illnesses and the spread of diseases carried by insects and pests2.
To mitigate the impacts of global warming, it’s crucial to reduce GHG emissions, transition
to renewable energy sources, and implement strategies for climate change adaptation 12.
Controlling global warming involves both individual actions and collective efforts at
the local, national, and international levels. Here are some strategies that can help mitigate
global warming:
1. Reduce Carbon Footprint: Individuals can reduce their carbon footprint by making
lifestyle changes such as using public transportation, carpooling, biking, or walking
instead of driving1.
2. Energy Efficiency: Using energy-efficient appliances and light bulbs can
significantly reduce the amount of electricity we use and thus the amount of carbon
dioxide produced1.
3. Renewable Energy: Transitioning to renewable sources of energy such as solar,
wind, and hydroelectric power can help reduce our reliance on fossil fuels, which are
major contributors to global warming2.
4. Waste Management: Recycling and composting can reduce the amount of waste that
ends up in landfills, thereby reducing the production of methane, a potent greenhouse
gas1.
5. Reforestation: Planting trees can help absorb CO2 from the atmosphere1. Forests act
as carbon sinks, absorbing CO2 that would otherwise contribute to global warming2.
6. Education and Awareness: Raising awareness about the causes and impacts of
global warming can encourage more people to take action2.
7. Policy and Legislation: Governments can play a crucial role by implementing
policies and regulations that promote clean energy, reduce emissions, and encourage
sustainable practices3.
8. International Cooperation: Global warming is a global problem that requires global
solutions. International cooperation is essential for implementing strategies to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate the impacts of global warming3.
Remember, every little bit helps. Even small changes in our daily lives can add up to
significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions12.
A carbon footprint is a measure of the total amount of greenhouse gases, expressed as

carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e), that are emitted directly or indirectly through human
activities12. It represents the climate change impact of something, such as an individual’s
lifestyle, a product’s lifecycle, a company’s operations, or a country’s economic activities 2.
 It includes direct emissions, such as those that result from fossil-fuel combustion in
manufacturing, heating, and transportation1.
 It also includes indirect emissions required to produce the electricity associated with
goods and services consumed1.
 In some cases, the carbon footprint also includes the emissions of other greenhouse
gases, such as methane, nitrous oxide, or chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)1.
 The carbon footprint is usually expressed as a measure of weight, as in tons of CO2 or
CO2 equivalent per year1.
The concept of a carbon footprint is used to help individuals, companies, and countries
understand their impact on climate change and identify ways to reduce their emissions2. For
example, by understanding the carbon footprint of different activities or choices, one can
make more environmentally friendly decisions2.
The lapse rate is the rate at which an atmospheric variable, usually temperature in Earth’s
atmosphere, decreases with altitude1. The term “lapse rate” comes from the word “lapse,” in
the sense of a gradual fall1.
There are different types of lapse rates:
1. Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate: This is the rate of temperature decrease for a parcel of
dry or unsaturated air rising in the atmosphere without exchanging energy with the
surrounding air. The dry adiabatic lapse rate is approximately 9.8 °C/km1.
2. Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate (MALR): This is the rate of temperature decrease for a
parcel of air that is saturated with water vapor and is rising in the atmosphere. The
MALR varies with the temperature and pressure of the parcel and is often in the range
of 3.6 to 9.2 °C/km1.
3. Ambient Lapse Rate /Environmental Lapse Rate: This is the actual rate of
temperature decrease with altitude at a specific time and place. It can be highly
variable depending on the circumstances1.
The lapse rate is considered positive when the temperature decreases with elevation, zero
when the temperature is constant with elevation, and negative when the temperature increases
with elevation (a condition known as a temperature inversion)2. The lapse rate is crucial in
meteorology for forecasting certain types of cloud formations, thunderstorms, and the
intensity of atmospheric turbulence2.
The Ambient Lapse Rate, also known as the Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR), refers to
the rate at which ‘ambient’ (surrounding) atmospheric temperature changes with altitude 11. It
is the actual rate of temperature decrease with altitude at a specific time and place 11.
The ELR is highly variable as it is influenced by radiation, convection, and condensation23.

On average, it is about 6.5 degrees Celsius for every 1000 m rise in altitude32. However, this
can change sharply beyond the troposphere32.
It’s important to note that the ELR represents the ambient air temperature with an increase in
altitude32. This is different from the adiabatic lapse rates (dry and moist) which refer to the
temperature change of a parcel of air as it moves up in the atmosphere without exchanging
heat with its surroundings11.
Atmospheric stability is a measure of the atmosphere’s tendency to encourage or deter

vertical motion, and the resulting weather phenomena123. It is closely related to the lapse rate,
which is the rate at which temperature changes with altitude12.
There are three general states of atmospheric stability:
1. Stable Atmosphere: In a stable atmosphere, an air parcel that is forced to rise will
resist upward motion and will try to return to its original position2. This is because the
air parcel is cooler and denser than the surrounding air2. Stable conditions often lead
to smooth air and clear skies2.
2. Unstable Atmosphere: In an unstable atmosphere, an air parcel that is forced to rise
will continue to rise since it is warmer and less dense than the surrounding air2.
Unstable conditions often lead to turbulent air and can result in significant weather
phenomena like thunderstorms2.
3. Neutral Atmosphere: In a neutral atmosphere, an air parcel that is forced to rise will
maintain its new position2. This is because the air parcel has the same temperature as
the surrounding air2.
The degree of atmospheric stability can be influenced by various factors, including the time
of day, the season, and the geographical location2. It plays a crucial role in weather
forecasting and understanding climate patterns12.
Temperature inversion, also known as “thermal inversion”, is a meteorological

phenomenon where the normal temperature gradient in the atmosphere is inverted1234. Under
normal conditions, air temperature usually decreases with an increase in altitude. However,
during a temperature inversion, a layer of warm air is held above a layer of cooler air,
reversing this relationship1234.
This inversion layer can have significant impacts on air quality and can lead to the
accumulation of pollutants near the ground4. It also plays a crucial role in determining cloud
forms, precipitation, and visibility2. An inversion acts as a cap on the upward movement of
air from the layers below. As a result, convection produced by the heating of air from below
is limited to levels below the inversion2. Diffusion of dust, smoke, and other air pollutants is
likewise limited2.
There are four kinds of inversions2:
1. Ground Inversion: Develops when air is cooled by contact with a colder surface
until it becomes cooler than the overlying atmosphere. This occurs most often on clear
nights, when the ground cools off rapidly by radiation2.
2. Turbulence Inversion: Occurs when turbulent eddies mix the air and distribute heat
from the ground into the air.
3. Subsidence Inversion: When a widespread layer of air descends, it is compressed
and heated by the resulting increase in atmospheric pressure, and as a result, the lapse
rate of temperature is reduced1.
4. Frontal Inversion: Occurs when warm air overrides cooler air during the passage of
a warm front.
Each type of inversion occurs under different conditions and can have different impacts on
weather and air quality2.
Radiation inversion, also known as nocturnal inversion, is a type of temperature

inversion that occurs when the ground cools by radiating its heat to space, especially on clear
and calm nights123. This causes the air in contact with the ground to cool down, and if the air
temperature falls below its dew point, fog can form3.
Under normal conditions, the air near the surface of the Earth is warmer than the air above it.
However, during a radiation inversion, the air near the ground becomes cooler than the air
above it413. This results in an increase in temperature with height in the atmosphere2.
The topography of the region plays a significant role in radiation inversions3. For example,
during morning and evening hours, dense smoke often settles in low-lying areas and becomes
trapped due to temperature inversions—when a layer within the lower atmosphere acts as a
lid and prevents vertical mixing of the air4.
Radiation inversions are common and can have significant impacts on weather and air
quality, as they can trap pollutants close to the ground413. They can also affect visibility and
cloud formation413.
Radiation inversion is a type of temperature inversion.
Temperature inversion is a general term for any situation where the usual decrease in air
temperature with increasing altitude is reversed and the temperature increases with altitude.
Radiation inversion, on the other hand, is a specific type of temperature inversion that
occurs due to the cooling of the surface of the Earth, especially during the night when the
ground radiates its heat away into space. This results in the air near the ground becoming
cooler than the air above it, creating an inversion layer.
So, while all radiation inversions are temperature inversions, not all temperature inversions
are radiation inversions. There are other types of temperature inversions as well, such as
subsidence inversions and frontal inversions.
Atmospheric dispersion refers to the process by which air pollutants disperse in the ambient
atmosphere1234. It involves the mathematical simulation of how pollutants, emitted from
sources such as industrial plants, vehicular traffic, or accidental chemical releases, spread out
in the atmosphere1234.
The dispersion of pollutants is governed by a combination of diffusion (due to turbulent eddy

motion) and advection (due to the wind) that occurs within the air near the Earth’s surface 3.
Atmospheric dispersion models, which are mathematical simulations of the physics and
chemistry governing the transport, dispersion, and transformation of pollutants in the
atmosphere, are used to estimate the downwind ambient concentration of these pollutants 1234.
These models can also predict future concentrations under specific scenarios, such as changes
in emission sources1. Therefore, they are the dominant type of model used in air quality
policy making1. They are most useful for pollutants that are dispersed over large distances
and that may react in the atmosphere1.
Atmospheric dispersion is a key process that governs air pollution levels2. Despite the saying
that “the solution to pollution is dilution,” atmospheric dispersion alone is not a sufficient
solution due to the cumulative effect of a large number of individual sources and the
formation of secondary pollutants at large regional scales2.
Atmospheric dispersion models are important to governmental agencies tasked with

protecting and managing the ambient air quality. The models are typically employed to
determine whether existing or proposed new industrial facilities are or will be in compliance
with the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) in the United States and other
nations1. The models also serve to assist in the design of effective control strategies to reduce
emissions of harmful air pollutants1.
The Maximum Mixing Depth, sometimes referred to as the mixing height, is a measure of
the vertical extent to which emissions can rise into the atmosphere123. It is related to the
amount of air available to dilute pollutants and is influenced by both wind speed and the
warming of a parcel of air at ground level (by convection)123.
When a parcel of air at ground level is warmed, it tends to rise. As it moves up, it cools at a
rate of about 1 degree per hundred meters1. The height to which this parcel of air can rise
before it cools to the same temperature as the surrounding air is considered the maximum
mixing depth123.
The maximum mixing depth is obtained by projecting the dry adiabatic lapse rate line to the
point of intersection with the atmospheric temperature profile23. This depth can vary
depending on the time of day, weather conditions, and geographical location123.
Understanding the maximum mixing depth is crucial in air pollution studies as it helps in
predicting the dispersion and dilution of pollutants in the atmosphere123.
Yes, the maximum mixing depth can indeed be estimated from the intersection of the
adiabatic lapse rate and the environmental lapse rate1.
1. The adiabatic lapse rate is the rate at which a parcel of air would cool if it were
lifted up through the atmosphere without exchanging heat with the surrounding air23.
For dry air, this rate is approximately 9.8°C per kilometer3.
2. The environmental lapse rate is the actual rate at which temperature decreases with
altitude in the atmosphere2.
3. When a parcel of air near the ground is heated, it rises. As it rises, it expands and
cools at the adiabatic lapse rate2.
4. Meanwhile, the environmental lapse rate describes the temperature of the surrounding
air at different altitudes2.
5. The point at which the rising air parcel becomes the same temperature as the
surrounding air is the point at which it stops rising2. This is because the parcel of air is
no longer buoyant (i.e., it is no longer less dense than the surrounding air).
6. The altitude at which this happens is the maximum mixing depth1. It can be found
by plotting the maximum surface temperature and drawing a line parallel to the dry
adiabatic lapse rate from the point of maximum surface temperature to the point at
which the line intersects the ambient or natural temperature profile (usually of early
morning or night)1.
So, in essence, the maximum mixing depth can be found at the intersection of the adiabatic
lapse rate and the environmental lapse rate1.
The Ventilation Coefficient (VC) is an atmospheric condition that gives an indication of the
air quality and pollution potential, i.e., the ability of the atmosphere to dilute and disperse the
pollutants over a region12. It is the product of the mixing depth (also known as the
atmospheric boundary layer height) and the average wind speed12.
The mixing depth is the thickness of the layer of air close to the surface of the earth where
turbulence and convective mixing occur12. The wind speed influences how quickly pollutants
can be transported away from their source12.
The VC plays a significant role in determining the concentration of pollutants in the

atmosphere. A higher VC generally means better dispersion of pollutants and thus better air
quality12. Conversely, a lower VC can lead to higher concentrations of pollutants, especially
in urban areas with many emission sources12.
It’s important to note that the VC can vary significantly depending on the time of day,
weather conditions, and geographical location12. Therefore, it’s often used in air quality
modeling and forecasting12.
The Effective Stack Height is a concept used in atmospheric dispersion modeling of air
pollutants1234. It is the height above ground at which the plume of pollutants begins to travel
downwind3. This is considered the effective release point of the pollutant and the origin of the
dispersion3.
The effective stack height is usually considered the sum of three components124:
1. The actual physical height of the stack.
2. The plume rise due to the velocity (momentum) of the issuing gases. This is the
additional height gained by the upward momentum of the gases as they exit the
stack124.
3. The buoyancy rise, which is a function of the temperature of the gases being emitted
and the atmospheric conditions124. Warmer gases tend to rise, and this can add to the
effective height of the stack124.
The effective stack height depends on a number of factors, including the gas flow rate, the
temperature of the effluent at the top of the stack, the diameter of the stack opening, wind
speed, air temperature, shear of the wind speed with height, and the atmospheric stability 124.
It’s important to note that the effective stack height can be significantly influenced by the
presence of nearby buildings or other structures, which can create turbulence and alter the
dispersion of the plume124. Therefore, in some cases, the effective stack height can be
considerably greater than the actual physical height of the stack124.
A smoke stack plume refers to the column of gases, particulates, or fumes that are
emitted from the smoke stack of an industrial facility, power plant, or any other source
of pollution123. The term “plume” is used to describe the dispersion of these emitted gases
from their source into the atmosphere2.
The behavior of a smoke stack plume is influenced by several factors, including the
temperature and velocity of the emissions, the height of the stack, the atmospheric stability,
and the wind speed12.
As the smoke leaves the stack, it eventually turns into a plume, which is the trail of gas 1. The
plume origination height may be higher than the smokestack height due to the buoyancy of
the pollutants1. This essentially means the smoke will rise a bit before it becomes a plume1.
There are several types of plumes based on their behavior in the atmosphere2:
1. Looping Plumes: Occur in an unstable atmosphere and appear billowing and puffy2.
2. Fanning Plumes: Occur during stable conditions and are characterized by long, flat
streams of pollutant emissions2.
3. Coning Plumes: Occur under neutral or slightly unstable conditions and are
distinguished by large billows or puffs of pollutants2.
4. Lofting Plumes: Occur when warm air remains above cool air, creating an inversion
layer2.
Each type of plume has different implications for air quality and the dispersion of
pollutants12.
The Gaussian Plume Model is a mathematical model used in atmospheric dispersion

modeling of air pollutants12345. It describes the three-dimensional concentration field
generated by a point source under stationary meteorological and emission conditions12345.
The model is based on the assumption that the pollutant disperses in the atmosphere
according to a Gaussian (normal) distribution, both horizontally and vertically12345. This
means that the highest concentration of the pollutant is at the center of the plume, and the
concentration decreases as you move away from the center12345.
The Gaussian plume model takes into account several factors, including:
 The height and rate of emissions from the source12345.

 The wind speed and direction12345.
 The stability of the atmosphere12345.
 The topography of the land12345.
The model is most commonly applied to point source emitters, such as industrial plants or
power plants12345. However, it can also be applied to non-point source emitters, such as
exhaust from automobiles in an urban area12345.
The Gaussian plume model is widely used because of its simplicity and ease of use.
However, it’s important to note that it is a simplification of the complex processes involved
in atmospheric dispersion, and its accuracy can be limited under certain conditions12345.
A pollutant is a substance or energy introduced into the environment that has undesired
effects, or adversely affects the usefulness of a resource1234. These can be both naturally
forming (i.e. minerals or extracted compounds like oil) or anthropogenic in origin (i.e.
manufactured materials or byproducts)1234. Pollutants can result in environmental pollution or
become public health concerns when they reach a concentration high enough to have
significant negative impacts1234.
On the other hand, a contaminant is a substance that makes something less pure or makes it
poisonous56. It is a substance that pollutes, spoils, or poisons something56. High levels of
contaminants have been found in the groundwater, causing concerns about possible health
risks to nearby neighborhoods56. Contaminants can be artificial substances, such as pesticides
and PCBs, or naturally occurring substances, such as oil or carbon dioxide, that occur in
harmful concentrations in a given environment56.
While both pollutants and contaminants can have harmful effects on the environment and
human health, the term “pollutant” is often used more broadly to refer to substances that harm
the environment, while “contaminant” is often used more specifically to refer to substances
that make something less pure or poisonous561234.
Primary pollutants are those that are emitted directly into the atmosphere from a source1234.
These pollutants can be natural, such as dust from sandstorms or volcanic eruptions, or they
can be anthropogenic (human-made), such as emissions from industrial processes or
vehicles1234. Examples of primary pollutants include sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide
(CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter1234.
On the other hand, secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Instead, they form in the
atmosphere as a result of chemical or physical interactions between primary pollutants or
between primary pollutants and other atmospheric components1234. These interactions can be
complex and involve multiple steps1234. Examples of secondary pollutants include ground-
level ozone, photochemical smog, and acid rain1234.
In summary, primary pollutants are directly emitted into the atmosphere, while secondary
pollutants are formed in the atmosphere through reactions involving primary pollutants1234.
Emission standards are the legal requirements governing air pollutants released into the
atmosphere1. They set quantitative limits on the permissible amount of specific air pollutants
that may be released from specific sources over specific timeframes1. These standards are
generally designed to achieve air quality standards and to protect human life1.
Emission standards can apply to various sources of emissions, including vehicles, industrial
processes, power plants, and more2. For example, vehicle emission standards set limits on the
amount of pollution a vehicle or engine can emit2.
In many countries, emission standards are becoming increasingly stringent in response to

growing concerns about air quality and climate change34. For instance, in India, the Bharat
Stage Emission Standards (BSES) are emission standards instituted by the Government of
India to regulate the output of air pollutants from internal combustion engines, including
motor vehicles34.
The standards and the timeline for implementation are set by the Central Pollution Control
Board under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change34. The standards, based
on European regulations, were first introduced in 200034. All new vehicles manufactured after
the implementation of the norms have to be compliant with the regulations34.
While the norms help in bringing down pollution levels, it invariably results in increased
vehicle cost due to the improved technology and higher fuel prices34. However, this increase
in private cost is offset by savings in health costs for the public, as there is a lesser amount of
disease-causing particulate matter and pollution in the air34.
Criteria pollutants
The criteria for pollutants are based on their potential to cause harm to human health and the
environment12345. These criteria are used internationally to describe air pollutants that have
been regulated and are used as indicators of air quality2345.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), for example, has established national
ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) for six of the most common air pollutants5. These are
known as “criteria” air pollutants (or simply “criteria pollutants”) and include:
 Carbon monoxide (CO)

 Lead
 Ground-level ozone
 Particulate matter
 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
 Sulfur dioxide (SO2)5
These pollutants are known to harm the environment and their components after their
emission or after atmospheric transformation reactions such as oxidation/reduction4. The
maximum acceptable concentration in the atmosphere for each of these pollutants is also
defined1.
It’s important to note that these criteria can vary by country and region, depending on local
environmental conditions and public health concerns12345.
Air pollutants can be classified into two types: primary and secondary pollutants1234.
Primary Pollutants are those that are emitted directly into the atmosphere from a source1234.
Examples of primary pollutants include:
 Sulfur oxides (SOx): Produced by volcanoes and various industrial processes2.

 Nitrogen oxides (NOx): Emitted from high-temperature combustion2.
 Carbon monoxide (CO): A colorless, odorless, non-irritating but very poisonous gas.
It is a product of incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal, or wood2.
 Carbon dioxide (CO2): A greenhouse gas emitted from combustion but is also a gas
vital to living organisms2.
 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): An important outdoor air pollutant2.
 Lead, Fly Ash, Metallic Oxides, Nanoparticles: These are particulate pollutants that
pollute the air by being suspended1.
Secondary Pollutants are not emitted directly. Instead, they form in the atmosphere as a
result of chemical or physical interactions between primary pollutants or between primary
pollutants and other atmospheric components1234. Examples of secondary pollutants include
ground-level ozone, photochemical smog, and acid rain2.
The effects of these pollutants can be vast and damaging. They can cause air pollution,
which refers to any physical, chemical, or biological change in the air that causes adverse
effects on humans and other organisms1234. This imbalance in the gaseous composition has
increased Earth’s temperature which is known as global warming1. Particulate pollutants can
do vast damage to the human respiratory system1. PM 2.5 particles (2.5 µm or less) are
declared as one of the most harmful particulate pollutants1.
Table summarizing the sources and effects of the mentioned air pollutants:
Pollutant Source Effect

Suspended SPM is produced by both SPM can cause various health
Particulate natural sources (like dust problems, especially respiratory
Matter (SPM) storms, forest fires, and sea issues, as they can penetrate deep into
spray) and human activities the lungs. They also contribute to
(like burning of fossil fuels, environmental issues like visibility
industrial processes, and vehicle impairment and potential damage to
emissions)12345. vegetation4235.
Oxides of These are primarily produced High levels of carbon monoxide (CO)
Carbon (CO from the combustion of fossil can lead to poisoning as it interferes
and CO2) fuels in vehicles, power plants, with the blood’s ability to carry
and industrial processes678. oxygen. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a
greenhouse gas that contributes to
global warming678.
Oxides of These are produced during NOx gases contribute to the formation
Nitrogen high-temperature combustion of smog and acid rain. They can cause
(NOx) processes, such as those respiratory problems in humans and
occurring in car engines and damage vegetation910111213.
power plants910111213.
Oxides of These are produced from the SOx gases contribute to the formation
Sulphur (SOx) burning of sulphur-containing of acid rain and particulate pollution.
fossil fuels in power plants and They can cause respiratory problems
other industrial in humans and damage to the
processes1415161718. environment1415161718.
Peroxyacetyl PAN is formed in the PAN is a powerful respiratory and eye
Nitrate (PAN) atmosphere when volatile irritant. It can cause extensive damage
organic compounds (VOCs) and to vegetation and is said to be
nitrogen oxides (NOx) react mutagenic192021.
together192021.
Please note that the effects of these pollutants can vary based on their concentration and the
duration of exposure. It’s also important to note that many of these pollutants can interact
with each other in the atmosphere, leading to secondary pollutants and additional
environmental effects.
Sure, here’s a brief explanation of each:
Smog: Smog is a type of intense air pollution that reduces visibility12. The term “smog” was
coined in the early 20th century and is a contraction of the words smoke and fog to refer to
smoky fog due to its opacity, and odor12. The word was then intended to refer to what was
sometimes known as pea soup fog, a familiar and serious problem in London from the 19th
century to the mid-20th century12. This kind of visible air pollution is composed of nitrogen
oxides, sulfur oxide, ozone, smoke and other particulates12. Man-made smog is derived from
coal combustion emissions, vehicular emissions, industrial emissions, forest and agricultural
fires and photochemical reactions of these emissions12.
Photochemical Smog: Also known as ‘summer smog,’ photochemical smog is formed when
ultraviolet (UV) light from the sun reacts with nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) in the atmosphere26. It is visible as a yellow-brown haze during the
morning and in the afternoon26. Photochemical smog tends to occur more often on dry
summer days when the region experiences the most sunlight26. It is characteristic of urban
areas and is thus commonly found in densely populated cities such as Los Angeles, Sydney,
Mexico, New Delhi, and Beijing, among many others26. It is also sometimes referred to as
'Los Angeles Smog.'26.
London Smog (Great Smog of 1952): The Great Smog of London was a severe air pollution
event that affected London, England, in December 195231012. A period of unusually cold
weather, combined with an anticyclone and windless conditions, collected airborne pollutants
—mostly arising from the use of coal —to form a thick layer of smog over the city31012. It
lasted from Friday 5 December to Tuesday 9 December 1952, then dispersed quickly when
the weather changed31012. The smog caused major disruption by reducing visibility and even
penetrating indoor areas, far more severely than previous smog events, called "pea-
soupers"31012. Government medical reports in the weeks following the event estimated that
up to 4,000 people had died as a direct result of the smog and 100,000 more were made ill by
the smog’s effects on the human respiratory tract31012. More recent research suggests that
the total number of fatalities was considerably greater, with estimates of between 10,000 and
12,000 deaths31012.
The depletion of the ozone layer refers to the thinning of the Earth’s ozone layer in the
upper atmosphere1[3]23. This phenomenon has been observed since the late 1970s and is
primarily caused by the release of chemical compounds containing gaseous chlorine or
bromine from industry and other human activities1[3]23.
The ozone layer plays a critical role in absorbing ultraviolet radiation emitted by the
sun1[3]23. The thinning of the ozone layer is most pronounced in the polar regions, especially
over Antarctica1[3]23.
When the chlorine and bromine atoms in the atmosphere come in contact with ozone, they
destroy the ozone molecules3. One chlorine atom can destroy up to 100,000 molecules of
ozone3.
The depletion of the ozone layer has serious implications for life on Earth. It leads to higher
levels of harmful ultraviolet-B radiation reaching the Earth’s surface, which can cause skin
cancers and cataracts in humans and harm animals, particularly those living in or near
water1[3]23.
Efforts have been made globally to reduce the emissions of these ozone-depleting substances,
notably through the Montreal Protocol of 19871[3]23. This international treaty was designed to
protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances responsible for
ozone depletion1[3]23.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are fully or partly halogenated hydrocarbons that contain
carbon ©, hydrogen (H), chlorine (Cl), and fluorine (F). They are produced as volatile
derivatives of methane, ethane, and propane12. The most common example is
dichlorodifluoromethane (R-12), also commonly called Freon12.
CFCs have been widely used in a variety of applications due to their low toxicity, reactivity,
and flammability22. They have been used as refrigerants, propellants in aerosol applications,
gaseous fire suppression systems, and solvents12.
However, CFCs have a significant environmental impact. They contribute to ozone depletion
in the upper atmosphere22. When released into the atmosphere, CFCs can slowly rise to the
stratosphere, where they are broken apart by solar radiation, releasing chlorine atoms, which
are able to catalyze the breakdown of ozone22.
In addition to their role in ozone depletion, CFCs are also potent greenhouse gases, with a
much higher potential for warming the atmosphere than carbon dioxide22.
Due to their environmental impact, the production of CFCs has been phased out under the
Montreal Protocol, an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer 12. They are
being replaced with other products such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and
hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs)12. As per the Montreal Protocol, India, one of the large consumers
of CFCs, has taken many progressive steps to phase-out Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)
in the country33.
Destruction of Ozone layer by CFCs
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are a type of compound that, while inert and stable at the
Earth’s surface, can cause significant damage to the ozone layer when they reach the upper
atmosphere124.
Here’s how the process works:
1. Release and Ascent: CFCs are released into the atmosphere through various human
activities, such as the use of air conditioning systems, aerosols, and refrigerants124.
Because CFCs are extremely stable, they do not break down in the lower atmosphere
and can persist for a long time124. Over time, these CFCs slowly rise to the
stratosphere124.
2. Breakdown of CFCs: Once in the stratosphere, CFCs are broken down by solar
radiation, specifically ultraviolet light124. This breakdown of CFCs releases chlorine
atoms124.
3. Destruction of Ozone: The chlorine atoms act as a catalyst in the destruction of
ozone124. In a series of reactions, a single chlorine atom can destroy thousands of
ozone molecules124. The chlorine atom is not consumed in the reaction, so it can
continue to catalyze the breakdown of more ozone molecules124.
This process significantly depletes the ozone layer, leading to the creation of the so-called
"ozone hole"124. The thinning of the ozone layer allows more harmful ultraviolet-B radiation
to reach the Earth’s surface, leading to health and environmental issues124.
Some of the other greenhouse gases and their impacts:
1. Methane (CH4): Methane is a gas that is generated from human and animal activity,
as well as from the Earth itself1. Natural gas, human and animal activity (particularly
the digestive habits of cattle), and waste are major sources of methane1. Methane is 30
times stronger than CO2 in terms of its heat-trapping ability1. It contributes between
10-25% of global warming1.
2. Nitrous Oxide (N2O): Nitrous oxide comes from agriculture and fossil fuel burning1.
It has a warming potential 265 times that of CO21.
3. Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6): Sulfur hexafluoride is an extremely potent greenhouse
gas that is used for various electrical purposes1. Compared with CO2, it causes 23,500
times as much warming1.
4. Tetrafluoromethane (PFC-14): Tetrafluoromethane, which is used as a refrigerant
and in electronics, causes 6,630 times as much warming as CO21.
5. HFC-152a: HFC-152a, which is used as a refrigerant and in aerosol sprays, causes
128 times as much warming as CO21.
The impacts of these greenhouse gases are far-ranging. They cause climate change by
trapping heat, leading to a rise in global temperatures24. This results in a variety of
environmental changes, including sea-level rise, melting of polar ice caps, increased
frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, shifts in plant and animal geographic
ranges, and changes in the timing of seasonal life cycle events24. They also contribute to
respiratory disease from smog and air pollution2. Extreme weather, food supply disruptions,
and increased wildfires are other effects of climate change caused by greenhouse gases2.
The term “ozone modification” can refer to changes in the ozone layer due to natural
processes or human activities. The most significant human-induced “ozone modification” is
the depletion of the ozone layer, primarily caused by the emission of certain industrial gases.
Here are some effects of such ozone modification:
1. Increased UV Radiation: Depletion of the ozone layer leads to an increase in the

amount of harmful ultraviolet-B (UVB) radiation that reaches the Earth’s surface 1.
UVB radiation can cause skin cancer and cataracts in humans1. It can also harm
animals, particularly those living in or near water1.
2. Effects on Plants and Ecosystems: Increased UVB radiation can also have harmful
effects on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, including damage to phytoplankton and
other microscopic organisms at the base of the food chain1.
3. Climate Change: Changes in the ozone layer can also influence climate patterns.
While ozone depletion in the stratosphere contributes to cooling, ozone at lower levels
(tropospheric ozone) is a potent greenhouse gas and contributes to warming1.
4. Health Effects of Ground-Level Ozone: Modifications in ground-level ozone
concentrations, often due to air pollution, can have direct health effects. High levels of
ozone can cause respiratory problems and other health issues23.
5. Material Damage: Ozone in the lower atmosphere can cause damage to certain
materials, such as rubber, and harm vegetation23.
It’s important to note that international efforts, such as the Montreal Protocol, have been
successful in reducing the emissions of ozone-depleting substances and are expected to lead
to the recovery of the ozone layer in the coming decades1.
Sure, here is a summary of the air quality standards for industrial, commercial, and residential
areas. Please note that these standards can vary by country and region, and the specific
pollutants considered can also vary. The standards mentioned here are based on the National
Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) set by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
in India12..
Area Pollutant Standard (µg/m³) Time weighted

average
Industrial Particulate Matter 10 (PM10) 100 24hrs
Particulate Matter 2.5 (PM2.5) 60 24hrs
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) 80 24hrs
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) 80 24hrs
Carbon Monoxide (CO) 4 mg/m³ 1hrs
Ozone (O3) 100 1 hrs
Ammonia (NH3) 400 24hrs
Lead (Pb) 0.5 24hrs
Benzene 5 Annual
Benzopyrene 1 ng/m³ Annual
Arsenic 6 ng/m³ Annual
Nickel 20 ng/m³ Annual
Commercial Particulate Matter 10 (PM10) 100 24hrs
Lead (Pb) 0.5 24hrs
Benzene 5 Annual
Residential Particulate Matter 10 (PM10) 100 24hrs
Lead (Pb) 0.5 24hrs
Benzene 5 Annual
Please note that these are the maximum permissible limits for these pollutants 12. The actual
air quality in a given area can vary based on a variety of factors, including local sources of
pollution, weather conditions, and more12.
An Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP) is a filtration device that is used to remove fine
particles like smoke and fine dust from the flowing gas1123. It is the most commonly used
device for air pollution control and is used in industries like steel plants, and thermal energy
plants1123.
The working principle of the electrostatic precipitator is quite simple. It consists of two sets
of electrodes: positive and negative1123. The negative electrodes are in the form of a wire
mesh, and the positive electrodes are plates1123. The gas borne particles such as ash are
ionized by the high voltage discharge electrode by the corona effect1123. These particles are
ionized to a negative charge and are attracted to positively charged collector plates 1123. The
negative terminal of the high voltage DC source is used to connect the negative electrodes,
and the positive terminal of the DC source is used to connect the positive plates1123.
To ionize the medium between the negative and the positive electrode, a certain distance is
maintained between the positive, negative electrode and the DC source resulting in a high
voltage gradient1123. The medium that is used between the two electrodes is air1123. There
might be corona discharge around the electrode rods or the wire mesh due to the high
negativity of negative charges1123.
The entire system is enclosed in a metallic container containing an inlet for flue gases and an
outlet for filtered gases1123. There are plenty of free electrons as the electrodes are ionized,
which interact with the dust particles of the gas, making them negatively charged1123. These
particles move towards positive electrodes and fall off due to gravitational force 1123. The
flue gas is free from the dust particles as it flows through the electrostatic precipitator and is
discharged to the atmosphere through the chimney1123.
Cyclone separators
Cyclone separators, also known as cyclones, are a type of air pollution control device that
use the principle of inertia to remove particulate matter from flue gases 1. They are considered
as precleaners because they generally remove larger pieces of particulate matter 1.
Here’s how they work:
 In a cyclone separator, dirty flue gas is fed into a chamber. The inside of the chamber
creates a spiral vortex, similar to a tornado1.
 The lighter components of this gas have less inertia, so it is easier for them to be
influenced by the vortex and travel up it1.
 Contrarily, larger components of particulate matter have more inertia and are not as
easily influenced by the vortex1.
 Since these larger particles have difficulty following the high-speed spiral motion of
the gas and the vortex, the particles hit the inside walls of the container and drop
down into a collection hopper1.
 These chambers are shaped like an upside-down cone to promote the collection of
these particles at the bottom of the container1.
 The cleaned flue gas escapes out the top of the chamber1.
Cyclone separators are generally able to remove somewhere between 50-99% of all
particulate matter in flue gas1. Their effectiveness largely depends on the particle size1. They
are often used as a pre-treatment before the flue gas enters more effective pollution control
devices1. Therefore, cyclone separators can be seen as “rough separators” before the flue gas
reaches the fine filtration stages1.
Cyclone separators are among the least expensive of all the particulate-control devices 1. They
are used in various industrial fields such as ship unloading units, power stations, fluidized
beds, food processing, and in crushing, separation, grinding, and calcination in the mineral
and chemical industries2. Their separation performance directly affects the overall design of
circulating fluidized bed boilers (CFBs), the system arrangement, and the performance of
subsequent boiler operations2.
Bag House
A baghouse, also known as a baghouse filter, bag filter, or fabric filter, is an air pollution
control device and dust collector that removes particulates or gas released from commercial
processes out of the air1.
 The main components of a baghouse are the media or bags used to filter particles
from the air as it passes through the system2.
 Dust-laden gas or air enters the baghouse through hoppers and is directed into the
baghouse compartment1.
 The gas is drawn through the bags, either on the inside or the outside depending on
the cleaning method, and a layer of dust accumulates on the filter media surface until
air can no longer move through it1.
 When a sufficient pressure drop (ΔP) occurs, the cleaning process begins1.
 Cleaning can take place while the baghouse is online (filtering) or is offline (in
isolation). When the compartment is clean, normal filtering resumes1.
Baghouses are very efficient particulate collectors because of the dust cake formed on the
surface of the bags1. The fabric provides a surface on which dust collects through the
following four mechanisms1:
1. Inertial collection – Dust particles strike the fibers placed perpendicular to the gas-
flow direction instead of changing direction with the gas stream.
2. Interception – Particles that do not cross the fluid streamlines come in contact with
fibers because of the fiber size.
3. Brownian movement – Submicrometre particles are diffused, increasing the
probability of contact between the particles and collecting surfaces.
4. Electrostatic forces – The presence of an electrostatic charge on the particles and the
filter can increase dust capture.
Baghouses are classified by the cleaning method used. The three most common types of
baghouses are mechanical shakers, reverse gas, and pulse jet1. Baghouses are generally able
to remove somewhere between 50-99% of all particulate matter in flue gas1. Their
effectiveness largely depends on the particle size1. They are often used as a pre-treatment
before the flue gas enters more effective pollution control devices1. Therefore, baghouses can
be seen as “rough separators” before the flue gas reaches the fine filtration stages 1.
Baghouses are among the least expensive of all the particulate-control devices1. They are
used in various industrial fields such as power plants, steel mills, pharmaceutical producers,
food manufacturers, chemical producers and other industrial companies1.
A catalytic converter is an essential component of a vehicle’s exhaust system that plays a
crucial role in emissions control and reducing vehicle pollution1. It’s often referred to as the
“cat” or "cat converter"2.
 A catalytic converter is a device that uses basic redox reactions to reduce the
pollutants a car makes3.
 It converts around 98% of the harmful fumes produced by a car engine into less
harmful gases3.
 The converter uses simple oxidation and reduction reactions to convert the unwanted
fumes3. Recall that oxidation is the loss of electrons and that reduction is the gaining
of electrons3.
 The precious metals mentioned earlier promote the transfer of electrons and, in turn,
the conversion of toxic fumes3.
 The last section of the converter controls the fuel-injection system3.
The catalytic converter is composed of a metal housing with a ceramic honeycomb-like

interior with insulating layers3. This honeycomb interior has thin wall channels that are
coated with a “washcoat” of aluminum oxide3. This coating is porous and increases the
surface area, allowing more reactions to take place and containing precious metals such as
platinum, rhodium, and palladium3.
Catalytic converters were first widely introduced in American production cars in 1975 due to
EPA regulations on toxic emissions reductions3. The United States Clean Air Act required a
75% decrease in emissions in all new model vehicles after 1975, a decrease to be carried out
with the use of catalytic converters3.
Without catalytic converters, vehicles release hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen
oxide3. These gases are the largest source of ground level ozone, which causes smog and is
harmful to plant life3. Catalytic converters can also be found in generators, buses, trucks, and
trains — almost everything with an internal combustion engine has a form of catalytic
converter attached to its exhaust system3.
Overall, catalytic converters act as an environmental warrior, curbing the release of pollutants
and mitigating their impact on our planet2.
A Venturi scrubber is an air pollution control device that uses the principle of inertia to
remove particulate matter from flue gases123.
 A Venturi scrubber consists of three sections: a converging section, a throat section,

and a diverging section1.
 The inlet gas stream enters the converging section and, as the area decreases, gas
velocity increases1.
 Liquid is introduced either at the throat or at the entrance to the converging section 1.
 The inlet gas, forced to move at extremely high velocities in the small throat section,
turbulently mixes with the liquid, producing a large number of very tiny droplets1.
 Particle and gas removal occur in the diverging section as the inlet gas stream mixes
with the fog of tiny liquid droplets1.
 The inlet stream then exits through the diverging section, where it is forced to slow
down1.
Venturi scrubbers are designed to effectively use the energy from a high-velocity inlet gas
stream to atomize the liquid being used to scrub the gas stream1. This type of technology is a
part of the group of air pollution controls collectively referred to as wet scrubbers1.
Venturi scrubbers are more effective in removing particles since particles can be trapped by
contact, but gases must be trapped by absorption during the relatively short exposure time1.
They are often used in various industrial fields such as power plants, steel mills,
pharmaceutical producers, food manufacturers, chemical producers, and other industrial
companies123.
In a study, the average collection efficiency values of a rectangular Venturi scrubber were
96.6% for PM > 2.5, 85.5% for PM 1.0–2.5, and 66.9% for PM < 1.04. The ionic analysis for
PM < 1.0 filters showed potassium, chloride, nitrate, and nitrite at concentrations ranging
from 20.12 to 36.5 μg/m³4. Therefore, Venturi scrubbers play a crucial role in mitigating
environmental pollution and enhancing the quality of life for all inhabitants of our planet 4123.
There are several control measures that can be taken to reduce air pollution. These
measures can be broadly categorized into two types:
1. preventive measures and
2. remedial measures12345.
Preventive Measures:
 Use of Public Transport and Carpooling: Using public transportation or carpooling

can significantly reduce the number of vehicles on the road, leading to a decrease in
air pollution13.
 Energy Conservation: Turning off lights and electronics when not in use can help
reduce the demand for electricity, thereby reducing the amount of fossil fuels burned
to produce electricity14.
 Recycle and Reuse: Recycling and reusing materials can help reduce the amount of
waste that ends up in landfills, which can emit harmful gases into the atmosphere1.
 Use of Clean Energy: Using clean, renewable energy sources like solar and wind
power can help reduce our reliance on fossil fuels, which are major contributors to air
pollution4.
Remedial Measures:
 Air Pollution Control Devices: Devices like scrubbers, baghouses, cyclone

separators, and catalytic converters can help remove pollutants from industrial
emissions before they are released into the atmosphere12345.
 Government Regulations: Governments can enforce regulations and standards that
limit the amount of pollutants that can be emitted by various sources12345.
 Planting Trees: Trees absorb carbon dioxide and other harmful gases and release
oxygen, helping to improve air quality12345.
These measures, when implemented effectively, can significantly reduce air pollution and its
harmful effects on human health and the environment12345.

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Unit 3 Environment Science

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Unit 3 Environment Science

The Earth’s atmosphere is divided into five main layers1[1]2[2]3[3]44:

 The mesosphere extends from about 50 to 85 km (31 to 53 miles) above our

o Conduction: Heat is transferred from the Earth’s surface to the atmosphere

o Convection: Heat is also transferred through the bulk movement of air3.

Series Thermal Resistance:

When different layers of material are stacked together (such as in a composite

Rtotal=R 1+ R 2+ …+…∈¿dividual resistance can be calculated as:

Parallel Thermal Resistance:

Again, each individual resistance can be calculated as:

where ( Ai ¿ is the area of the individual path1.

These concepts are fundamental in understanding heat transfer through composite

where ( Δ T ) is the temperature difference across the system1. This is analogous to

Albedo Disc Earth

Here’s a bit more detail:

Here’s how it works:

Energy Balance/ Heat Budget

Here’s a bit more detail:

Here’s how it works:

Heat Energy Energy Energy Energy rec Energy Energy Net

30 W/sq.m Absorbed by surface=168

Incoming Solar Energy-1370W/sq.m x π R 2

3. Convection/Evaporation heat Transfer to the atmosphere-24 W/Sq.m

1. Temperature Rise: Increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere

The consequences of sea-level rise are significant:

1. Temperature Changes: Changes in temperature can cause shifts in crop planting

Impact on Marine Food Chains:

Here are some of the major consequences of global warming:

1. Extreme Weather: Global warming is leading to an increase in extreme weather

A carbon footprint is a measure of the total amount of greenhouse gases, expressed as

Here’s a bit more detail:

There are different types of lapse rates:

The ELR is highly variable as it is influenced by radiation, convection, and condensation23.

Atmospheric stability is a measure of the atmosphere’s tendency to encourage or deter

There are three general states of atmospheric stability:

Temperature inversion, also known as “thermal inversion”, is a meteorological

There are four kinds of inversions2:

Radiation inversion, also known as nocturnal inversion, is a type of temperature

Radiation inversion is a type of temperature inversion.

The dispersion of pollutants is governed by a combination of diffusion (due to turbulent eddy

Atmospheric dispersion models are important to governmental agencies tasked with

Here’s how it works:

The VC plays a significant role in determining the concentration of pollutants in the

1. The actual physical height of the stack.

The Gaussian Plume Model is a mathematical model used in atmospheric dispersion

 The height and rate of emissions from the source12345.

In many countries, emission standards are becoming increasingly stringent in response to

 Carbon monoxide (CO)

 Sulfur oxides (SOx): Produced by volcanoes and various industrial processes2.

Pollutant Source Effect

Sure, here’s a brief explanation of each:

Destruction of Ozone layer by CFCs

Here’s how the process works:

Some of the other greenhouse gases and their impacts:

1. Increased UV Radiation: Depletion of the ozone layer leads to an increase in the

Area Pollutant Standard (µg/m³) Time weighted

Here’s how they work:

Here’s how it works:

Here’s how it works:

The catalytic converter is composed of a metal housing with a ceramic honeycomb-like

Here’s how it works:

 A Venturi scrubber consists of three sections: a converging section, a throat section,

 Use of Public Transport and Carpooling: Using public transportation or carpooling

 Air Pollution Control Devices: Devices like scrubbers, baghouses, cyclone