Wagners Leitmotif and How It Has Influen

Liverpool Hope University
Extended Research Project

Wagner’s Leitmotif and how it has influenced film music in closing the gap
between the audience and the characters on screen for a more immersive
experience.
Written by: Wei Ping Wee (12001481)

Submitted to: Dr Ian Percy
Course title: MA Music

Module: Extended Research Project
2016
Acknowledgements
This Extended Research Project would not have been conceived without the help of Dr Ian
Percy’s guidance in the formulation of the Portfolio Project. I would like to thank Ian for
being such a supportive supervisor throughout the research and composing process. Lastly, I
would like to extend my gratitude to Mr Robin Hartwell and Dr Vernoica Skrimsjö for
pointing out to me the important research literature available relating to my area of research.
Without the support of Dr Ian Percy, Mr Robin Hartwell, and Dr Veronica Skrimsjö, this
research project would not have been possible. Many thanks to everyone.
Content
1. Introduction 1-4
2. Chapter 1 5-13
A Short History of the Development of Film Music
3. Chapter 2 14-52
The Portfolio: A Synopsis and Analysis
4. Conclusion 53-55
5. Appendix 1 56
6. Appendix 2 57
7. Appendix 3 58
8. Appendix 4 59
9. Bibliography 60-63
Wei Wee 12001481 MA Music Extended Research Project
Introduction
Wagner’s Leitmotif and how it has influenced film music in closing the gap
between the audience and the characters on screen for a more immersive
experience.
Leitmotif [or Leitmotif(s)]: “A word coined by the Wagnerian scholar Hans von Wolzogen
for a theme of easily recognized melodic, rhythmic, or harmonic identity, first used in
connection with a certain character of incident, and which returns time and again, always
with a reminiscence for the original association. These melodic fragments acquired symbolic
meaning in Wagnerian music-dramas and in addition were the chief elements of form used by
the composer. Wagner was by no means the first to discover the efficacy of such means...
The Wagnerian Leitmotif serves a structural purpose, however, that is distinct from the use
of reminiscent themes in the scores of earlier opera composers...”1
In this research, the focus was on how Wagner’s Leitmotif technique could form the bridge
between the audience and the characters, especially characters of silent films, on screen; to
draw the audience into the world and mind of the character, even their inner thoughts and
psyche. However, it is important to acknowledge that the leitmotif is not solely used to
represent characters, but also to portray situations, moods, objects, state of mind, supernatural
forces, places and so on. And as Whittall mentioned in his article in the Grove Online Music,
‘In its primary sense, a theme, or other coherent musical idea, clearly defined so as to retain
its identity if modified on subsequent appearances, whose purpose is to represent or
symbolize a person, object, place, idea, state of mind, supernatural force or any other
ingredient in a dramatic work. A leitmotif may be musically unaltered on its return, or altered
1
Thompson, Oscar (ed.), The International Cyclopedia of Music and Musicians, (New York [USA]: Dodd,
Mead & Co 1985), p. 1231
1
in rhythm, intervallic structure, harmony, orchestration or accompaniment, and may also be
combined with other leitmotifs in order to suggest a new dramatic situation.’2
During the Hollywood Golden Age, film music composers such as Max Steiner, Erich
Wolfgang Korngold, and Nino Rota were adept at using leitmotifs to create memorable audio
icons for the films they have set music to. Like Wagner, they created leitmotifs that were
unique to the important characters. And through varied instrumentation and other
compositional tools, the music they composed took up a meaningful role in closing the gap
between the audience and the characters on screen, with the music informing the audience
about the happenings on screen for a total immerse experience. This combination of music
and drama is perhaps the best example of Wagner’s ideal Gesumtkunstwerk. As mentioned in
Millington’s ‘Der Ring des Nibelungen: conception and interpretation’ in The Cambridge
Companion to Wagner, ‘...Gesamtkunstwerk, or “total work of art,” that would unite dance,
music, and poetry in a new kind of theater...’3 and in film music, Gesumtkunstwerk, has found
its foothold.
The research methods adopted in this exploration into Wagner’s leitmotif influence on film
music was targeted at the eventual application of the research findings into a practical
portfolio of compositions. These methods included the initial desk-bound research on
existing literature on Wagner’s leitmotif, his relation to cinema, and how music and drama
complement each other and developed to create what is now known as film music. The
research literature included books such as, The Cambridge Companion to Wagner, In Search
of Wagner, Music and Cinema, Wagner & Cinema, History of Film Music, journal articles,
and online resources such as Grove Music Online. These research materials were the
foundations of the next stage of my research, to analyse how the composers set the music to
2
Whittall, Arnold, ‘Leitmotif’, Grove Music Online
3
Millington, Barry, ‘Der Ring des Nibelungen: conception and interpretation’, in The Cambridge Companion to
Wagner ed. Grey, Thomas, (New York [USA]: Cambridge University Press 2008), p. 74
2
the film through the study of scores and how the music relates to the film by watching the
films the music was composed for. This stage of the research was meant to supplement the
theories learnt from the research literature and form the basis of the portfolio itself. The
application of the research findings would only be valuable as a researcher composer through
a holistic understanding of the working mechanics of film music; the compositional process,
and the synchronisation of music to film.
The final stage of the research was the actual application of the skills learnt from the research
in the composition of an original set of music to an out-of-copyright silent film from an
Internet Archive.4 As keeping to the research goals, the application of the leitmotiv would be
confined to creating a memorable audio signpost for the characters of the film. The original
leitmotifs would then be varied and/or paired with another to reflect the developing actions
on screen. The composition portfolio will consist of two movements, the first movement a
Waltz and the second movement being the actual setting of music to the film chosen. And to
keep with the leitmotif research, the Waltz would be composed using the leitmotifs from the
second movement, varied though means such as rhythmic variation, by instrumentation, and
tonality. Few new musical materials will be added to the first movement to create new
musical interest but essentially, the first movement would be composed to complement the
second movement; to act as a prelude to not only the second movement, but also the film
itself.
By using a variety of repetitions of the leitmotifs in the second movement in the Waltz, an
audio memory is being natured and when the film starts, the leitmotifs will not come across
as something that is not relevant to the film, but rather as part of the experience of watching
the film. However, like modern film music, the Waltz would be composed with the aim that it
4
https://archive.org
3
could be performed with or without the film; like the soundtracks of modern film music that
can be listened to without the film running. The research will also deliberate on how the
music should be performed in terms of acoustic stage setting, recording studio setting,
technology necessary to facilitate effective performance, and the issue that might arise and to
be addressed accordingly. Therefore, this research would be concluded with a practice-based
portfolio where the research findings would inform the formation of the development and
completion of the portfolio.
4
Chapter 1
A Short History of the Development of Film Music
Silent Film Music Accompaniment
The origins of film music can be traced back to Paris in November 1892, where Gaston
Paulin first presented Emile Reynaud’s animated Pantomimes lumineuses with original piano
music. Following this, on 28th December 1895, short films by the Lumière brothers were
showed with piano accompaniment from Emile Maraval and in the following year received a
harmonium accompaniment when the films opened in London. Even though it would be
decades before synchronised pre-recorded sound and music became fully established in the
cinema, this was the first step towards the birth of modern film music as we now know.5
The reason for music accompaniment in the era of silent films was not primarily just to
enhance the audience’s viewing experience. Its foremost objective was to block out the noise
of the projectors running in the background while providing the audience with an anchor to
connect with the silent images on screen. The music provides the audience with the means to
suspend their beliefs to engage with the ‘ghost-like quality of the images’6 on the screen,
preventing the sense of disembodiment. Eisler summed music of the silent films up aptly in
his book, Composing for the Film:
‘Music was introduced as a kind of antidote against the picture. The need was felt to spare the
spectator the unpleasantness involved in seeing effigies of living, acting, and even speaking
persons, who were at the same time silent. The fact that they are living and non-living at the
same time is what constitutes their ghostly character, and music was introduced not to supply
them with the life they lacked – but to exorcise fear or help the spectator absorb the shock.’7
5
Cooke, Mervyn, A History of Film Music, (New York [USA]: Cambridge 2008), p. 7
6
Ventura, David, Film Music in Focus, (London: Rhinegold 2008), p. 7
7
Eisler, Hanns, Composing for the Film, (London: Denis Dobson 1947), p. 75
5
Music for silent films was originally played live as the film was screening. Small scale
theatres would usually employ a pianist or organist to provide live accompaniment by
drawing from available libraries of music that would be pieced together to form a partially
improvised soundtrack. The larger establishments such as The Kinema Theatre in Los
Angeles would employ ensembles or even an orchestra to provide the live accompaniment. In
these such establishments, instead of improvising from an existing library of music, they
would use written scores and cue sheets from which a music director would watch the film in
advance and choose the music appropriate to play during the screening of the film.
Supplementary materials may sometimes be written by the conductors to ease the transitions
between scenes to prevent abrupt and awkward jumps in-between.8
With the release of the American musical film, The Jazz Singer (1927) directed by Alan
Crosland and with music by Louis Silvers, saw the decline of the era of silent films. In 1926,
Warner Brothers had already successfully synchronised music track to the film Don Juan,
also directed by Crosland. However, it was the success of The Jazz Singer that saw the start
of the dominance of ‘talkies’.9 From musical films the industry eventually turned to dramatic
films. But as the cameras were noisy they were often confined in soundproof rooms with
limited movement – resulting in films that were visually artificial and somewhat lifeless.
Directors realised that music played an important role in films to enhance the audience’s
engagement with the film - whether a love scene or a battle sequence. In about 1931, the
technology to “re-record a soundtrack away from the man ‘sound stage’ or film set become
available”10
As Davy quoted French film composer Maurice Jaubert’s comment on the era of silent film
8
9
ibid. p. 13
10
ibid.
6
in his book Footnotes to the Film:
‘Driven by the absence of speech to a lengthy method of visual paraphrase in order to make
the story clear, the silent film built up for itself, little by little, a special idiom designed
chiefly to compensate for the silence of the actors. This convention became familiar to all
habitués of the cinema, who believed, legitimately in those days that gave occasion for a
special art of the screen – an art which in its finest development would be essentially allusive,
and so poetic. But as soon as speech came to destroy this early convention, the cinema –
although hardly anyone recognised it at first – changed its character. It became, it is, and it
remains realistic.’11 With the advent of this progress from the silent film to talkies and the
development of the technology to synchronize music to film, the stage was set for the onset
of the Golden Age of Hollywood movies that was to last through the 1930s to the 1950s.
Hollywood’s Golden Age
During the golden age, an influx of composers and musicians come into America bringing
relevant musical skills that was crucial for this growing industry. The rise of the Hollywood’s
golden age saw the growth of the narrative film and with it, techniques such as underscoring,
mickey-mousing, and juxtaposing the image on screen with music suggesting an opposing
reality.12 In this new golden age, composers the likes of Max Steiner, Erich Wolfgang
Korngold, Alex North, and Miklós Rósza pioneered and transformed film music. Their
contributions to film music eventually influenced its future development and shaped film
music to what we are now accustomed to and expect as a natural part of our experience in the
cinema.
11
12
Reality in this sense does not mean the real world reality. Rather it means the reality portrayed on the big
screen being in opposition to the music synchronized to the image – invoking clashing emotions and reactions,
and possibly insert conflict which might have been the intended goal of the director and/or composer.
7
The progress from silent films to musical films, and eventually dramatic films opened the
path to the birth of narrative films. Out of the 990 films produced in 1931 and 1932, only
twenty-one were musical films – a stark contrast to previous years.13
In the narrative film, relationships, events, and the contrast between similarities and
differences between events are established in the narrative logic. This narrative logic
encompasses elements such as events, causes and actions, main plot and secondary plots that
the audience can make inferences, guesses, and speculate. It takes into account human nature,
psychosis, psychology, and social conventions – creating a big screen realism that the
audience can relate to. From improvised music of the era of silent films that at times seemed
forced or unrelated to the images on screen, music in the Hollywood golden age started
leaning towards “background music”.14 The Los Angeles Times reported in 1931 that:
‘“Underscoring,” or interpolating musical backgrounds in talking pictures, which is coming
more and more into vogue as the art is being perfected, is gradually bringing to the screen
music as it was used with the good silent pictures, say musicians in the studios. Musical
phrases chosen for their fitness to the dramatic theme they are so illustrate are “scored” into
pictures, very softly so as not to interfere with dialogue, but too furnish a psychological
background.’15
The underscoring technique is one that sets the music beneath the dialogue to avoid
competition and overpowering the plot of the film while playing the role of accompanying
the dialogue that is ongoing. It is a technique used to ensure that music does not undermine
the importance of the images on the screen. The music set using the underscoring technique
is music that ‘...bears specific formal relationship to coexistent elements in the film.’16 Also,
13
Wierzbicki, James, Film Music: A History, (New York [USA]: Routledge 2009), p. 121
14
ibid. p. 126
15
16
Gorbman, Claudia, Narrative Film Music, Yale French Studies, No. 60, Cinema/Sound (1980), p. 185
8
the underscored music not only serves to support the action or emotion on screen but at the
same time can act as a tool to set the mood and even locale of the scene. During this golden
age, underscored music was used as an extension of the film and can be either mimetic or
symbolic.17
Mimetic can also be described as mickey-mousing where the music emphasises the image on
screen. This technique is commonly seen in comedy and in Roy Webb’s, My Favourite Wife,
he employs this technique on various occasions throughout the film. An example is the
sliding trombone that accompanies the lift door closing after the newlyweds approached the
hotel desk. This emphasises the action of the lift door closing – drawing attention to the
sequence of events.18
Music can also be symbolic in nature as can be seen in Miklós Rósza’s, Spellbound. In the
scenes where John Ballantyne’s psychosis acts up, the Theremin was used as a symbolic
portrayal of his mental state. The Theremin “theme” returns every time John’s psychosis
takes over varied slightly through instrumentation. The unworldly timbre of the Theremin
symbolizes the unstable mental state of mind of John and gives the audience a way to relate
to John’s predicament - thus symbolic music and image working together to present the
character’s otherwise hidden inner mind and thoughts to the audience.
The above examples are of music that works together with the images i.e. the music being an
extension of the film, mimetic or symbolic, that works in tandem with the film. However,
music can also work in opposition to the film and yet still give meaning, perhaps even a
17
18
9
deeper meaning, to the images on screen. Kathryn Kalinak states in her book, Settling the
Score: Music and the Classical Hollywood Film, that ‘...the concepts of ‘parallel’ and
‘contrapuntal’ music in film reinforce a regrettable tendency for music always to seem
subservient to the visual image...’19 However, ‘Rudolf Arnheim, Balázs and Kracauer – all
stress that music can be free to pursue its own course in film in addition to reinforcing what is
latent in the image.’20
Green mentioned in her article that Larry M. Timm stated in his book, The Soul of Cinema,
that ‘music playing against the action... Generally, this occurs when the composer uses music
that opposes what is being seen on screen. For instance, a director may wish to tone down an
extremely violent segment of his or her movie by accompanying it with an opera aria or slow
ballad.’21 Having music and image in juxtaposition may not always detrimental to the
understanding of the intended message to be delivered to the audience. While conflicting
music and image can cause a sense of confusion, it can also invoke emotions hidden beneath
the images that would otherwise be lost without the prompt of the music of opposing nature.
For example, if a battle scene is on screen and set against it is a sad lyrical music, the violent
nature of the battle scene would be juxtaposed with the sadness of what war brings. This is
possible because while the battle scene plays out the violence and bloodshed on screen, the
music provides the sentiment behind the scene – the tool that engages the audience on a
psychological level to draw out the emotions that the scene is engaging but hidden from plain
sight.
In Mel Gibson’s Braveheart, in the scene where Robert the Bruce and the Scotsmen were all
19
20
ibid.
21
Green, Jessica, Understanding the Score: Film Music Communicating to and Influencing the Audience, The
Journal of Aesthetic Education, 44/4, (Winter 2010), p. 90
10
assembled together, the outlaw theme was played on the flute. As the outlaw theme has been
recurring in both the successes and failures of the Scotsmen in their attempt to free Scotland
from England, the audience would be prompted to recall all the events already passed.
However, at this point, the oboe joins in a duet with the flute as Murron’s wedding cloth was
being displayed by Bruce to remind the audience that it was for Murron that Wallace initiated
the war with the British. This duet of 2 themes may be contrasting in nature but, it acts as a
simple tool to unite the otherwise seemingly unrelated image on screen with the music –
providing the emotions and mood underlying.22
In the scene of Michael Mann’s The Last of the Mohicans, where Alice steps away from the
Hurons and over the edge of the cliff, the dominance of strings tune may seem an ill-suite to
the tragic climatic scene of deaths and tribulations, but the ‘sweeping rhythm clearly
represents the choices that each character must make. Although the tine doesn’t extensively
work with leitmotifs established earlier in the film, by changing the instrumentation, tempo,
and phrasing of each character’s portion of the scene, the music differentiates each
character’s choices and decisions.’23 Thus it is quite evident that music and images do not
have to be in tandem always – as long as they work together to bring out the meaning and
message of the scene.
Post Golden Age
As technology changed, the film industry changed with it. As the Hollywood originated
technology became accessible to film industries around the world, they were imitated and this
caused Hollywood a drain on its market share of the industry. To regain its market share,
22
Green, Jessica, Understanding the Score: Film Music Communicating to and Influencing the Audience, The
Journal of Aesthetic Education, 44/4, (Winter 2010), p. 91
23
ibid. p. 93
11
Hollywood embarked on various wide-screen format films, and even stereophonic sound
system. And in this age where colour televisions were a luxury to most people, Hollywood
converted its production of films into colour. These innovations of Hollywood gave their
films the cutting age that allowed them to survive fierce competition. And along with it was
the revival of the symphonic music that has been associated with the classical-style film as
Hollywood struggled to regain its audience. It was also at this point that music of different
genres found their way into film scores.24
As Hollywood moved into the 60s, films were no longer just accompanied by music. Sound
effects and popular music now work hand-in-hand with original film music to transport the
audience into world depicted in the film. The three sound elements not only enhanced the
audiences’ experience and interaction with the characters on screen but also allow them to
suspend their disbelief and fully immerse themselves in the film – what seems impossible in
all normality becomes believable and real.
Sound effects took a stronger hold in film music as the technology improved. In 1956,
Forbidden Planet, directed by Fred M. Wilcox, was iconic in that instead of the expected
film music, the film is accompanied by innovative electronic music score that is completely
electronically produced by Bebe and Louis Barron using electronic circuits they constructed
themselves. These sound effects transported the audience into outer space and sparks the
audience’s imagination and suspense their beliefs to accept the impossible as possible.
Likewise, in Hitchcock’s The Birds, the synthesised bird-calls create an unnatural atmosphere
that also serves to anticipate the equally unnatural attack on the school children and teachers.
Sound effects, though electronically and artificially produced, when used appropriately, is as
24
Wierzbicki, James, Film Music: A History, (New York [USA]: Routledge 2009), pp. 165-6
12
effective a tool as the instrumental film music.
Popular music also became engrained into the film music and proved to be equally effective
as a tool in enhancing the audience’s experience in the cinema. Also, the fact that popular
music is already well-known to most of the audience, it allows the audience to relate to the
music even more. For example, in Richard Lester’s film about the Beatles, A Hard Day’s
Night, songs from their albums were chosen to go with the storyline tracking their journey
from Liverpool to London. The most memorable scene would probably be the sequence
where the Fab Four escapes from fanatic female fans and their manager as the title song A
Hard Day’s Night is being heard. Even without much dialogue, the lyrics of the song gives
meaning to the actions on screen – the running away makes sense and the inner thoughts of
the Fab Four feeling trapped and tired is communicated to the audience.
Film music has since come a long way from the era of silent movies. Music no longer plays a
subservient role to the moving images as mere accompaniment. Instead, film music has
grown into the role as not only as a supporting feature but and at times, a means of unifying
coexisting elements in the movie and providing audience a platform to engage with the
characters on screen emotionally and psychologically.
13
Chapter 2
The Portfolio: A Synopsis and Analysis
The basis of the Portfolio
The composition portfolio was based upon Wagner’s concept of leitmotif that had originally
been used in his operas and musical dramas such as Tristen and Isolde and Der Ring des
Nibelungen (The Ring). The Ring ‘as a whole contains some sixty or seventy distinct music
motives of this kind, or upwards of a hundred or more if one were to include the many
variants and transformations that are generated in the course of the cycle.25 The most
distinctive and dramatically important motives have their functions rooted in earlier dramas
but the motives of importance to this portfolio were motives that represent individual
characters.
For example, the Giants in Rheingold or Hunging in Die Walküre, were assigned a leitmotif
that acted as an audio signpost. In the scene where ‘...Sieglinde opens the door to her hut and
there stands Hunding in full battle gear, announced by a consort of tubas playing his dour,
lumbering leitmotif.’26 Prior to the actual sighting of Hunding, his leitmotif was already
heard, ‘muffled and slightly distorted as if heard through the closed door, and the ears of a
nervous Sieglinde.’27 The leitmotif was no longer just an audio signpost. It has taken on the
role of ‘...externalising the character’s qualities and the effect of his presence on those around
him.’28
25
Millington, Barry, ‘Der Ring des Nibelungen: conception and interpretation’, in The Cambridge Companion
to Wagner ed. Grey, Thomas, (New York [USA]: Cambridge University Press 2008), p. 88
26
ibid. p. 94
27
ibid.
28
ibid.
14
Example 2.129 Hunding’s leitmotif can be seen in this

excerpt to be rhythmic and dramatic in
the change of the dynamics. The choice
of Tubas suggest the terrifying nature of
Hunding. And this leitmotif was heard
indistinctively before his appearance at
Sieglinde’s hut.
This particular employment of the leitmotif is what I have chosen to base my portfolio on;
with the research on Wagner’s leitmotif in Film Music informing the compositional process.
Scope of my Researched Composition
Buhler mentioned that ‘In April 1910, for instance, an article in The Moving Picture World
optimistically stated: “Just as Wagner fitted his music to emotions, expressed by words in his
operas, so in the course of time, no doubt, the same thing will be done with regard to the
moving pictures.”’30 Since then, the leitmotif had indeed gained an important foothold in the
moving pictures, from the silent movie accompaniment to the modern film music that we
know today. In modern film music, the leitmotif is not only used to announce the character
who is about to make an entrance. It has also been used to set the scene that is about to be
played out to the audience and acts as a tool to help the audience understand the unspoken
29
Millington, Barry, ‘Der Ring des Nibelungen: conception and interpretation’, in The Cambridge Companion
to Wagner ed. Grey, Thomas, (New York [USA]: Cambridge University Press 2008), p. 94
30
Buhler, James, ‘Wagnerian Motives: Narrative Integration and the Development of Silent Film
Accompaniment, 1908-1913’, in.), Wagner & Cinema ed. Joe, Jeongwon & Gilman, Sander L., (Bloomington,
Indiana [USA]: Indiana University Press 2010), p. 27
15
inner psyche of the character that would otherwise be inaccessible and perhaps
incomprehensible.
In the roof fight scene in Batman, Batman is seen hanging a mugger over the edge of the
building. Elfman composed the music accompanying this scene in the whole-tone-mode that
has also been used for Jack Napier, who becomes the Joker later in the film. Having both the
hero and villain’s motif in the same mode, suggests that both Batman and the Joker are at this
point questionable in who they really are; questioning their moral standing. By means of the
motifs, Elfman conveyed the ‘psychological danger in terms of Batman’s ability to be the
hero of the piece... if he were to drop the mugger over the edge of the roof, then he would
have crossed the line over which it would be morally very difficult to return...’31 Through this
motif, Elfman surfaces Batman’s moral conflicts out into the open for the audience that might
otherwise go unnoticed. Another example, in Steiner’s ‘King Kong’, the opening chromatic
theme on the lower brass is associated with King Kong and his jungle. And Steiner cleverly
composes the heroine’s motif using the same falling chromatic steps to link both character
together. The enforces the existence of the bond that exist between both characters in King
Kong’s point of view, allowing the otherwise silent character to have a voice, musically at
least.32
Also, in modern film music, the leitmotif has produced numerous memorable audio icons that
has become inseparable with the film and/or the character. In the films such as, ‘Mission
Impossible, ‘James Bond, ‘Psycho’ and ‘Jaws’, the leitmotif was used to create an non-
diegetic musical icon that not only represents a particular character but also a situation and
state of mind. Whenever the motifs from the above mentioned films are heard, the iconic
31
Halfyard, Janet, K., Danny Elfman’s Batman, (Lanham, Maryland [USA]: Scarecrow Press 2004), pp. 84-5
32
16
characters immediately springs to mind. On top of the association with the character, the
motifs from ‘Mission Impossible’ and ‘James Bond’ have now become audio icons for
espionage. And for the motifs from ‘Psycho’ and ‘Jaws’, the danger associated with the
shower stabbing scene and the aggressive attacks of the great white shark is immediately
recalled.
The versatile nature of the leitmotif warrants a detail research, however, for the means of my
portfolio, the scope of my focus would be on the practical application of the leitmotif in film
music, focused on the leitmotif as used by Wagner; leitmotifs specifically composed for each
character and while maintaining each motif’s original integrity, always varied slightly upon
each return according to the storyline development of each character. With this focus in
mind, the short film I decided to compose an original set of music for it was one that is
narrative in nature with clear character entrances and distinctive personalities. The short film
was found on the Internet Archive, a non-profit library founded in 1996. It is an online
repository of many out-of-copyright movies for viewing and download.33 The selected film
was a silent film L’île de Calypso published in 1905 and is directed by French director
Georges Méliès who was generally credited as the first person to acknowledge the potential
of narrative film. His worked total about 520 films, covering a wide range of genres and are
often acclaimed as important forerunners of the modern narrative cinema though it can also
be disputed that his films are better categorised as theatrical creations of the 19th century
tradition.34
33
https://archive.org
34
https://archive.org/details/GeorgesMelies_201606
17
Synopsis of Film and Instrumentation
In ‘L’île de Calypso, the film tells the story of a warrior arriving on the island tired and lost.
While he was asleep, a group of maidens emerged from the cave and surrounded the sleeping
warrior. Calypso later appears and upon waking, the warrior immediately becomes smitten by
her beauty and declares his love for her. At this point, Calypso disappears and a giant hand
appears. It was later revealed in the film that it was the hand of a Cyclops whom the warrior
eventually defeated by stabbing his eye with a spear. From the film’s narrative storyline, it
seemed that it was a montage of the myth of Calypso and The Cyclops merged into one
narrative film. It was however unclear if the warrior was Odysseus as a detailed synopsis was
not provided on the archive’s website. Nevertheless, the narrative nature of the film and the
clear character entrances was the main reason for my choice, despite the unclear synopsis
provided.
There are 4 main characters in this film namely:
1. Calypso
2. Calypso’s Maidens
3. Warrior
4. Cyclops
Each character’s nature is portrayed clearly in the film and it was precisely this clarity that
facilitated the construction of each character’s leitmotif. Each individual leitmotif was
composed to reflect the character’s onscreen personality and the mood that each character
brings onto the screen. To create a clearer distinction between each character, the choice of
instrumentation was crucial.
In this original two movement music to the film, I have picked an ensemble of ten
instruments namely Flute, Bb Clarinet, Horn in F, Vibraphone, Harp, two Violins, Viola,
18
Violoncello, and Contrabasso. In order to build a clear timbre and texture for each character,
I have specifically used only the Flute, Bb Clarinet, Vibraphone, and the Harp for Calypso
and her Maidens. The Horn in F and the String Quintet was therefore reserved for when the
Cyclops and the Warrior come on screen. It is also important to note that the first movement,
‘Danse de Calypso’ was composed as a Waltz that could be performed both with the
screening of the film and or as an individual piece of music in its own right.
Restricting instrumentation to create a recognisable Soundworld for each

character
In the second movement, ‘L’île de Calypso’, the instrumentation was pegged to specific
character(s). In contrast to the second movement where the atmospheric introduction to the
waltz is followed by a tutti at letter C (see example 2.2.1 and 2.2.2), the instruments now take
on the role of portraying the characters that they are assigned to.
19
Example 2.2.1
The introduction of the 1st

movement reflecting the
atmospheric supernatural
nature of the Island of
Calypso, anticipating the
opening of the 2nd movement
L’île de Calypso.
20
Example 2.2.2
At Letter C, bar 36 onwards,

the ensemble plays tutti,
before the 2nd movement L’île
de Calypso. After which, the
instrumentation is kept
restricted to represent each
character with their own
unique Leitmotif and
soundworld.
For the beautiful Maidens and Calypso, the instrumentation chosen to represent them was the
Flute, Bb Clarinet, Vibraphone and the Harp. The String Quintet was assigned to personify
the Warrior while the Horn was set to The Cyclops. By restricting the interactions of the
instruments to reflect the interactions of the characters on screen, I was able to effectively
create recognisable soundworlds that was representative of each character. Which means that
every time the particular set of instruments were heard, the audience would be able to
anticipate the appearance of the characters through the change in instrumentation. The only
time in the scoring where the Flute, that was representative of Calypso and the Maidens, was
heard out of its original context was at letter I. (see example 2.3)
21
Example 2.3
In Letter I, bar 119, the Flute

that had previously been
associated with Calypso
enters this instrumentation of
the scene where Cyclops and
the Warrior engages in a
confrontation. The appearance
of the Flute was deliberately
included to remind the
audience of that Calypso,
though beautiful and celestial,
like the Cyclops was part of
the supernatural world and
thus foreshadows the total
rejection of her love by the
Warrior, just like he defeated
the Cyclops.
The reason for this out-of-character appearance was to remind the audience that both The
Cyclops and Calypso was of the supernatural world; that though Calypso was a beautiful
nymph, like The Cyclops, was of a different world. Also, it anticipates the later scene at letter
L, bars 138-141, where the warrior rejects Calypso’s attempts to hold him back, thus a total
rejection of the supernatural world that he has found himself in. In this manner, though
restrictive, the confining of instrumentation to the respective characters they represent was an
22
effective way of telling the story musically and hence the music is given a meaningful role in
complement to the film itself.
This ideal where the music complements and informs the audience of the ongoing of the film
could be seen in Korngold’s film music to the film The Adventures of Robin Hood (TARH).
For the film, Korngold composed eight principal themes. There are namely, the March of the
Merry Men, Robin, Jollity, King Richard/England, Love, Marian, Sir Guy, and Oppression.
Alongside were five minor themes for Prince John, Horses, Flirt, English Air, and Friar Tuck.
In his scoring for the TARH, the intended role was for each theme to be associated to each
character. However, Korngold allowed the themes to ‘undergo a certain amount of
development, eventually culminating in a fusing together that the narrative climax of the
film.’35 (see example 2.4.1 and 2.4.2 on Robin’s theme)
Example 2.4.136
The descending
scale E-D-C at
the end of King
Richard’s theme
35
Winters, Ben, Erich Wolfgang Korngold’s The Adventures of Robin Hood, ((Lanham, Maryland [USA]:
Scarecrow Press 2007), p. 113
36
ibid. p. 119
23
Example 2.4.237
The same
descending scale
E-D-C from King
Richar’s theme
seen in the final
transformed theme
of Robin parallels
the narrative
drama.
The addition of the Flute to The Cyclops’ theme was based on the same ideal that the music
should reflect the narrative, pre-empting the rejection of Calypso by the Warrior as she was
part of The Cyclops’ world.
By creating a distinctive timbre for each set of the characters, I am conditioning the audience
to the soundworld uniquely created for each character and by doing so, creates anticipation.
This anticipation works as the change in instrumentation subconsciously informs the
audience of a possible change in the storyline and as the film progresses, the changes settles
into the film as part of the audience’s experience, enhancing the overall effectiveness of the
music. Thus, the music becomes part of the film rather than just an unrelated addition to the
silent action on screen. This integration of music with drama is just a part of Wagner’s ideal
37
Winters, Ben, Erich Wolfgang Korngold’s The Adventures of Robin Hood, ((Lanham, Maryland [USA]:
Scarecrow Press 2007), p. 122
24
of Gesamtkunstwerk, where artistic elements such as music, dance, drama, and poetry all
come together as one, supporting each other as one total artwork.
Using Timbre, Texture, Rhythm, and Dynamics to create and complement

the plot of the film
By thoughtfully laying out the change in timbre, texture, rhythm, and dynamics, the tension
and actions of the film can be musically mapped out and complemented.
Warrior: Strings
Example 2.5
The leitmotif of the warrior is paced

at 60bpm and to reflect the tired, lost,
and bewildered state of mind of the
warrior, the dynamics was set at f
with the leitmotif being repetitive in
nature to suggest the warrior’s
inability to away from his
predicament.
25
Calypso: Flute, Clarinet, Vibraphone and Harp
Example 2.6
As Calypso and her

maidens are nymphs, her
leitmotif is built upon the
existing instrumentation
for the maidens. But to
establish her own identity,
the Flute is given the main
melodic line while the rest
of the instruments play a
supporting role as; in
parallel to the roles the
maidens play in the film.
26
Maidens: Clarinet, Vibraphone and Harp
Example 2.7
Calypso’s beautiful maidens

are represented by the
instrumentation of the Bb
Clarinet, Vibraphone, and the
Harp. The presence of string
instruments in this section is
to reflect the sleeping
warrior’s presence in the
scene.
27
Cyclops: Horn
Example 2.8.1
The Horn represents the terrifying nature of the

Cyclops and the chromatic leitmotif changes in
rhythm and dynamics to correspond to the rising
Example 2.8.2 tension of the encounter of the Warrior and the
Cyclops, thus in parallel to the actions unfolding in
the film, complementing and informing the
audience of the state of mind of the Warrior in his
confrontation with the Cyclops.
28
Maidens and Warrior: Clarinet, Vibraphone, Harp and Strings
Example 2.9
The scene where the

maidens are crowding
around the sleeping
warrior is represented
by the Bb Clarinet,
Vibraphone, and Harp
for the maidens with
the addition of Strings
to represent the
Warrior’s presence.
29
Calypso and Maidens: Flute, Clarinet, Vibraphone and Harp
Example. 2.10
Calypso and her

maidens are scored for
the Flute, Bb Clarinet,
Vibraphone, and the
Harp for a delicate and
feminine soundworld
as beautiful immortal
nymphs; lyrical and
atmospheric
30
Calypso and Warrior: Flute, Vibraphone, Harp and Strings
Example 2.11
The ‘love scene’ where

the Warrior is professing
his love for Calypso has
the 2nd Violin in a
mensurated canon duet
with the Flute. The
Vibraphone and the
Harp are present to
create the heavenly
feeling of love and the
dreamy state of mind of
the Warrior, smitten
with Calypso. Hence the
lyrical texture.
31
Cyclops and Warrior: Flute, Horn and Strings
Example 2.12
All the supernatural beings are

represented in this section; Flute
being Calypso and Horn being
the Cyclops. Even though
Calypso is not present in this
scene, the presence of the Flute
subconsciously reminds the
audience of the fact that
Calypso though beautiful was
still of a different world like the
Cyclops. The rhythmic nature of
this section parallels the tense
and is further enforced by the
loud dynamic level.
32
Music creating atmosphere to complement action on screen
The choice of instrumentation for both movements was totally based on the film itself. As
according to Buhler’s mention about W. Stephen Bush’s comment in “When ‘Effects’ are
Unnecessary Noises,’ MPW, September 9, 1911, issue 690:
‘Each picture must be studied by itself and only such effects introduced as have a
psychological bearing on the situation as depicted on the screen.’38 Having watched the film
closely before composing, I decided to capitalise on the fact that in the scenes of Calypso and
her Maidens, the Aulos and the Lyre were present. To create a music setting close to the film,
I chose the nearest possible modern substitutes; the Clarinet and the Harp. In doing so, I was
able to keep the music as close as possible to the film’s original character and at the same
time, give meaning to the role of music in this composition, which is to complement the film
itself.
The choice of the string quintet to represent the warrior was based upon the versatile nature
of string instruments; from the sluggish, plodding start to the romantic love song for Calypso,
and to the menacing and fierce encounter with The Cyclops whom was represented by the
blaring character of the Horn. By varying the rhythm, articulations, and dynamics, the string
quintet would be able to smoothly switch between moods. Thus, the need for a larger
ensemble or orchestra is negated.
Overlapping of Leitmotifs to create anticipation of a new character entry
Instead of having each character’s leitmotif appearing and ending abruptly, I chose to overlap
the leitmotifs to lead the audience in musically into the next scene of the film. Also by
38
Buhler, James, ‘Wagnerian Motives: Narrative Integration and the Development of Silent Film
Accompaniment, 1908-1913’, in.), Wagner & Cinema ed. Joe, Jeongwon & Gilman, Sander L., (Bloomington,
Indiana [USA]: Indiana University Press 2010), p. 31
33
overlapping leitmotifs, it provides the audience room for imagination; that something is going
to happen before it happens. Likewise, using the overlapping method, the leitmotifs lead into
the next smoothly, allowing a seamless transition into the next leitmotif without unnecessary
halt in the flow of the music which may disturb the audiences’ concentration of the storyline
unfolding on screen.
Overlapping
Example 2.13 Leitmotifs
However, at appropriate times, an abrupt change of leitmotif may serve as a means to provide
tension as in letter I, The Cyclops’ leitmotif enters without warning and is distinctively
contrasting in texture, mood, character, and dynamics to Calypso’s leitmotif. The stark
contrast becomes the turning point of the film that is enhanced by the sudden change in the
music’s nature; from something soft, atmospheric, lyrical, and sweet, to a darker and
menacing rhythmic chromatic leitmotif.
34
Example 2.14.1
The Vibraphone and

the Harp continues
Calypso’s leitmotif
till bar 118 without
any warning of a
possible change in
character or mood.
Example 2.14.2
The Cyclops’ Leitmotif

enters straight without
warning, changing the
previously lyrical nature
to a fierce chromatically
rhythmic nature.
35
Thus, from these examples, it is clear that the film informs the composer of what is needed
from the music to be set, further reinforcing Bush’s comment in the September 9, 1911 article
in the MPW about music appropriately depicting the scene on screen.
Music bringing the audience closer to the character’s thoughts, feelings and
emotions otherwise that may be missed in a silent film
The film selected for this project is a silent film where other that the actions of the characters,
there is no other means of understanding the film. To provide the audience whom may not be
adept in understanding the subtle expressive actions used in silent films, music becomes the
next best supporting element in relating to the film and the characters.
Example 2.15
In bars 63 to 68, the high register pizzicato of the second Violin and the Viola reflects the
tense mood of The Warrior having found himself in a strange island while the heavy and
plodding Warrior’s leitmotif informs the audience that the Warrior is weary and tired. This is
further reinforced by the Violoncello’s and Contrabasso’s ostinate baseline.
36
Example 2.16
The mensurated canon between the Flute and the second Violin parallels the romantic scene
playing out on screen between Calypso and the Warrior; lyrical and romantic.
37
Example 2.17
The highly strung developing rhythmic leitmotif of The Cyclops parallels the growing
tension on screen between The Cyclops and The Warrior until it climaxes at the 3rd beat of
bar 132 where all strings play tremolos in synch to the action of the Warrior spearing the
Cyclops in his eye.
Mickey-mousing and Suggested Mickey-mousing
Mickey-mousing is a tool used by film music composers to add emphasis to an action or a
series of actions on screen. The effect sought could be to accentuate the importance of the
action(s) or to evoke a sense of comedy by means of exaggerating the action(s) presence
38
through the accompanying music. In Roy Webb’s, My Favourite Wife, for example in the end
of the scene when Nick arrives at the hotel with his new wife, and in trying to evade his first
wife, Ellen, eventually enters the lift. And as the lift door closes, a sliding trombone can be
heard as the door closes, mickey-mousing the action.39
In the short film that I have chosen, there were many opportunities for such synchronisation
of music to action. However, to avoid weighing down the film with too many points of
synchronisation, I had only chosen to apply it at certain points of relevant importance to the
film; keeping with the overall mysterious effect the film evokes. The principle I have adhered
to is that once a point of synchronisation has been established, the association of the action to
the music will take root as the film and music progresses. This method of synchronisation
prevents overusing of the technique which may result in a comical effect rather than the
mysterious effect that is essential to the nature of the film’s plot. Also, by keeping
synchronisation subtle and suggestive in general, it creates a bigger and more effective
impact when important points of absolute synchronisation take place. Thus, by adopting a
practical employment of the mickey-mousing technique, absolute and suggested, the original
integrity of the film and its characteristics remains, while at the same time allowing the music
to compliment the storyline without overtaking the importance of the plot in this otherwise
silent film.
39
39
Hit points to discuss
01:59 – Warrior’s Entrance
At this hit point, the music transits from the Dance movement to the actual setting of music to
film. Set at 60 bpm, the warrior’s leitmotif is of a trudging nature to reflect the actions on
screen. The sluggish and plodding rhythm steps in tandem with the footsteps of the warrior to
underscore the tired and weariness of The Warrior. Although not every step is synchronised
to the music, the few clear points of synchronisation is enough to suggest to the audience of
the music’s association to the actions of The Warrior; that the music is supportive and
complementary to the film.
The selection of the tempo at 60 bpm is also a deliberate choice to enhance the lumbering
nature of the warrior’s footsteps. These heavy footsteps are further suggested musically to the
audience by the loud dynamic choice. The choice of having the second Violin and Viola in
pizzicato ostinato in the higher register builds tension that acts as a tool to understand the
inner thoughts of The Warrior as tense and lost. The Violoncello doubles the Contrabasso in
a low drone even suggesting the underlying terror that the Warrior might perhaps be feeling
as he finds himself lost on this strange island. And at 02:23 to 02:26 the dynamics tapers off
as the Warrior falls asleep to make way for the entrance of the opening of the maiden’s
leitmotif entrance. In examples 2.18.1 and 2.18.2, examples on how Steiner achieves similar
effects with the Voyager leitmotif and Charlotte’s leitmotif.
40
Example 2.18.140
The chromatic voyager

melodic leitmotif and
syncopated rhythm
when imposed over
Charlotte’s leitmotif,
gives a sense of
dragging and
uncertainty as the
tonality shifts with a
Example 2.18.241 major to minor duality.
This gives an overall
depressing quality to
the leitmotif,
complementing
Charlotte’s mood and
actions.
02:31 Maiden’s Leitmotif – Clarinet (Suggestive)
At 02:31, the Clarinet was heard before an actual wind instrument, what might be the Aulos,
was being seen. This was to pre-empt the entrance of the wind instrument used on screen and
at the same time acted as a suggestive mickey-mousing of the Clarinet to the on screen wind
instrument being played. By doing so, I tied the appearance of the Clarinet of my music to the
happenings in the film without having to actually synchronise the music note for note and
built a bridge between the real and fictional world so that the audience can immerse in this
40
Daubney, Kate, Max Steiner’s Now, Voyager A Film Score Guide, (Westport, Connecticut [USA]:
Greenwood Press 2000), p. 59
41
ibid.
41
film and suspend their beliefs. And as the film moves along, the suggestive synchronisation
will be subconsciously embedded into the audiences’ mind and allows them to make sense of
the music’s role in the film.
02:43 Harp’s synchronisation to the lyre on screen (Suggestive)
At this moment of the film, the Harp’s playing is synched to the maiden’s playing of the Lyre
on screen. After this initial moment of synchronisation, the Harp’s music no longer synchs
note for note but rather like the Clarinet, becomes part of the on screen happenings with the
synchronised moments becoming subtle and suggestive.
02:57 Vibraphone’s synchronisation to the hand cymbals on screen (Suggestive)
One of the Maiden’s instrument was the Hand Cymbal, but after much deliberation, I chose
to use the Vibraphone as part of the ensemble instead of Hand Cymbals to avoid excessive
mickey-mousing and at the same time maintain the overall mysterious mood of the film. At
02:57 the action of the maiden playing the Hand Cymbals and the sounding of the
Vibraphone was closely synched to put in place the substitution of the Cymbals with the
more atmospheric Vibraphone. There were other points of synchronised playing against the
on screen actions but spaced out. This was purposefully set in place as is with the Clarinet
and Harp. But most importantly, it was the suggestiveness of the synchronisation that allows
and invites the audience to play a more active role while watching the film; the
encouragement to imagine and give meaning to the silent actions.
03:30 Flute’s synchronisation to the appearance of the 2nd wind instrument on screen
A second Aulos appears on screen at 03:32 and the sounding of the Flute at 03:30 heralds the
arrival of this second wind instrument while at the same time announcing the entrance of a
new character, Calypso. Having introduced the Flute at this point, it was now possible to
establish the presence of both wind instruments without the need for mickey-mousing any
42
further. This paved the way for the entry of the short duet of the Flute and the Clarinet at
03:38 as the presence of both instruments are now firmly placed in context.
03:44 Strings return joining in duet with the flute in a lyrical melody
The strings return with the awakening of the warrior from his sleep. But instead of playing
out the Warrior’s own leitmotif, the strings join in a lyrical duet with the Flute in mensurated
canon a 3rd below the Flute’s melody line. In this segment of the music, the strong rhythmic
leitmotif of the Warrior was exchanged for a lyrical melody line to signify the change in the
warrior’s emotions and feelings; from an exhausted warrior to a love struck lover. In
Steiner’s King Kong, the giant gorilla had two leitmotifs. One aggressive chromatic leitmotif
that was heard throughout the film at appropriate moments and the other was the romantic
leitmotif that peels away Kong’s aggressive outer shell to reveal his tenderness for Ann
Darrow.42 Similarly, my switching of the Warrior’s original heavy rhythmical leitmotif for a
lyrical duet with Calypso was to portray the tender moment between the Warrior and
Calypso.
04:16 Cyclops’ leitmotif
The Cyclops’ leitmotif itself was the only motif that has no specific points of
synchronisation. The motif is chromatic in nature to represent the Cyclops as ‘the other’ and
the potentially dangerous nature it may exhibit. It is rhythmic to complement the movement
of the Cyclops’ hand. And as the rhythm intensifies, so does the Warrior’s reaction to the
encounter of the Cyclops. The rhythmic motif continues to increase in intensity to build
tension and at the same time brings the Warriors initial fear of the Cyclops to the surface
musically. This lets the audience participate in the Warrior’s fight against the Cyclops, both
42 42
43
internally as they feel the tension climaxing until the moment of catharsis, on the third beat of
bar 132, and visually as they watch the film, thus enhancing the audiences’ experience.
04:49 Spearing of the Cyclops’ eye
The spearing of the Cyclops’ eye was closely synchronised against the music. The point of
impact was the culmination of tension and intensity built up from the start of the Cyclops’
rhythmic leitmotif. The highly strung nature of the moment was reinforced by the increase in
dynamics from fff to ffff with the strings all doing tremolos against the fluttertongue of the
Flute and the ebbing Horn. The result of this is a moment of catharsis where the all the fear,
tension, and intensity that has been building up since the entrance of the Cyclops in the film
is released via the Warrior’s physical triumph over the cyclops as well as a musical catharsis
that leads into the return of the Warrior’s leitmotif, slightly varied in rhythm, tempo,
dynamic, and mood.
44
Example 2.19
Point of synchronisation on
the 3rd beat of bar 132 with
the strings in tremolo and
increasing in dynamic to
parallel the Warrior’s triump
over the Cyclops.
05:01, 05:03, and 05:04 Warrior dismissing the Cyclops in triumphant victory
In these three exact points of the film, the music and the action of the Warrior raising his arm
in a triumphant gesture was closely synchronised to emphasis his victory over the mysterious
island’s supernatural beings. The three points were important as they relate to the audience
the Warrior’s emotions and feelings and how different they were as compared to the original
version of the Warrior’s leitmotif at the start. The variation and addition of new musical
elements in this section of the music informs the audience the change in the Warrior’s mood
and character, enhancing the experience of watching a silent movie.
45
Example 2.20.1
The original
Warrior’s
leitmotif.
Example 2.20.2
New musical material

The Warrior’s leitmotif varied in synchronised to the Warrior’s
rhythmic, dynamics and texture. dismissing waves of his arm in
triumphant.
46
Variation of leitmotif’s return
In keeping with Wagner’s treatment of the leitmotif, each leitmotif’s return in my
composition was varied slightly by means of rhythm, dynamics, instrumentation, and tempo
while retaining the essence of the origin. New material, when added, was carefully
constructed using existing rhythmic structure and by varying the melodic line already in
place. In doing so, the composition was injected with new musical interest without losing the
sense of unity.
Example 2.21.1
The original Calypso’s Leitmotif.
Example 2.21.2
The returned of Calypso’s leitmotif with new musical material and a slightly varied rhythm.
47
Example 2.22.1
The original Warrior’s Leitmotif.
Example 2.22.2
The return of Warrior’s leitmotif varied rhythmically.
Using existing leitmotif in actual music setting to compose the Dance

(Waltz) movement
The first movement of the composition is a Waltz. This movement was composed based on
existing materials in the actual music setting of the film with insertion of some new musical
materials. The reason for composing the Waltz after having composed the setting piece was
to maintain the unity of both movements as one complete set of music, and at the same time
like a prelude, introduces the audience to the soundworld that was created to complement the
film. By using musical material already established in the second movement, the original
48
mood and atmosphere of the film was retained. In doing so, the film would be framed by
music that informs the audience about the film and thus brings music and drama together as
one element, as envisioned by Wagner in his strive to create the perfect unity of all elements
of art; Gesamtkunstwerk. Also by doing so, snippets of the character’s leitmotif, namely
Calypso’s and the Warrior’s and thus introduced the leitmotifs to the audience before their
appearance, hence creating a sense of unity and gives purpose to the Waltz when performed
as part of the film viewing experience. In Steiner’s film score to Now, Voyager, Tina’s theme
appears when Jerry was showing Charlotte his family photos. The theme then retreats and
only resurfaced when she sees Tina at Cascade. The connection between the 2 women was
hinted by the elements of Tina’s theme.43 It was based on Steiner’s manner of handling
Tina’s theme entrance that prompted me into linking the 2 movements through the leitmotifs
of Calypso and the Warrior.
Example 2.2344
Tina’s original theme that was transposed a semi-tone higher on its return after many small-
scale repetitions.45
The choice of tonality of the Waltz was also based on the tonality of the second movement.
The Waltz starts in C Phrygian b4th for the introduction, creating an atmospheric and
mysterious mood that hints of the supernatural nature of the film before moving into Ab
43
Daubney, Kate, Max Steiner’s Now, Voyager A Film Score Guide, (Westport, Connecticut [USA]:
Greenwood Press 2000), p. 60
44
ibid.
45
ibid.
49
major for the actual waltz. The choice of Ab major was not a random one but a decision
based on the fact that C Phrygian b4th and Ab major share the same key signature. By just
shifting my root note from C to Ab, the tonality shifts from one to the other seamlessly.
Another important reason was that the 2nd movement starts in C Locrian. With the Waltz
firmly establishing the C Phrygian b4th in the introduction of the movement, it was easy to
modulate to C Locrian without effort; the modulation from Ab major to C Locrian was just a
matter of adding Gb. And as both the introduction of the waltz and the 2nd movement has C
as the root note, it would therefore not be jarring to the audience’s ears to make that
modulation from Ab to C.
Acoustic setting of performance and Studio recording
The music was composed with the ideal that it could be performed both in a recording studio
and acoustically on stage with a conductor. This was one of the reasons why the
instrumentation was only for an ensemble of ten instruments instead of a full orchestra that
would be usual for most modern film music. The first movement should ideally be performed
to a black screen and the conductor having slight freedom to conduct with rubato as long as
the music setting to the film is performed as indicated in the conductor’s score; hence the
absence of hit points in the first movement.
Acoustically on stage with a technician taking control of the film play:
The conductor should be facing the screen with full view of the film, ideally without
obstructing the audiences’ view of the film. Taking into account that this might mean that the
conductor might be positioned a distance away from the screen, it would be beneficial that
the conductor has a screen on his conducting stand where he can keep track of the film as he
conducts the ensemble. The video should have the runtime displayed to facilitate the
50
conductor in making sure that the important hit points of the synchronisation would take as
specified in the conductor’s score.
The musicians should be positioned to allow full eye-contact with each other and the
conductor and a more intimate set up for maximum interaction between musicians and
conductor. If possible, the musicians should ideally have the view of the film. If the position
of the musicians does not allow them to do so, it would be beneficial to have tablets running
the film as it allows the musicians to keep track of the film’s development in terms of the
mood and character for a more holistic performance experience. (See Appendix 1)
Acoustically on stage with the conductor controlling the film play:
In the absence of a technician, the conductor should take full control of the film play through
the use of a computer system linked to the film projector. In this case, it would the conductor
will have full control of the performance and possible for the first movement to be performed
without the restrain of a running black screen. The first movement could be performed to a
still black screen, allowing the conductor much freedom in the expression of the Waltz
through application of rubato in the performance. The conductor can then hit the play button
after the performance of the Waltz and screen the film.
The conductor should also have another screen running the film with the runtime running
underneath on his conductor stand so that he can focus on the score and keep track of the hit
points arrival without distraction. Like in the previous performance setting, the musicians
should be positioned in a more intimate setting to allow full eye-contact with each other and
the conductor and with a view of the film. If that is not possible it would be beneficial to have
tablets running the film for the musician’s benefit. (See Appendix 2)
In both acoustic setting, if the stage and venue size allows, it may even be possible to have
the musicians positioned at different ends of the stage or in the box seats for a stereo
51
performance as opposed to the usual intimate setting. However, this will require more
coordination between technicians and musicians as the further away the musicians are from
the conductor, the more assistance they would need to make sure that the performance is well
timed and flawless. This setting will require more technology support and rehearsal time to
sort of the finer details and necessary technical assistance. (See Appendix 3)
In a recording studio:
In the recording studio setting, the conductor should have the film screening in front of him
on a big screen while a small screen with the film and the runtime running attached to his
conductor’s stand. And as there are studio technicians to help with the editing of the final
recording and production of the film, the conductor should have full autonomy in the
performance of the 1st movement for freedom of expression, a luxury only available in a
recording studio setting.
The musicians should be positioned facing the conductor and each should have a screen
attached to their music stands with the film running as they perform the music that was set to
the film. In this setting, the musicians can be spaced out with microphones positioned to
capture the performance. And as editing and sound engineering would be available, it will not
be particularly necessary to have the musicians positioned in a special manner to achieve a
stereo recording. (See Appendix 4)
52
Conclusion
From the start of this research project on how Wagner’s Leitmotif has influenced and found a
foothold in modern day film music, it has been most educational and informative. Not only
the research of the compositional technique itself and the employment of the technique, but
also how such a simple tool can be effective in creating a musical platform from which the
audience could engage with the characters on screen more intimately; as Joe mentioned in the
introduction of Wagner & Cinema ‘...the enhancement of the audience’s “immersive
experience” – or what Theodor Adorno calls phastasmagoria.’46 The findings of this research
has given answers as to how audio icons were created and the role of music in a film’s
screening, be it complimentary or at times, contradicting to provide tension or to provide the
audience with an insight to the character’s inner thought which might otherwise remain
unheard.47
Most relevant to my main area of research was how the leitmotif was able to represent a
particular character in a film and that when employed effectively, was able to bring across the
character’s mood and personality, especially in silent movies. During the era of silent movies,
it was the music that provided the audience with a means to suspense their beliefs and
immerse in the film’s storyline. However, the early complements were usually improvised
and at times may detract from the film’s original plot. This problem was addressed during
Hollywood’s Golden Age where film music composers such as Max Steiner, Erich Korngold,
and Miklós Rózsa were able to use the leitmotif technique to provide the audience with an
audio signpost to focus on. It was this finding that built the foundation of my composition.
46
Joe, Jeongwon & Gilman, Sander L. (ed.), Wagner & Cinema, (Bloomington, Indiana [USA]: Indiana
University Press 2010), p. 2
47
As in the scene in the film Spellbound where the protagonist, John Ballantyne’s inner psychosis is brought to
the surface via the Theremin, which was suggestive of insanity and a psychotic nature buried within. The timbre
of the Theremin was the effective tool in bringing the audience closer to the character John’s hidden thoughts
and this Theremin motif was replayed in with variations of dynamic and instrumentation to emphasis the
presence of John’s psychiatric problem underneath.
53
Also the research into the various methods of synchronising music to film, by the means of
click track, or in modern days the SMPTE Timecode method gave me with the idea of how to
synchronise my composition to the film I chose.
However, as the film was an online archive and in mp4 format, I was unable to synchronise
the music to the film to the exact millisecond. But using the film’s runtime and Sibelius’
Timeline panel, I was able to work around my limitation to sync my composition to the film
as accurately as I possibly could. The obstacle that presented itself to me in this project
proved to be more of an encouragement in choosing techniques from my research that would
be of assistance. In this case, the concept of both the click track and the SMPTE Timecode
was the basis of how I synced my music to the film. In contrast to the complicated
calculations of the actual Timecode system, I employed the idea into using the tempo of my
music to code the time frames, and using Sibelius’ timeline as the basis of my click track, I
was able to sync the music to film with much accuracy for music and drama to come together
as one.
Ultimately, if I had the chance to do it again in the future, I would have preferred to work
with access to the actual film and script to be able to focus on the crucial hit-points where it is
important for the music and action on screen to be synchronised. Also it would allow me to
make a more informed decision on the actual length of each leitmotif, pace the music better,
and have more precision in the process of composition. Despite the inconvenience, it was still
possible to compose and sync the music as close as possible to the change of scenes.
This project’s research aim was to compose music using the leitmotif technique to join music
and drama as one complete artwork and with this aim in mind, I would conclude that the
project’s goal has been met. The 4 leitmotifs which I have composed for the characters of the
film were distinctive and as with Wagner’s treatment of the technique, varied upon each
return while keeping the original integrity. Although a longer film might have provided me
54
with more room for developing each leitmotif as one would expect from Wagner’s own
compositions like Tristen and Isolde and Des Ring des Nibelungen, the film’s runtime was
long enough for me to apply my research findings effectively. As the main aim of the project
was to allow me to take a closer study of the specific compositional tool chosen, I would
qualify this as a successful research project in terms of both the theoretical and the practical
employment of my research findings.
55
Appendix 1 (Stage)
Screen
Harp Vibraphone
Flute Bb Clarinet
Viola Horn in F
56
Violin 2 Contrabasso
Violin 1
Violoncello Legend:
tablet
Conductor for musicians
to watch the
film from
Appendix 2 (Stage)
Screen
Harp Vibraphone
Flute Bb Clarinet
Viola Horn in F
57
Violin 2 Contrabasso Legend:
tablet
for musicians
Violin 1 to watch the
film from
Violoncello
Computer
Conductor from which
conductor
controls the
Appendix 3 (Stage)
Box Seat
Screen Box Seat
Bb Clarinet Horn in F
Harp
Vibraphone
58 Viola
Flute
Violin 2 Stage Contrabasso
Violin 1 Legend:
Violoncello
tablet
to watch the
film from
Appendix 4 (Studio)
Screen
Harp Vibraphone
Flute Bb Clarinet
59
Viola Horn in F
Violin 2 Contrabasso
Violin 1 Violoncello
Legend:
tablet
to watch the
film from
Bibliography
Books
1. Adorno, Theodor W., Essays on Music, (California [USA]: University of California

Press 2002)
2. Adorno, Theodor, In Search of Wagner, (London: Verso 2005)
3. Buhler, James, Flinn, Caryl, and Neumeyer, David (ed.), Music and Cinema,
(Hanover [USA]: Wesleyan University Press 2000)
4. Cooke, Mervyn, A History of Film Music, (New York [USA]: Cambridge University
Press 2008)
5. Donnelly, K. L. (ed.), Film Music Critical Approaches, (Edinburgh: Edinburgh

University Press 2001)
6. Grey, Thomas (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Wagner, (New York [USA]:
Cambridge University Press 2008)
7. Joe, Jeongwon & Gilman, Sander, L. (ed.), (Bloomington, Indiana [USA]: Indiana
University Press 2010)
8. Prendergast, Roy, M., Film Music a neglected art, (New York [USA]: New York
University 1977)
9. Ventura, David, Film Music in Focus, (London: Rhinegold 2008)
10. Wierzbicki, James, Film Music: A History, (New York [USA]: Routledge 2009)
Journals
1. Anderson, Tim, ‘Reforming “Jackass Music: The Problematic Aesthetics of Early
American Film Music’, Cinema Journal, 37/1, (Autumn 1997), pp. 3-22
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1225687 - date accessed 10/06/2016
2. Brown, Royal, S., ‘How Not to Think Film Music’, Music and the Moving Image, 1/1,
(Spring 2008), pp. 2-18
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/musimoviimag.1.10002 - date assessed
10/06/2016
3. Gorbman, Claudia, ‘Narrative Film Music’, Yale French Studies, No. 60

Cinema/Sound (1980), pp. 183-203
60
4. Green, Jessica, ‘Understanding the Score: Film Music Communication to and
Influencing the Audience’, The Journal of Aesthetic Education, 44/4, (Winter 2010),
pp. 81-94
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/jaesteduc.44.40081 - date accessed 21/10/2015
5. Knapp, Raymond, “Selbst dann bin ich die Welt”: On the Subjective-Musical Basis of
Wagner’s Gesamtkunstwelt, 19th Century Music, 29/2, (Fall 2005), pp. 142-160
http://www/jstor.org/stable/10.1525/nem.2005.29.2.142 - date accessed 23/04/2016
6. Neumeyer, David, ‘Diegetic/Nondiegetic: A Theoretical Model’, Music and the

Moving Image, 2/1, (Spring 2009), pp. 26-39
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23/04/2016
7. Paulin, Scott, D., “Cinematic” Music: Analogies, Fallacies, and the Case of Debussy,
Music and the Moving Image, 3/1, (Spring 2010), pp. 1-21
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10/06/2016
8. Paulus, Irene, ‘William versus Wagner or an Attempt at Linking Musical Epics’,

International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music, 31/2, (December
2000), pp. 153-184
9. Rosen, Philip, ‘Adorno and Film Music: Theoretical Notes on Composing for the
Films’, Yale French Studies, No. 60 Cinema/Sound (1980), pp. 157-182
10. Smith, Jeff, ‘Bridging the Gap: Reconsidering the Border between Diegetic and
Nondiegetic Music’, Music and the Moving Image, 2/1, (Spring 2009), pp. 1-25
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/musimoviimg.2.1.0001 - date accessed
10/06/2016
11. Stromgren, Richard, L., ‘The Moving Picture World of W. Stephen, Bush’, Film
History, 2/1, (Winter 1988), pp. 13-22
12. Tan, Siu-Lan, Spackman Matthew, P. and Bezdek, Matthew, A., ‘Viewer’s
Interpretations of Film Characters’ Emotions: Effects of Presenting Film Music
Before or After a Character is Shown’, Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary
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Online Resources
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accessed 26/04/2016
2. Ashley, Tim, ‘Korngold, Erich Wolfgang’, The Oxford Companion to Music

accessed 23/04/2016
3. Carroll, Brendan, B., ‘Korngold, Erich Wolfgang’, Grove Music Online

http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com:80/subscriber/article/grove/music/15390 - date
accessed 23/04/2016
4. Cooke, Mervyn, ‘Film Music’, Grove Music Online

accessed 01/04/2016
5. Daubney, Kate, with Bradford, Janet, B., ‘Steiner, Max’, Grove Music Online
accessed 23/04/2016
6. Millington, Barry, ‘Gesamtkunstwerk’, Grove Music Online

http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com:80/subscriber/article/grove/music/O011027 - date
accessed 18/04/2016
7. Millington, Barry, ‘Wagner: (1) Richard Wagner’, Grove Music Online

http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com:80/subsciber/article/grove/music/29769pg1 - date
accessed 18/04/2016
8. Montecchi, Giordano, ‘Rota, Nino’, Grove Music Online

accessed 26/04/2016
9. Palmer, Christopher and Marks, Martin, ‘Williams, John’, Grove Music Online
accessed 28/04/2016
10. Parker, Roger, ‘leitmotif’, The Oxford Companion to Music

accessed 01/04/2016
11. Steiner, Fred, Marks, Martin/Goldmark Daniel (1-5, 7), Goldmark, Daniel (6, 9),
Lerner Neil (8), ‘Film Music’, Grove Music Online
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date accessed 01/04/2016
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accessed 28/04/2016
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13. Whittall, Arnold, ‘Leitmotif’, Grove Music Online
accessed 01/04/2016
Musical Resources
1. Daubney, Kate, Max Steiner’s Now, Voyager A Film Score Guide, (Westport,
Conneticut [USA]: Greenwood Press 2000)
2. Halfyard, Janet, K., Danny Elfman’s Batman A Film Score Guide, (Lanham,
Maryland [USA]: Scarecrow Press 2004)
3. Sciannameo, Franco, Nino Rota’s The Godfather Trilogy A Film Score Guide,
(Lanham, Maryland [USA]: Scarecrow Press 2010)
4. Winters, Ben, Erich Wolfgang Korngold’s The Adventures of Robin Hood A Film
Score Guide, (Lanham, Maryland [USA]: Scarecrow Press 2007)
Film Resources
1. King Kong (1933), Max Steiner
2. Now, Voyager (1942), Max Steiner
3. The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938), Erich Wolfgang Korngold
4. The Godfather Trilogy, Nino Rota
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Wagners Leitmotif and How It Has Influen

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Liverpool Hope University

Extended Research Project

Written by: Wei Ping Wee (12001481)

Course title: MA Music

of reminiscent themes in the scores of earlier opera composers...”1

its identity if modified on subsequent appearances, whose purpose is to represent or

in rhythm, intervallic structure, harmony, orchestration or accompaniment, and may also be

combined with other leitmotifs in order to suggest a new dramatic situation.’2

portfolio of compositions. These methods included the initial desk-bound research on

and the synchronisation of music to film.

in the composition of an original set of music to an out-of-copyright silent film from an

be addressed accordingly. Therefore, this research would be concluded with a practice-based

completion of the portfolio.

Silent Film Music Accompaniment

his book, Composing for the Film:

theatres would usually employ a pianist or organist to provide live accompaniment by

between scenes to prevent abrupt and awkward jumps in-between.8

in his book Footnotes to the Film:

Hollywood’s Golden Age

twenty-one were musical films – a stark contrast to previous years.13

‘“Underscoring,” or interpolating musical backgrounds in talking pictures, which is coming

character’s otherwise hidden inner mind and thoughts to the audience.

latent in the image.’20

understanding of the intended message to be delivered to the audience. While conflicting

providing the emotions and mood underlying.22

message of the scene.

Post Golden Age

genres found their way into film scores.24

all normality becomes believable and real.

effective a tool as the instrumental film music.

characters on screen emotionally and psychologically.

Example 2.129 Hunding’s leitmotif can be seen in this

Scope of my Researched Composition

Synopsis of Film and Instrumentation

There are 4 main characters in this film namely:

instrumentation was crucial.

Restricting instrumentation to create a recognisable Soundworld for each

The introduction of the 1st

At Letter C, bar 36 onwards,

In Letter I, bar 119, the Flute

complement to the film itself.

character. However, Korngold allowed the themes to ‘undergo a certain amount of

film.’35 (see example 2.4.1 and 2.4.2 on Robin’s theme)

part of The Cyclops’ world.

This anticipation works as the change in instrumentation subconsciously informs the

come together as one, supporting each other as one total artwork.

Using Timbre, Texture, Rhythm, and Dynamics to create and complement

The leitmotif of the warrior is paced

Calypso: Flute, Clarinet, Vibraphone and Harp

As Calypso and her

Maidens: Clarinet, Vibraphone and Harp

Calypso’s beautiful maidens

The Horn represents the terrifying nature of the

Maidens and Warrior: Clarinet, Vibraphone, Harp and Strings

The scene where the

Calypso and Maidens: Flute, Clarinet, Vibraphone and Harp

Calypso and her

Calypso and Warrior: Flute, Vibraphone, Harp and Strings

The ‘love scene’ where

Cyclops and Warrior: Flute, Horn and Strings

All the supernatural beings are

Music creating atmosphere to complement action on screen

Unnecessary Noises,’ MPW, September 9, 1911, issue 690:

ensemble or orchestra is negated.