Definition of matrix and basic operations

Definition: A rectangular arrangement of mn numbers into “m ” horizontal and “n ” vertical enclosed by a

pair of brackets [ ] or ()such as

[ ]
a11 a 12 … a1n
a21 a 22 ⋯ a2 n =¿ is called an m×n read as m by n matrix of order m×n.
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
am 1 am 2 ⋯ amn
The objects in the array are called the entries or elements in the matrix.
Note:
 Matrices usually denoted by capital letters like A, B, C, etc. or [ a ij ] mxn.

 We call a ijthe ij -entry or ij -component of the matrix. i.e the element which lies in the i throw and the
th
j column.
 If the matrix has m rows and n columns. We say that it is an m by n matrix ( or mxn ) matrix.
 The order of a matrix is the number of rows and columns it has.
Definition: If A and B are matrices of the same size, then A=B where they have all corresponding
entries are equal.i .e . , A=B if and only if a ij=bijfor all i and j .

[ ]
1 3
Consider the matrices, A= [ ] [ ]
1 3
x 5
, B=
1 3
4 5
and C= 4 5 .
0 0
a) If A=B , find the value of x ?
b) Are B=C ?
Example: finda 11 ,a 23 and the order of A , if A is equal to
a. [ 1]
b. [ 00 21]

[ ]
1 0 0
0 1 0 Example: Form a 4 by 5 matrix, B, such that bij = i + j.
0 0 1
Solution: Since the number of rows is specified first, this matrix has four rows and five
columns.

[ ][ ]
b11 b 12 b13 b14 b 15 2 3 4 5 6
b b 22 b23 b24 b 25 3 4 5 6 7
B= 21
b31 b 32 b33 b34 b 35 4 5 6 7 8
b41 b 42 b43 b 44 b 45 5 6 7 8 9
= .

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 Algebra of Matrices
1. Addition of matrix
Let A and B be two matrices of the same size (order), then the addition of A and B denoted by A+ B is a

[ ]
a11 a12 ⋯ a1n
a21 a22 ⋯ a2n
matrix obtained by adding corresponding entries of A and B. Let A= ,
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
a m 1 am 2 … amn

[ ] [ ]
b 11 b12 … b1 n a11 +b 11 a12+b 12 … a 1 n+ b1 n
b 21 b22 … b2 n a 21+b 21 a 22+b 22 … a 2 n+ b2 n
B= then A+ B=
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
bm 1 b m 2 … b mn am 1 +b m 1 a m 2+b m 2 … a mn+ bmn

[ ] [ ] [ ]
1 2 4 2 −1 3 2 3
Example: Consider the following matrices, A= 2 3 1 , B= 2 4 2 ,C= 4 0 . Find if
5 0 3 3 6 1 5 1
possible,
a) A+ B b) B+C
Solution:

[ ][ ][ ][ ]
1 2 4 2 −1 3 1+2 2+(−1) 4+3 3 1 7
a) A+ B= 2 3 1 + 2 4 2 = 2+2 3+4 1+2 = 4 7 3
5 0 3 3 6 1 5+3 0+6 3+1 8 6 4
b) B+C is impossible since B and C have different size.
Note: If A is any matrix, the negative of A denoted by –A is the matrix obtained by replacing each entry
in A by its negative.

Example: if A= [−30 7 6
4 −5 ]
,−A=
3 −7 −6
0 −4 5 [ ]
Properties of addition of matrices
1) Matrix addition is commutative. A+ B=B+ A if A and B have the same size.
2) Matrix additive is associative: A+ ( B+C )=( A+ B ) +C
3) Existence of additive identity: The zero matrix is the addition identity of any matrix A
i .e . , A+ 0= A=0+ A
4) Existence of additive inverse: If A is any matrix, then A+ (− A )=0 . − A is the additive inverse
of A and vice versa.
2. Subtraction of matrix
Definition: Let A and B be two matrices of the same order. Then A – B, mean A + (-B). In other words,
to find A – B we subtract each entry of B from the corresponding entry of A.

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 [ ] [ ] [ ][ ]
4 −1 0 2 4−0 −1−2 4 −3
A = 2 3 B = 5 −2 A−B = 2−5 3−(−2) = −3 5
: let
5 −7 , 6 1 then
5−6 −7−1 −1 −8

Example

3. Multiplication of matrix by scalar

Let A be an m×n matrix and k be a real number. Then, the scalar multiplication of A by k is denoted by
kA, is a matrix with order m×n obtained by multiplying each entry of A by k.

[ ] [ ]
a11 a12 … a 1n ka11 k a12 … ka 1 n
a21 a22 … a 2n ka21 ka22 … ka 2 n
Let A= , then kA=
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
a m 1 am 2 … amn kam 1 kam 2 … kamn

Example: If
A=
[02 2 3
1 4 ]
and B =
7 6 3
1 4 5 [ ] . Find
2 A +3 B
.

Solution:
2 A =2
[ 0 2 3
2 1 4
=
0 4
4 2 ] [ 8]
6
and
3B =3
[ 7 6 3
1 4 5
=
] [
21 18 9
3 12 15 ]
2 A +3 B=
[ 0 4
4 2 8] [ 3
6
+
21 18 9
12 15
=
] [
21 22
7 14 23 ]
15

Properties of scalar multiplication

1) Let A and B are two matrices of the same size and k is scalar, then k ( A+ B ) =kA +kB
2) Let k and r are two scalars and A is a matrix, then
a) ( k + r ) A=kA +rA
b) ( kr ) A=k ( rA )=r (kA)
4. Multiplication of matrices
Definition: let A be n × m matrix and B be m × p matrix. The product AB isn × p matrix.
AB=(ab)ij =aik ⋅ bkj
The product AB of matrices A and B can be defined under the condition that the number of columns of A
must be equal to the number of rows of B.
Example:

[]
a
1) Let A=[ 1 2 3 ] ∧B= b , then find AB
c

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 [ ]
2 2 5
2) Let A= [
1 2 3
3 1 2 ]
, B= 1 3 1 and C=
0 4 3
3 1 3
1 2 3 [ ]
, then finda ¿ A . A b ¿ A . B c ¿ A .C

Solution:

[]
a
1) AB=[ 1 2 3 ] b =[ a+2 b+3 c ]
c
2) a ¿ A . A is impossible since number of columns of A is not equal to number of rows of A.

][ ]
2 2 5
b ¿ AB= [
1 2 3
3 1 2
1 3 1
0 4 3

¿
[13 ×2+2
×2+1 ×1+2 × 0 3 ×2+1 ×3+ 2× 4 3 ×5+1 ×1+2 ×3 ]
×1+3 × 0 1 ×2+2 ×3+3 × 4 1 ×5+2 ×1+3 ×3

¿
[2+6 +1+2+ 00 2+6+6+12 5+2+ 9
3+8 15+1+6 ]=
[ 7 17 22 ]
4 20 16

c ¿ A .C is impossible(undefined).
Notes:
1) If a matrix A=(aij )m × n and ¿ ¿ , then C= AB=(c ik )m × p .
2) For any matrices A and B, it is usually the case that AB≠ BA .
3) AB=0 doesn’t necessarily imply A=0 orB=0 .
4) AB= AC doesn’t necessarily imply B=C .
Example:

[ ] [ ]
1 −1 1 1 2 3
1. Let A= −3 2 −1 B= 2 4 6 then AB=0
−2 1 0 1 2 3

2. Let A= [ 11 22] B=[ 00 10] C=[−21 −11 ] ,then AB=[ 00 11]= AC .

Properties of matrix multiplication
If A, B and C are any matrices and if I is the identity matrix, then
1) A ( BC )=( AB ) C 3) A ( B+C )=AB+ AC
2) IA= AI =A
( A+ B ) C=AC +BC Types of matrixes
Row matrix: a matrix having only a single row, but it may contain several columns.
Column matrix: matrix having only a single column, but it may contain several rows.
Note: the above two types of matrices are also called vector.

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Zero matrix(O): a matrix such that a ij=0for alli , j. It looks like this: [ o0 00] .

Square matrix: a matrix which has the same number of rows and columns. Its general form is then

[ ]
a 11 a12 ⋯ a1n
a21 a22 … a2n
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
an 1 an 2 ⋯ ann

The elementsa 11, a 22 , a 33 ,…,a nn lie on and form the diagonal, also called the main diagonal or principal
diagonal.
Diagonal matrix: a square matrix is said to be diagonal matrix if all entries out of the main diagonal
are zeroes.
The square matrix A=(aij ) is diagonal matrix if a ij=0 for i ≠ j.
Note:
 If A is a square matrix, then the trace of A , denoted by tr (A ), is defined to be the sum of the entries
on the main diagonal of A . The trace of A is undefined if A is not a square matrix.

[ ]
3 4 7
Example: A= 6 6 1 the entries a 11=3 , a22=6 , a33=8 consists the main diagonal.
2 5 8
tr (A )=a 11 +a22 +a33=3+6+8=17.
Scalar matrix: a diagonal matrix in which all its diagonal elements are equal is called scalar matrix. The
square matrix A=( aij ) is scalar matrix if a ij=0 for i ≠ j anda ii=a jj for all i∧ j .

[ ]
−4 0 0
Example: A= 0 −4 0 is scalar matrix.
0 0 −4
Upper triangular matrix: a square matrix is said to be an upper triangular matrix if all entries below the
main diagonal are zeroes. That is, a ij=0for all i> j .

[ ]
3 2 6
Example: A= 0 4 3 is upper triangular matrix.
0 0 −2
Lower triangular matrix: a square matrix is said to be a lower triangular matrix if all entries above the
main diagonal are zeroes. That is, a ij=0 for all i< j .

[ ]
0 0 0
Example: A= 2 0 0 is lower triangular matrix.
0 1 −2
Identity Matrix or Unit Matrix: A square matrix is said to be identity matrix or unit matrix if all its main
diagonal entries are 1’s and all other entries are 0’s.

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i.e., Let
A=( a ij )
{1 if i= j
be a square matrix. A is an identity matrix if and only if A=( aij )n ×n = 0 if i≠ j

Note: An identity matrix of order n is denoted by In or more simply by I.

[ ]
1 0 0

For example,
I3 = 0 1 0
0 0 1 is identity matrix of order 3.
( )
I 2= 1 0
0 1 is identity matrix of order 2.
Transpose of a matrix:
let A=(a)ij be m ×n matrix, the transpose of A is n × m matrix obtained from A by interchanging rows to

columns and columns to rows. Transpose of A is denoted by A' ∨ A t=(a) ji of order n × m. Thus, the first

row of A is the first column of At and the second row of A is the second column of At and so on.

[ ][ ]
a11 a12 … a 1n a11 a 21 … am 1
a21 a22 ⋯ a2n t
,A =
a12 a 22 ⋯ am 2
Let A=
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
a m 1 am 2 … amn a1 n a2 n … anm

[ ] [] [ ]
−9 0 4 1 −9 5 3
Examples: Let A=[ 1 2 3 ] ∧B= 5 2
t t
8 , then A = 2 and B = 0 2 6 respectively.
3 6 −4 3 4 8 −4
Properties of transpose
1) If A and B have the same size (order), then ( A ± B)t = At ± Bt .

2) For scalar k ,( kA)t =k At .

3) If A is m ×n matrix and B is an n × p , then ( AB)t =Bt At .

t
4) ( A t ) =A
Symmetric matrix: A square matrix A=(aij ) is said to be symmetric matrix if A=A t or equivalently
a ij=a ji for all i∧ j.

[ ] [ ]
2 1 2 2 1 2
t t
Example: let A= 1 0 −3 , A = 1 0 −3 ⟹ A= A . Thus, A is symmetric matrix.
2 −3 6 2 −3 6
Note: Identity matrix is symmetric matrix.
Skew symmetric matrix: A square matrix A=(a¿¿ ij)¿ is said to be skew-symmetric matrix if

A =− A or A=−A . Equivalently a ij=−a ji for each i and j.

t t

Note:
a ii=−aii ⇒ 2 aii =0 or a ii=0 .The diagonal elements of a skew symmetric matrix are entirely
zero.

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 [ ] [ ]
0 5 7 0 −5 −7
t t
Example: let A= −5 0 3 , A = 5 0 −3 ⟹ A = (−1 ) A
−7 −3 0 7 3 0

[ ][ ]
0 5 7 0 −5 −7
t
¿−1 −5 0 3 = 5 0 −3 ⇒ A =− A , Hence A is a skew-symmetric matrix.
−7 −3 0 7 3 0
Properties of symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices
1) For any square matrix, A+ A t is symmetric and A−A t is skew-symmetric matrix.
2) If A and B are
 Two symmetric matrices of the same size, then A+ B s ymmetric matrices.
 Two skew-symmetric matrices of the same size, then A+ Bskew-symmetric matrices.
 A is symmetric then, kA is symmetric where k is scalar.
 A is skew-symmetric then, kA is skew-symmetric where k is scalar.
3) Let A and B be symmetries of the same order, then the product AB is symmetric if and only if
AB=BA
Augmented matrix: a matrix which is obtained by adjoining two matrices that have the same number of

rows. If A= [ 12 21] [ | ]
, then A| I 2=
1 21 0
2 10 1
.

Elementary operations and its properties

Definition: let A be anmxn matrix. The elementary row (or column) operations on matrix A are:
1. Interchanging rows (columns)of A .r i ↔r j.
2. Multiplying row (column) of A by a non-zero scalar (α ≠ 0 ). α r i.
3. Adding a scalar multiple of one row (column) of A to anther row (column) of A. r i +α r j.
Example: Apply elementary row operations on the following matrix until the matrix will be upper
triangular matrix.

[ ] [ ] [ ]
1 3 −1 R → R −R 1 3 −1 1 3 −1
A= 1 2 −4 2 2 1
0 −1 −3 R3 → R 3−9 R2 0 −1 −3
2 −3 4 R3 → R 3−2 R 1 0 −9 6 0 0 33
Row echelon form and row reduced echelon form
Definition: A matrix is in row echelon form if it has the following three properties.
1) All zero rows are below all the none zeroes row.
2) If two successive rows of a matrix are non-zero, then the row with more zeros is below the row
with less zeros (zeros are counted from left to right)
3) All entries in a column below a leading entry are zeroes.

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If a matrix in echelon form satisfies the following additional condition, then it is in reduced echelon form
or row reduced echelon form.
4) The leading entry in each non-zero row is 1.
5) Each leading 1 is the only non-zero entry in its column.

[ ] [ ]
2 3 0 5 2 3 0 5
0 5 −1 6 0 5 −1 6
Examplea ¿ echelon form. b) is not echelon form, b/c 4 should be zero.
0 0 7 −8 0 4 7 −8
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

[ ] [ ]
0 1 2 6 1 0 0 1
c ¿ 0 0 3 5 echelon.d ¿
0 0 0 0
0 1 2 6
0 0 3 5 [ ]
echelon.e ¿ 0 1 0 0 reduced echelon form
0 0 1 2

[ ]
1 0 0 0
f¿ 0 1 2 5 not reduced echelon form since there is 2 in column 3 in addition to 1.
0 0 1 0

[ ] [ ]
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
g¿ reduced echelon form.h ¿ 0 1 2 5 reduced echelon form.
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
Definition of Determinant
If A is a square matrix, then the determinant associated with A is exactly one numerical value which is
called determinant of A.
The determinant of a square matrix A is denoted by det ⁡( A) or |A| (|A| is not absolute value it may be
negative).
Definition: Let A=[ a11 ] be a square matrix of order 1, then the determinant of A is defined as the number
a 11 itself.
| A|=|a11|=a11
Examples:
1) Let A=[ 12 ] , then| A|=12
2) Let A=[−7 ] ,then |A|=−7
Definition: let A be a 2 ×2 matrix of order 2 such that
a 11 a12
A=
a 21 a22 [ a
] | a
,| A|= 11 12 =a11 a22−a12 a21
a21 a 22 |
To find the determinant of a square matrix of order n> 2, we need concept of minor and cofactor of an
element.
Let | A|=|aij| be determinant of order n, minor and cofactor are defined as follow.
Minor of a matrix
The minor of a ij is the determinant that is left by deleting the i th row and the j th column. It is denoted by
M ij .

[ ]
a 11 a12 a 13
Example: A= a 21 a22 a 23
a 31 a32 a 33

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M 11=
a22
a32| a23
a33 | | | | | | | |
a
M 12= 21
a31
a 23
a33
a a a a a
M 13= 21 22 M 21= 12 13 M 22= 11 13
a 31 a32 a32 a 33
a
a31 a33 |
a
M 23= 11
a31| a12
a32 | | | | | | |
a
, M 31= 12
a22
a 13
a 23
a a a
, M 32= 11 13 , M 33= 11 12
a 21 a23
a
a21 a22
The cofactor of a matrix
The cofactor of a ij denoted by C ij is defined by C ij =(−1)i+ j M ij
C 11=M 11 , C12=−M 12 , C 13=M 13 , C 21=−M 21 , C22=M 22 ,C 23=−M 23 ,
C 31=M 31 ,C 32=−M 32 , C 33=M 33

C ij =
{
M ij if i+ j is even
−M ij if i+ jis odd

[ ]
0 1 2
Examples: Evaluate the cofactors of A= 1 2 3
3 1 1
Solution: first find minors.
M 11= |21 31|=2−3=−1 , M =|13 31|=1−9=−8 , M =|13 21|=1−6=−5 ,
12 13

=| |=1−2=−1 , M =| |=0−6=−6 , M =|
3 1|
1 2 0 2 0 1
M 21 22 =0−3=−3 , 23
1 1 3 1
M =|
2 3|
=3−4=−1 , M =|
1 3|
=0−3=−3 , M =|
1 2|
1 2 0 2 0 1
31 32 =0−1=−1 33

Then the cofactor C ij =(−1)i+ j M ij

C 11=M 11 =−1 ,C 12=−M 12=8 ,C 13=M 13=−5 , C21=−M 21=1 , C22=M 22=−6 ,
C 23=−M 23=3 ,C 31=M 31=−1 ,C 32=−M 32=3 ,C 33=M 33=−1
Thus,
C 11=−1 , C12=8 ,C 13=−5 , C21=1 , C22=−6 ,
C 23=3 ,C 31=−1 ,C 32=3 , C33=−1
Definition: if A is a square matrix of order n(n>2), then its determinant may be calculated by
multiplying the entries of any row or column by their cofactors and summing the resulting products.
det ⁡( A)=a11 C 11 +a12 C12 +…+a 1 n C 1 n∨¿
det ⁡( A)=a21 C 21+ a22 C 22+ …+a 2n C 2n ∨¿ ⋮
det ⁡( A)=an 1 C n 1 +an 2 Cn 2 +…+ ann C nn
n n
⟹ detA =∑ aij C ij =∑ aij C ij
i=1 j=1
Remark: The determinant of a matrix is unique and doesn’t depend on the choice of row or column.

[ ]
0 1 2
Example: Find the determinant of the matrices. A= 1 2 3
3 1 1
Solution:
The cofactors of A are:
C 11=(−1) |21 31|=2−3=−1 ,C =(−1) |13 31|=−1 ( 1−9)=8 ,
1 +1
12
1+2

C 13=(−1) |13 21|=1−6=−5 ,C =(−1) |11 21|=−1 ( 1−2)=1 ,

1+3
21
2+1

similarly , C22=−6 ,C 23=3 , C31=−1 , C32=2 , C 33=−1

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detA =a11 C 11 +a 21 C 21+a 31 C31=0 (−1 ) +1 ( 1 )+ 3 (−1 )= 1+ (−3 ) =−2 or
detA =a11 C 11 +a 12 C12 +a 13 C13=0 (1 )+1 ( 8 )+2 (−5 ) =8+ (−10 )=−2
Properties of determinants
We now state some useful properties of determinants. These properties help a good deal in the evaluation
of determinants.
1) The determinant of the identity matrix is 1.
2) The value of determinant remains unchanged if rows are changed into columns and columns into
rows. That is, det ( A )=det ⁡( A t ).
3) The interchange of any two rows or columns, changes only the sign of the determinant.
4) If any of two rows (columns) of a matrix are identical then the determinant is zero.
5) If one of the row (or column) is the scalar product of the other row (or column) of the matrix, then
determinant of the matrix is zero.
6) If B is a matrix results when a single row or column of A is multiplied by a scalar k , then
det ( B )=kdet ( A).
7) If A is a matrix of order n, thendet ( kA )=k n det ⁡( A) .
8) If each element of a row or (column) of a matrix is the sum of two elements, the determinant can
be expressed as the sum of two determinants. That is,
a11 a12 a 13 a11 a12 a 13 a11 a12 a13
| a21 a22 a 23 | = |a21 a22 a 23|+|a21 a22 a 23|
a31+ b1 a32+ b2 a33 +b3 a31 a32 a 33 b 1 b2 b3
9) If the elements of a row or column of a matrix are added k times the elements of another row (or
column) the value of the determinant so obtained is equal to the value of the original
determinants. That is,
a11 a12 a13 a11 + ka 31 a12 +ka 32 a 13+ ka 33
|a21 a22 a 23| = | a21 a22 a 23 |
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a 33
10) The determinant of the product of two matrices of order n is the product of their determinants. i.e.
det ( AB ) =det ( A ) det ( B )
11) If one of the columns (or row) of the matrix A is zero, then det ( A )=0 .
12) If A is a diagonal matrix, then det ( A )=¿ the product of the main diagonal elements.
Examples:

[ ]
1 0 0
1. Let A= 0 1 0 then det ( A)=1.
0 0 1

2. Let A =
[ 23 14 ] and B =
[ 21 34 ] . Then
det ( A)=5=det (B)

( ) ( )
1 2 3 0 2 2
3. Let A= 0 2 2 ∧B= 1 2 3 , then
3 4 5 3 4 5
det ( A )=1 ( 10 – 8 ) – 2 ( 0 – 6 ) +3 ( 0 – 6 )=−4and
det ( B )=0 ( 10 – 12 ) – 2 ( 5 – 9 )+ 2 ( 4 – 6 )=4

[ ]
3 4 5
4. Let A= 1 3 2 . Then, det ( A)=3 (6 – 6) – 4(2 – 2)+5 (3 – 3)=0
1 3 2

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 [ ]
3 12 5
5. Let A= 1 3 2 . det ( A) = 3(6 – 6) – 12(2 – 2) + 5(3 – 3) = 0
1 3 2

[ ] [ ]
1 2 1 2 4 2
6. Let A= 2 3 4 ∧B= 2 3 4 . then, determinant of the two matrices is
1 3 7 1 3 7
det ( A )=1 ( 21−12 ) −2(14−4 )+1(6 – 3)=9 – 20+3=−8 ,∧also
det (B)=2(21 – 12)– 4 (14 – 4)+2(6 – 3)=18 – 40+6=24 – 40=−16=2(−8)=2[det ( A)]
7. Let A= [ ]
3 4
2 5
and B=
6 8
4 10 [ ]
. Then, det ( A )=7 and det ( B )=28=22 det ⁡( A)

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
A=¿ | |=| |=| |+| |=−2
8. Let 3 4 1+2 2+2 1 2 2 2
[ 13 24 ]∧B=[ 73 104 ]
9. Let A= .Then

det ( A )=|
3 4|
=4−6=−2∧det ( B )=|
3 4|
1 2 7 10
=28−30=−2
10. Let A and B be two 3 ×3 matrices with det ( A)=3 and det (B)=−3, then find:
a) det ⁡( AB)
b) det ⁡(2 A Bt )
Solution:
a) det ( AB ) =detA . detB=3 (−3 )=−9
b) det ( 2 A Bt )=det ( 2 A ) .det ( Bt ) =det ( 2 A ) . det ( B )=23 det ( A ) . det ( B )=8 × 3 (−3 )=−72
Adjoint and inverse of a matrix
1. Adjoint of a matrix
Definition: let A=( aij ) be a square matrix of order n and let C ij be the cofactor of a ij, then the adjoint of
A denoted by adjA is defined as the transpose of the cofactor matrix (C ij ).

[ ]
1 2 3
Example: Let A= −1 0 1 , find adjA.
4 3 2
Solution: Minors of A:
M 11= |03 12|=−3 , M =|−14 12|=−6 , M =|−14 03|=−3 ,
12 13

=| |=−5 , M =| |=−10 , M =|
4 3|
2 3 1 3 1 2
M 21 22 =−5 , 23
3 2 4 2
=|
0 1|
=2 , M =|
−1 1|
=4 , M =|
−1 0|
2 3 1 3 1 2
M 31 32 =2 33

Cofactor of A:
i+ j
C ij =(−1) M ij
C 11=M 11 =−3 ,C 12=−M 12=6 , C13=M 13=−3 , C 21=−M 21=5 ,C 22=M 22=−10 ,
C 23=−M 23=5 ,C 31=M 31=2 ,C 32=−M 32=−4 ,C 33=M 33=2
Cofactor matrix:

[ ]
−3 6 −3
C ij = 5 −10 5
2 −4 2

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 [ ]
−3 5 2
t
AdjA=(C ¿¿ ij) = 6 −10 −4 ¿
−3 5 2
Properties of the adjoint of matrix
1) If A is a square matrix of order n, then A . adjA=adjA . A=| A| I n , I n is identity matrix of order n.
2) If A is a square matrix of order n, then ( A t )=(adjA )t =¿ .
3) If A and B are two square matrices of the same order, then adj ( AB )=adjB . adjA
2. Inverse of a matrix
Let A be a square matrix of order n, then a square matrix B of order n if it exists is an inverse of A if
AB=BA=I n. A matrix A having an inverse is called invertible matrix.
The inverse of the invertible matrix A is denoted by A−1. If A is an invertible matrix, then | A|≠ 0 (non-
singular). And
−1 adjA −1 −1
A = since A A = A A=I n
| A|
Thus, the inverse of the invertible matrix A is given by:
−1 adjA
A =
| A|
Example: find the inverse of the following matrix.

[ ] [ ]
3 1 2 4 −2 1
A= 2 −3 −1 7 3 3
a.
1 2 1 , b. A=
2 0 1 .
Solution:

a. |A|=3(−3+2)−1(2+1)+2( 4+3)=8 . Since |A|≠0, A is non-singular or invertible.

−1 1 1
Then, A = adjA= adjA
| A| 8

[ ]
t
C 11 C12 C 13
But, adjA = C 21 C22 C 23 where, C 11=−1 , C12=−3 , C 13=7 , C21=3 , C 22=1 ,
C 31 C32 C 33
C 23=−5 ,C 31=5 , C32=7 , C 33=−11

[ ][ ]
t
−1 −3 7 −1 3 5
⇒ adjA= 3 1 −5 = −3 1 7
5 7 −11 7 −5 −11

[ ]
−1 3 5
8 8 8

[ ]
−1 3 5
1 −3 1 7
⇒ A−1= −3 1 7 =
8 8 8 8
7 −5 −11
7 −5 −11
8 8 8
1
A−1 = adjA
b. |A|=(4)(3)−(−2)(1)+1(−6)=8≠0 . Thus A−1 exists and is given by |A| . To
find adjA, let Cij denote the cofactor of aij, the element in the ith row and jth column of |A|.

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 Thus C11=3, C12 = -1, C13=-6, C21 = 2, C22=2, C23=-4, C31=-9 C32=-5 and C33 =26.

[ ] [ ]
3 2 −9 3 2 −9
−1 1 1
adj A= −1 2 −5 A = adj A= −1 2 −5
|A| 8
−6 −4 16 . Hence −6 −4 16
Note:

 A square matrix A is said to be singular (not invertible) if , and it is called non-

singular(invertible) if |A|≠0 .
1
 If A is invertible matrix, then det(A-1) = .
det ⁡( A)

[ ]
2 0 0
B= 3 −1 4
Further, if 5 −2 8 then |B|=0 and it is singular.

[ ]
6 7 −1
A= 3 λ 5
λ
Example: Find if the matrix 9 11 λ has no inverse.
2
Solution: 6 ( λ −55)−7(3 λ−45 )−(33−9 λ )=0
2
 λ −2 λ−8=0
 ( λ−2)( λ−4 )=0
 λ=2 or λ=4
Properties of the inverse
1) A square matrix is invertible if and only if it is not singular.
2) The inverse of the inverse is the original matrix ( A−1 ¿ ¿−1=A .
3) The inverse of the transpose of a matrix is the transpose of its inverse. i.e. ( At )−1=¿.

4) If A and В are non-singular, then ( AB)−1=B−1 A−1.

System of linear equations
Definition: a linear equation in the variables x 1 , x 2 ,… , x n over the field of real numbers R is an equation
that can be written in the form. a 1 x 1+ a2 x2 +…+ an x n=b
Where b and the coefficients a 1 , a2 , … , an are given real numbers.
System of linear equation is a collection of one or more linear equations involving the same variables say
x 1 , x 2 ,… , x n .
Now consider a system of m linear equations in n unknowns x 1 , x 2 ,… , x n .
a11 x1 + a12 x 2+ …+a 1n x n=b 1
a 21 x 1+ a22 x 2 +…+a 2 n x n=b 2
⋮
a m 1 x 1+ am 2 x2 + …+amn x n=b m
Note:

Page PAGE 11 of NUMPAGES 12 by Nigussie G.

  The system is said to be homogeneous if all the numbers b 1 , b2 , … , bnare equal to 0. The
number n is called the number of unknowns, andm is the number of equations.
 A homogeneous linear equations have always the trivial solution which is obtained by letting all
Xi=0 .This solution will be called the trivial solution. A solution ( x 1 , x 2 , … , x n ) such that some
x i ≠ 0 is called non-trivial.
Matrix notations of linear system of equations
The system of linear equation is algebraically equivalent to the matrix equation AX=B where

The matrix A is called the coefficient matrix, because it contains the coefficients of the unknowns.
The above system of equations can be written as the augmented matrix of AX∧B.

A system of linear equations is said to be consistent if it has at least one solution; otherwise, it is
inconsistent.
Methods of solving linear system of equations
To solve linear system of equations, we have different techniques (methods)
1) Gaussian elimination method 3) Matrix inverse method
2) Gauss-Jordan method 4) Cramer’s rule
Cramer’s rule for solving systems of linear equations
consider the following matrix representation of the system of linear equations ( AX=B).

According to Cramer, if det ⁡( A)≠ 0, then the above system has a unique solution which is given by
det ⁡( A1 ) det ⁡( A 2) det ⁡( A 3) det ⁡( A n)
x 1= , x2 = , x 3= ,… … … , x n=
det ⁡( A) det ⁡( A) det ⁡(A ) det ⁡(A )
where Ai is the matrix obtained by replacingthe entries in the i column of A by the entries in the matrix
th

[]
b1
b
B= 2
⋮
bn
Examples:
1) Use Cramer's rule to solve

Page PAGE 11 of NUMPAGES 12 by Nigussie G.

 Solution:

Therefore , det ( A 1 )=−40 , det ( A 2) =72 , det ( A3 ) =152

2) Solve the following system of linear equations by using Cramer’s rule.

2 x 1−x 2 + x 3=6 2 x1 + x 2=7
a) x 1+ 4 x 2−2 x 3=−4 b) −3 x 1+ 2 x 2=−8
3 x 1+ x3 =7 x 2+ 2 x 3=−3
Solution:
a) Matrix form

( )( ) ( )
2 −1 1 x 1 6
1 4 −2 x 2 = −4
3 0 1 x3 7
i
det ⁡( A B)
x i=
det ⁡(A )
det ( A )=2 |
4 −2
0 1 | − (−1 ) |
1 −2
3 1
+1| | |
1 4
3 0
=8+7−12=3

( )
6 −1 1

x 1=
det ⁡ −4 4 −2
7 0 1
=
6 |
0 1 ||
4 −2 −4 −2 −4 4
+
7 1
+ || |
7 0 24 +10−28 6
= = =2
3 3 3 3

| |
2 6 1

x 2=
1 −4 −2
3 7 1
=
|
2
−4 −2
7 1
−6 | |
3 1 3 7 ||
1 −2 1 −4
+
=
|
20−42+19
=−1
3 3 3

| |
2 −1 6

x 3=
1 4 −4
3 0 7
=
|
2
4 −4 1 −4
0 7
+||
3 7
+6| | |
1 4
3 0 56 +19−72
= =1
3 3 3
Therefore, the solution is (2,-1,1)

Page PAGE 11 of NUMPAGES 12 by Nigussie G.