P5 Lessons

P5 Rating: Advanced IFR Concepts
(Part 1: Non-Precision Approaches)
Lesson 1: This is Getting VOR-ing
Introduction
This Lesson introduces the pilot to non-precision approaches, starting with the LOC only approach, then
progressing to the VOR approach.
What You Need to Know
This Lesson assumes that you remember how an ILS approach works -- a radio beacon called the
localizer (abbreviated LOC) provides lateral tracking capability along the extended centerline of the
runway, and a second one called the glideslope provides vertical guidance to track the proper descent
path to the runway touchdown zone. Tuning the published LOC frequency automatically tunes the
glideslope as well, if there is one.
It is also assumed that you know how to read an HSI gauge, which will display information (by way of
a course deviation indicator or CDI needle) about whether your aircraft is tracking along the path
dictated by the radio beacon tuned on the NAV radio; either the needle is centered, meaning that you
are on the path, or it points to the left or right, meaning that you should correct toward the
corresponding direction to get back on course.
This Lesson also assumes you know what a VOR Station does -- it sends out a radio signal you can
tune on your aircraft's NAV radio, then set a desired course on your HSI, and the beacon will provide
guidance information according to that course setting. Unlike a localizer, adjusting the OBS knob
(Omnidirectional Bearing Selector, AKA course setting) when tuned to a VOR will affect what
course is indicated by the readout; doing so when tuned to a LOC has no effect other than rotating the
display.
This Lesson also assumes that you recall that a DME, which stands for Distance-Measuring
Equipment, gives the pilot the ability to see a readout of the distance in nautical miles to a certain
radio beacon. Many, but not all, localizers and VOR stations include a DME signal.
The IAP (Instrument Approach Procedure) chart shows which LOC or VOR stations to tune, and in
some cases, requires you to tune the station providing the path on NAV1 while tuning the station
providing the DME information on NAV2. The DME gives the distance to the radio beacon, which
may or may not be the distance to the touchdown point. Particularly if it is offset to one side, it will not
even give a linear countdown (or count-up) of the distance covered, but, the chart will indicate the
DME reading at each key point of the approach.
In very rare cases, there's no DME signal on either the beacon providing primary course guidance, nor
the one providing the reference for the points along that course. (Or, just as rare, you're flying the
approach in an aircraft without a DME receiver and display.) You'd then have to re-adjust the OBS on
the secondary NAV radio for each point, in order to get indication of when you're crossing the radial
reference line which marks each one.
Getting set up on the final approach course is done in one of the four ways covered in the P4 Rating's
Lesson on ILS approaches: vectors from ATC, turning directly from a feeder leg marked "NoPT,"
performing a procedure turn indicated on the chart, or performing a hold pattern entry using a hold
fix depicted on the chart.
Once established on the final approach course, using the LOC or VOR radial as your lateral guidance,
in a non-precision approach your vertical guidance all comes from the chart itself rather than from a
glideslope indicator. Each key point along that final approach course is marked with a minimum
altitude; and when passing each one (whether determined via DME or via reference radials), you
should be at or near that altitude. (Since they are marked as minimums, it's permitted to be above them;
however, a successful approach dictates that in nearly all cases you should be pretty much on those
numbers.) While it is best to establish a constant descent rate that puts the aircraft across each point at
the proper altitude, it can be thought of (and is sometimes referred to) as a "step-down" descent, since
after crossing each point, you "step down" to the altitude of the next one.
After passing the FAF (Final Approach Fix), marked by the "Maltese Cross" on the chart's vertical
view, the final "step down" is to the decision altitude, based on the appropriate minimums listed just
below the vertical info. Again, interpreting these should be a review from the P4. The DME or VOR
radial reference for the missed approach point will be indicated on the chart; or, if no DME is
available, the timing from the FAF based on the approach speed must be substituted. If arriving at that
point without sight of the runway or with insufficient overall visibility, the Missed Approach
procedure must immediately be initiated.
At any point once the pilot attains sight of the runway environment (including the approach lighting
system) and has sufficient visibility to meet the minimums for the approach, he or she may proceed
visually from that moment until touchdown.
Some VOR approaches are not specific to a particular runway. These are covered in Lesson Six.
More Detail
This lesson provides an introduction to the concept of non-precision approaches. All Instrument Approach
Procedures can be used to provide a means to approach a runway safely even in low visibility or with low
cloud ceilings. A precision approach, most commonly an ILS approach, provides an excellent means of
guidance, both laterally and vertically, to allow the pilot to fly the aircraft on a very precise path that leads all
the way to the touchdown zone. Decision altitudes on precision approaches are generally 200-250 feet AGL.
Non-precision approaches allow for a safe descent path to the runway as well. But those paths are typically
based on a series of waypoints each interspersed by a few nautical miles, and the appropriate altitude to be
flying when crossing each; rather than an exact and continuous indication of the plane's proper position all the
way down the approach course, such as in a precision approach. Decision altitudes for non-precision
approaches are typically 600-800 feet AGL, and sometimes more.
To navigate this Lesson successfully, it's presumed that you remember how to fly an ILS Approach. This
should have been covered in the P4 rating, and is one of many reasons why we make that rating a prerequisite
for this program. If you took that rating with us, you may recall that it is covered in Lesson Nine of the P4.
Terms like localizer, glideslope, DME, HSI, Course (or OBS) setting, CDI (Course Deviation Indicator, aka
the "needle"), IAP, Initial Approach Fix, Procedure Turn, Hold Pattern Entry, Final Approach Course,
Decision Altitude, Minimums, Missed Approach, and MAP (Missed Approach Point) should all be pretty
readily familiar, as well as how to read and interpret the information on the IAP chart. You'll also need a
pretty solid foundation on how a VOR Station works and how it differs from a Localizer signal. That can be
found in Lesson Four of our P4 program, and you should be fairly comfortable with how to tune a VOR and
what the indications on the HSI mean. If not, take a moment to go back and review, since all of that will
come into play when learning to fly a Localizer, LOC-DME, or VOR Approach.
Shown here is a snip from the KSAN LOC 27 Approach, the most
common approach flown into Lindbergh Field / San Diego
International Airport in San Diego, California. (INTERESTING
TIDBIT: KSAN is the nation's busiest single-runway airport, and this
approach is the one used most of the time here, making it easily among
the most commonly flown non-precision approaches in the country.)
Note that the glideslope is 3.5 degrees rather than the usual 3.0, due to
the high terrain east of the airport (not, as most believe, due to the
"infamous" parking garage -- that was added well after the approach
was already developed). Once tuning localizer I-UBR on 110.9 and
setting the course to 275 (not that it matters really, but, it rotates the
HSI so that the CDI points straight up-and-down during the
approach), you'd consult the DME readout to determine what altitude
you should be flying and when. Initially, of course, you'd intercept the
localizer at the altitude which ATC cleared you to do so, which on this
approach would usually be 4000 feet and from a point beyond
VYDDA. But, once inside of DME 14.2, you've passed VYDDA and
can descend to 3600 until DME 12.2, also known as OKAIN. From there, you'd then step down to 2500 by
CIJHI at 8.7 DME, then 2000 at REEBO, which is a DME of 6.5. (Note on the lower edge of the vertical path
depiction that the threshold starts at DME 1.3; ordinarily that would be 0.0 for a localizer, but this antennae
array is apparently on the far threshold of the runway. Point is, being at DME 5.0 doesn't necessarily mean
you're on a 5-mile final.)
Note that if your aircraft wasn't equipped with DME, you'd need to tune NAV2 to the Poggi (PGY) VOR on
109.8 and set the OBS to each crossing radial as you go. The appropriate radials are shown in the lateral (top-
down) view of the approach. You'd first set the course to 017 and watch as your CDI needle went from fully
pegged right to where it crosses the center. At that point, you're left of that radial, meaning, closer to the
airport than where it crosses the final approach course. Therefore, you're closer in than VYDDA. Reset the
OBS to 350 and repeat the process for OKAIN; then again to 315 for CIJHI and 304 for REEBO. After
passing REEBO you must eyeball your clock and check the timing info at the bottom of the chart (it's cut off
from this snip, though; so you'll have to pull up the whole thing). Using 140 knots (the average approach
speed of a jetliner), you'd have between 2m36s (at 120 KIAS) and 2m05s (at 150 KIAS), so, probably around
2m15s from REEBO to the decision point. Once you get to 680 feet MSL (663 feet AGL), you should go no
lower; if 2m15s after passing the FAF you don't see runway, throw the flaps in and get the power up because
you're going missed.
This next example is of a VOR approach. Some airports have VOR
approaches that are not specific to a particular runway, and those are
covered in the Lesson on Circling Approaches, later on in this Section.
However, there may also be a VOR approach procedure which is
meant to be used for a specific runway, and the example here is the
VOR approach to 31L at John F Kennedy Airport in New York
(KJFK). The procedure for flying a VOR approach is nearly the same
as flying the LOC approach as described above. The main difference is
that you're tuning a VOR rather than a LOC, meaning, the adjustment
that you make on the Course knob not only rotates the HSI, but it
affects the course to which your aircraft's position is compared in order
to indicate a deflection in the CDI needle. So, it's not just a matter of
aesthetics; the course knob must be set accurately to be sure the path to
the VOR on the chart is the same one your airplane is trying to make
you fly.
Once tuned to Kennedy (JFK) VOR on 115.9 and setting course 343,
the process for this approach is exactly the same -- if flying via DME, you maintain 2500 or higher until
passing JAMCA at 10.2 DME, then down to 1800 at LOKOE, then to the decision altitude of 560 MSL (547
AGL) hoping to see pavement or at least an outline of runway lights. In this case, the runway should be off to
the left a little, since you may notice from the overhead chart that the approach course is 343 to a runway
whose heading is 315. This means a 30-degree left turn on short final will need to be performed when flying
this approach. (It's a splendid idea to get yourself ready for that, especially if you're landing in low visibility.)
Again, similarly to the above, the Deer Park (DPK) VOR on 117.7 can be used via radials 234 and 245 to
locate JAMCA and LOKOE if you don't have a functioning DME receiver. Then you'll need to time the
segment from LOKOE to the decision point.
A few IAPs will actually require two functioning VOR recievers, and will say so in big bold letters within the
top-down (map) view of the approach. It's the rare case anymore, but, if the VOR or LOC providing primary
lateral guidance did not have a DME signal, and no other VOR in the area with DME was useable in the
creation of the approach procedure, the process of using the second VOR for radial references is required for
all aircraft performing the approach, whether or not they are DME-equipped. The process is the same as I
have outlined it above, including the requirement to time the segment from the Final Approach Fix to the
Missed Approach Point.
Summary
A non-precision approach is one which does not provide both lateral and vertical path guidance
continuously along the final approach course.
The minimums for non-precision approaches are typically 600-800 feet AGL, as opposed to 200-250
feet for precision approaches.
LOC and VOR approaches provide lateral guidance in the form of a localizer beacon or VOR radial,
but vertical guidance comes from the chart itself.
A series of points along the final descent, delineated either by a DME reference or by tuning a
secondary VOR and setting designated radial references, are assigned altitudes. These altitudes are
marked as minimums, but, a successful approach relies on being fairly close to them.
The altitudes indicated on the chart are commonly flown in a "step-down" fashion, but, establishing a
constant descent rate that passes each point near its target altitude is even better.
In an approach with DME you would have an easy reference as to where the Missed Approach Point is,
but without DME, you need to rely on the timing information from FAF to MAP at the bottom of the
approach chart.
Additional Resources
YouTube: "10 Most Extreme Airports - #10 San Diego KSAN (Episode 2-1)" -- a tutorial on flying the
KSAN LOC 27 approach, which inclcudes a very thorough explanation on how non-precision
approaches work. (See also Part 2).
Quiz
1: On a LOC or VOR approach, how can you tell what altitude you should be flying at any given
point?
a. ATC will clear you to each new altitude on the approach.
b. you must use DME or a secondary VOR radial to determine your location along the approach,
then read the altitude on the chart.
c. the glideslope signal will guide you to the correct altitude for wherever you are along the
approach path.
d. all of the above.
e. none of the above.
2: On a LOC or VOR approach without DME, you can tell that you're at the Missed Approach
Point by:
a. accurately tracking the glideslope signal until it crosses through the decision altitude.
b. using the secondary VOR radial reference line for the MAP.
c. finding the FAF via secondary VOR reference radial, then timing the final approach segment.
ANSWERS: 1. B ... 2. C
Back to Section Table of Contents
Tomas Hansson (cfi@vatstar.com)

Chief Flight Instructor, VATSTAR
DISCLAIMER: all information contained herein is for flight simulation purposes only.
revised January 2019
Lesson 2: A Non-Directional Approach... seriously
Introduction
This Lesson examines NDB (Non-Directional Beacon) approaches and how to fly them safely and accurately.
Vocabulary
bearing: in a navigation sense, it means the direction to a certain point from your current location. In
casual circles it can be used interchangably with "heading"; but to be technically accurate, heading is
the direction you are traveling, whereas bearing is the direction to the location or object in question.
(Example: if you are heading 090 and something is straight off to your right, its bearing is 180.)
Concepts
A Non-Directional Beacon is a radio nav-aid that can be tuned on an Automatic Direction Finder (or
ADF) radio, which is separate from the NAV1 and NAV2 radios. The ADF gauge will then display a
direct-to bearing to that beacon, but unlike a VOR it does not offer any ability to provide course
correction information regarding a certain radial to or from that station. NDB frequencies can be
anywhere from 190-1750kHz but in the US are mostly in the 200 to 400 range. They are denoted by a
geographical name and most often a two- or sometimes three-letter identifier. The Morse for that ID is
played over the radio signal's audio carrier.
In the ADF display, an arrow will always point toward the source of the NDB signal (weird
atmospheric reflections and other interference notwithstanding), such that an arrow pointed straight up
will always mean an NDB station dead ahead, an arrow pointed straight off to the 3-o'clock direction
will always mean an NDB signal coming from beyond the right wing, an arrow pointed straight down
will always indicate a signal from directly behind you, etcetera. A small bit of mental gymnastics can
make this information useful regardless of what sort of gauge surrounds the arrow, but, there are three
main types: (1) a fixed-card ADF gauge, which always lists heading 000 at the top, so the number the
arrow points to must be added to the aircraft's current heading in order to get the compass-based
bearing to the station; (2) a rotatable-card ADF gauge, which the pilot can manually twist so that the
aircraft's current heading is on top and the arrow then indicates not only the relative direction based on
its position but the compass bearing as well; and (3) a RMI or Radio-Magnetic Indicator which
gyroscopically maintains the aircraft's present heading on top.
Homing an NDB means using the ADF to navigate a path straight toward it until the aircraft is directly
over top of it.
Although NDBs do not provide course deviation indication ability like VOR stations can, a pilot can
still use one to navigate a proscribed imaginary path either directly to or directly away from an NDB by
maintaining it at a constant bearing (this is called tracking the inbound or outbound bearing). If you
fail to maintain that course, you don't get a needle that tells you to correct left or right, but, your
bearing to the station will change, and you can then correct accordingly.
NDB bearings can also be used as reference lines, much as a secondary VOR in a LOC or VOR
approach helps you find intersections when DME is not present.
Like LOC and VOR stations, not all NDBs include DME signals. In fact, in the case of NDBs the
majority do not.
Using the above concepts and applying them to Instrument Approach Procedures, you can fly a NDB
approach in much the same way as you would a LOC or VOR approach. The difficulty is that you don't
get automatic course tracking nor wind correction by using an autopilot in NAV mode, so, you must
manually manage the course including wind correction while also managing the vertical aspect of the
approach.
Most NDB approaches include a procedure turn or a hold pattern course reversal. Review the P4 rating
(Lesson Nine, if you took our P4 program) for a refresher on how to perform it.
Some NDB approaches, referred to as terminal approaches, have the beacon right at the airport.
Others, called non-terminal approaches, have the beacon located off of the airport, usually along the
final approach course. Terminal approaches are a bit easier to perform because the beacon itself is the
Missed Approach Point; flying a non-terminal approach requires descending to an intermediate step-
down altitude and timing the segment from the FAF to the MAP.
More Detail
In our series of various types of non-precision instrument approaches, we first covered LOC approaches, then
VOR approaches. The next one in line, progressively more difficult, is the NDB or Non-Directional Beacon
approach. An NDB approach is not too dissimilar from a LOC or VOR approach, but, NDBs do not provide
course guidance in the same way that a LOC or VOR does, so the pilot must manually track the lateral course
while managing the vertical aspect of the approach as well. (If your hand-flying is not up to the task, you
should probably practice flying a few ILS approaches without autopilot before attempting one of these!)
To explain how to fly an NDB approach accurately, we must first ensure you understand how NDBs work in a
general sense.
Non-Directional Beacon receivers are called Automatic Direction Finders or ADF radios. They use a pair
of antennae to determine what direction a radio signal is coming from, and a gauge with an arrow that points
in that direction. The stations themselves are on a frequency between 190 and 1750 kHz; in the US,
commercial entertainment-band AM radio is between 540 and 1700 kHz and most NDBs are in the 200-400
range. (INTERESTING TIDBIT: if you tune an ADF radio to a commercial AM station, it will point you
toward its source; but since those can be very powerful signals which bounce around the atmosphere a
bunch, especially at night, they aren't reliable for navigation. And, I don't believe that any popular flight sim
software simulates this effect anyway.) NDBs, like VORs, are given a geographical name and a station
identifier; unlike VORs, many NDB identifiers are two rather than three letters. Like VORs, the Morse
translation for the station ID is transmitted on a repeating audio track on the radio signal, which should be
played in the cockpit when tuned, to verify it is the correct station.
While ADF displays take one of three main forms, the common thread in each is that the arrow within it will
always point toward the source of the signal (not counting interference or other weird radio signal physics),
regardless of how the numbers around the perimeter of the gauge are arranged. (Stay with me -- my point will
make more sense in a moment.) No matter what numbers are where, an arrow pointed straight up will always
indicate that your aircraft's nose is pointed directly toward the signal source; straight down means the source
is directly behind you; straight off to the right will always mean the signal is directly off to your 3-o'clock,
etcetera. However, whether the number it's pointing to has any bearing (heh) on the bearing to the station in
terms of its compass heading depends on what type of gauge it is:
The first and simplest type of ADF gauge is a fixed-card display. Regardless of which way the aircraft
is flying, a bearing of 000 is always straight up on the gauge. This is referred to as the relative bearing
rather than a bearing in terms of compass heading. The number that the arrow points to, therefore, must
be added to the aircraft's current heading in order to determine the bearing to the station in terms of the
compass direction.
Second is a rotating-card display. The circular band of numbers around the perimeter of the gauge
may be manually rotated by the pilot so that the aircraft's present heading is straight up, and then the
arrow will point to the actual compass bearing of the station. Otherwise, the numbers should be ignored
and the pilot should think of the arrow as representing a bearing in terms of the direction the aircraft is
facing.
Third, and most modern, is a Radio-Magnetic Indicator, commonly called RMI. This acts more
similarly to a VOR receiver or HSI gauge than the first two types, because it automatically maintains
the aircraft's heading at the top via the use of a gyroscopic compass. This way, when kept in proper
adjustment (i.e. correcting for gyroscopic drift), the number the arrow is pointing to will always
represent the numerical bearing to that station. Many RMIs will actually have more than one needle,
useful for pointing toward two stations simultaneously, making it easier to find intersections or
determine when you're directly between the two transmitters or perform other advanced navigation
techniques.
In the scenario pictured here, an aircraft is flying a heading of 045. Somewhere directly south of it, at a
bearing of exactly 180 (and some undetermined distance, which doesn't matter for this example), is an NDB
which the pilot has tuned on his ADF radio. Note that in all three examples the arrow is pointing toward the
right rear, i.e. over the pilot's right shoulder, toward the NDB signal source.
In Figure A, a fixed-card ADF gauge, the aircraft's heading on the gauge is 000, because it will always
show straight ahead as a relative bearing of 000. The arrow is pointing at 135. To determine the
bearing in terms of a magnetic heading, you'd have to add that to the aircraft's current heading of 045.
045 + 135 = 180; the station is due south of the aircraft.
In Figure B, a rotating-card ADF gauge, the pilot has not adjusted the heading wheel since he or she
used it last, and it's indicating an aircraft heading of 200. The arrow is pointing at 335. None of these
numbers mean anything (except that you could theoretically do the math and figure out that 335 - 200
= 135, so the station's relative bearing is 135 which you'd add to the aircraft's heading of 045 to get a
magnetic bearing of 180 -- but why would you do all that when you can just twist the knob and have the
wheel do the math for you?), because the heading wheel just points wherever the pilot sets it to, without
regard for the actual heading of the airplane.
Finally, in Figure C, either the pilot has adjusted the rotating-card gauge to appropriately reflect the
aircraft's present heading of 045, or, this is a RMI which has automatically rotated the heading wheel.
In either case, we see that 045 is straight up representing the plane's current heading, and the arrow,
still pointing over the pilot's right shoulder, is now giving an accurate magnetic compass bearing of
180.
Often, the first part of flying an NDB approach (or, using an NDB as part of an IFR route, if applicable)
involves homing the station. (If you've ever heard of a "homing pigeon" you might have a sense of what this
means.) Homing a given location means finding your way to that location from wherever you happen to be.
Accurate and efficient homing, especially in an aviation sense, means navigating a straight-line path to the
station -- so in addition to figuring out how to turn to a heading in which you are pointed straight to it, you'll
need to factor in a wind correction angle in order to minimize drift, which in turn minimizes the overall path's
distance.
Remembering your reciprocal headings when using NDBs is key. If the NDB station is at a 035 bearing from
you, you're somewhere along a straight line that extends out from it in a 215 direction. This is true whether
you're flying toward it, away from it, or in a path that crosses that imaginary line; in the exact moment the
bearing is 035, you've intercepted that 215 path, which is properly called an outbound bearing. (In casual
circles, you can refer to this as a "radial," but outside of discussions involving VOR stations, that's not 100%
correct although it gets the point across.) Being able to deduce your relative position based on a bearing to
one or more NDBs can be very useful when navigating without GPS, and it certainly comes into play when
performing an NDB Instrument Approach Procedure. If you intend to remain on a course which tracks the
095 outbound bearing from a given NDB, you should fly a heading of 095 plus or minus your anticipated
wind correction; the bearing to the station should remain at 275. If it starts to drift higher, you're south of
your intended course and should correct to the left. If it goes lower, you're too far north and should point
yourself further south. It's not the same as having a VOR with a set OBS and a needle telling you which way
to make your corrections (or, better yet, controlling your autopilot), but a little bit of spatial awareness should
accomplish almost the same thing.
Pictured here is the NDB Approach to Runway 31 at KLEE in Leesburg, Florida. Note that it starts like any
other Instrument Approach Procedure, with ATC clearing you via a feeder leg to the Initial Approach Fix
(alternately, they can vector you to the final approach course, but this Lesson describes how to fly the full
procedure). You should have already tuned in the Leesburg NDB on 335 kHz and played the Morse identifier
to verify the audio matches the coded pattern depicted in the station's info block. You also should have
reviewed the Missed Approach Procedure -- good news!, there are no additional nav-aids to tune, since the
Missed Approach Hold Fix is the same NDB used in the approach. Your cleared route ends either at the Ocala
VOR (OCF 113.7) or at WEBBS, and ATC has said, "{callsign}, cross {Ocala | WEBBS} at or above 2000,
then proceed direct Leesburg; cleared for the NDB runway 31 approach, report established inbound." And
you've read that back: "{Ocala | WEBBS} at or above 2000, then direct Leesburg, cleared for NDB 31
approach, will call inbound, {callsign}."
The next step, once passing that final waypoint, is to fly the feeder leg. If you're starting from Ocala, you
should set a 134 outbound course from the VOR and fly that track for about 30.8 miles (I say "about" since
you'll actually start the turn onto the next step slightly ahead of the NDB). Coming from WEBBS, you should
turn to 046 plus-or-minus wind correction, slightly before crossing WEBBS in order to get yourself on that
outbound course without overshooting. In either case, the course in question should be your bearing to
Leesburg NDB -- 134 from Ocala and 046 from WEBBS -- and you can adjust your heading to correct for
wind and keep the station at that bearing.
You should have an idea how long the feeder leg will take based on your airspeed and the charted length of
that leg (indicated in parenthesis -- 30.8nm from Ocala, 24.1nm from WEBBS). As you approach the NDB,
your ADF needle will start to change bearing faster than you can correct. The closer you are, the faster it will
swing, until once you are passing over the NDB the needle will turn completely through an arc of 180-ish
degrees. As it begins to make this swing, you should turn onto a course of 119 -- the reciprocal of the 299
inbound approach course marked on the chart. (Notice that the outbound bearing of 119 is also marked, via a
thinner line to the lower right of the approach course.) Don't forget to factor in a wind correction angle, if
applicable. At this point, the only useful navigational reference you have is the ADF -- if it is above 299, you
need to correct to the left, and if below that bearing, to the right. You should also take note of the time (in
particular, the minutes and seconds past the hour) that you passed over the NDB; you're going to need this
information during the next couple steps.
Now you're flying along the approach course in the outbound direction, on a heading of 119 plus or minus
your wind correction, and have the ADF pointed to 299. Note that within the vertical planning section of the
chart it specifies that you "remain within 10nm." Remember that as part of your upcoming procedure turn,
you're going to need to fly a one minute leg on the "spur" heading, so, the maximum time you should fly
along the outbound course should take that into account. Your true airspeed divided by 60 gives you how
many nautical miles per minute you're covering; you can use KIAS as a close-enough estimate unless you're
approaching some airport at a crazy field elevation. If you're going around 120 knots, that's two nautical miles
per minute. This gives you no more than five minutes total outbound, and since one will be consumed by the
outbound portion of the procedure turn, your leg along the approach course should be no longer than four
minutes. In practice, two or three minutes is probably more than sufficient, and if your airspeed is closer to
150, that's all you can do while remaining within the allowable area anyway.
Next -- the procedure turn. This is pretty simple. You make a 45-degree left or right, as depicted on the chart.
In this case, make a left to 074, and fly straight on that heading for one minute. This would be a good time to
initiate a descent to the altitude on this portion of the chart; but, in this case, you're already at that altitude,
which is 2000. Then make a standard-rate, 180-degree turn to the opposite direction (for this approach, to the
right), and roll out on the reciprocal heading to that "spur" -- for convenience, it's marked on the chart, and
for this approach it's 254. Fly that for approximately one minute; the precise time to turn back onto the
inbound approach course will be dictated by the bearing to the NDB. Once that bearing reads 299 you should
be back on a heading of 299 plus or minus your wind correction. (*NOTE: in this example as I've described
it, there's one more thing you need to do at this point. Do you remember what it is? Check the hint in the
footnote just above the Summary and see if you got it right!)
Once established on the inbound approach course, you should begin your descent to the next step-down
altitude. In this case, since this is a terminal approach with the NDB co-located with your Missed Approach
Point, there isn't a separate step-down listed; so, the next altitude would be the approach's decision altitude.
The decision altitude in this example for a straight-in approach to runway 31 is 780 feet MSL (707 feet
AGL). Minimum visibility at that point is 1 nautical mile for category A and B aircraft, 2 for category C and
D aircraft. (Recall from your study in the P4 that these categories are based on the aircraft's approach speed;
ranging from single-engine props in A through jetliners in D.) For this approach, you'll know you're at the
decision point when the bearing to the NDB swings through a 180-degree arc; for a non-terminal approach
you'll need to descend to an intermediate altitude at the FAF, then time the segment down to the MAP as
we've discussed in the P4.
At the Missed Approach Point you should be approximately at 780 feet MSL and hopefully you have sight of
the runway or approach lighting system; if not, or if you get to that point and see lights but don't have
sufficient visibility to meet the minimums, be ready to climb to 1500 then start a right turn back toward the
NDB while continuing up to 2000. (The Missed Approach procedure differs from one approach protocol to
the next, but, what I've described is based on this particular chart.) As always, at any point at or before the
Missed Approach Point if you see the runway environment and have sufficient visibility to meet the approach
minimums, you can proceed visually from there.
(NOTE: if you are going to practice flying this or any other NDB approach, I recommend you do so a few
times with winds set to calm first, so you can practice the more basic concepts involved. Once you're
comfortable with the flow of the procedure, you can toss in the added element of remembering to adjust for
wind while flying any segment which isn't described by a VOR radial, which will be all of them except
possibly the feeder leg.)
(*By the way, did you catch the one other item you should do in this example, just as you complete the
procedure turn and are established on the inbound approach course? If you still need a hint, look again at the
ATC communication from your initial approach clearance! The Bonus Question at the end of the Lesson will
confirm whether you got it correct!)
Summary
NDBs are radio nav-aids that are tuned via Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) radios, which display a
direct-to bearing to that beacon, but do not offer course correction information.
NDB frequencies can be anywhere from 190-1750kHz but in the US are mostly in the 200 to 400
range.
NDBs are denoted by a geographical name and a two- or three-letter identifier. The Morse for that ID is
played over the radio signal's audio carrier.
In the ADF display, an arrow will always point toward the NDB.
There are three main types of ADF gauges:
Fixed-card displays which always show heading 000 at the top, so the number the arrow points
to is a relative bearing
Rotatable-card gauges which can be manually adjusted so that the aircraft's current heading is on
top, and
Radio-Magnetic Indicators (RMIs) which gyroscopically maintain the aircraft's present heading
on top.
Homing an NDB means naviagting a path straight toward it.

Pilots can track an inbound or outbound bearing by maintaining it at a constant bearing from the
aircraft.
NDB bearings can also be used as reference lines to find intersections along a course from a primary
nav-aid.
Only a small percentage of NDBs include DME signals.
NDB approaches are performed in much the same way as a LOC or VOR approach, except that without
course tracking nor wind correction via autopilot, you must manually manage the course including
wind correction while also managing the vertical aspect of the approach.
Most NDB approaches include a procedure turn or a hold pattern course reversal.
Some NDB approaches, referred to as terminal approaches, have the beacon right at the airport and are
a bit easier to perform because the beacon itself is the Missed Approach Point.
Other NDB approaches, called non-terminal approaches, have the beacon located along the final
approach course. Flying a non-terminal approach requires descending to an intermediate step-down
altitude and timing the segment from the FAF to the MAP.
YouTube: "The NDB Approach" -- a video from Pilot Training Solutions (passfaaexams.com)
describing the intracacies of flying an NDB approach, using animations which include the navigation
gauge readings along the various stages of the approach. The narrator uses a few terms you'll need to
be aware of:
DG: this stands for Directional Gyro. He refers in multiple cases to making sure your
gyroscopic heading indicators remain in sync with your magnetic compass, as they tend to
process a handful of degrees per hour out of alignment.
Full Deflection: in a LOC or VOR approach, this would refer to the CDI needle being fully
deflected left or right, indicating a severe deviation from the selected course. In an NDB
approach the threshold he uses is plus-or-minus ten degrees from the intended NDB bearing and
refers to that as "full deflection."
RG: this simply stands for retractable gear; he refers to "flying an RG" meaning flying an
aircraft equipped with retractable landing gear. He's reminding you to make sure you extend
them, if applicable, once crossing the FAF.
Click here for a series of screenshots of me flying the NDB approach described in this Lesson.
Quiz
1: An aircraft is at a heading of 320 with an NDB directly off to its 9-o'clock. Which of these is
closest to its approximate bearing?
a. 150.
b. 180.
c. 230.
c. 270.
2: Assuming there is no wind, which of the following is a true statement about accurately tracking
an outbound bearing?
a. the ADF arrow should be pointing straight down.
b. the bearing to the station will be the reciprocal of the aircraft's heading.
c. if the bearing is higher than intended, the pilot should correct to the left.
BONUS Q?: In the example described in the above Lesson, what is the "missing" item the pilot
should do after the procedure turn?
a. review the Missed Approach procedure.
b. tune NAV1 to 113.7 and set course 134, to use the HSI as a cross-check of the MAP location.
c. report to ATC that he or she is established on the inbound approach course.
ANSWERS: 1. C ... 2. D ... BONUS: C

Lesson 3: Taking the Back Roads
Introduction
This Lesson describes Localizer Back Course Approaches and how to fly them.

To review, localizers are radio signals which
provide guidance along the extended centerline
of a runway.
The localizer antenna array is located past the
far threshold of the runway for which it is
installed, and broadcasts its highly directional
signal down the centerline of the pavement and
along the final approach leg for the runway, for
anywhere from about 15-30 miles.
A side effect of the way the localizer's radio
signal is engineered is that it also broadcasts this
same signal in the opposite direction; i.e. along
what would be the departure leg of the same
runway, also for anywhere from 15-30 miles. This side of the signal is referred to as the back course.
For the most part, the side of the localizer course beyond the antenna array is not meant to be used.
However, in some cases, Instrument Approach Procedures are developed around following this signal
in toward the runway, i.e. in the reciprocal direction from that for which it is primarily intended. The
result is a Localizer Back Course Approach. This is not a precision approach (since the glideslope
signal, if active, is not set up for use in this direction and must therefore be ignored). However, it
allows for an Instrument Approach Procedure to be developed for use in that direction without having
to install a completely separate ILS system. All localizers transmit back courses, but not all back
courses have Back Course Approach procedures associated with them.
It is important to note that most popular flight simulator software does not faithfully represent how, or
particularly when, ILS systems are active, which can cause confusion about what back courses are and
when they exist. In the simulated world, all ILS transmitters are active whenever the user is within
range of them. Often, a single runway has two ILS installations (one for each direction), and most of
the time in such a situation, both systems share the same frequency, since only one direction is active at
any given time. The software simulates the one pointed toward the aircraft as being active, which might
be the reciprocal of the intended arrival runway, until passing a point approximately abeam midfield.
This is not the same thing as a localizer back course. In the real world, only the system in use for the
active runway direction will be on, and a true back course will always appear along the centerline in
the upwind direction.
The key difference in navigating a back course versus using the localizer from its primary intended
direction is reverse sensing. When flying a VOR radial or a localizer in its regularly intended
direction, the CDI needle will move right if the intended course is to the right of the aircraft, indicating
that the pilot should correct toward the right; and vice-versa. However, when following a back course,
i.e. traversing the localizer signal in the opposite direction to that which it was primarily designed,
these indications are all reversed. So instead of "flying toward the needle," the pilot must correct in the
opposite direction from that which the CDI is indicating.
In aircraft equipped with a full rotating HSI, the reverse sensing issue can be overcome by rotating the
HSI to the reciprocal heading of the back course, i.e., setting it to the heading of the regular, front
course localizer even though you're following it in the back-course direction. Visually, this puts the
CDI needle back to where it moves in the logical direction for course corrections.
Tracking a back course via autopilot requires use of a "BC" or similarly named mode, if so equipped.
When flying a localizer, the needle sensitivity increases as the distance to the antenna array decreases,
because the width of the radio beam gets wider the further away you are. On a regular LOC approach,
the maximum sensitivity just prior to touchdown is still based on being most of the runway length
away from the antenna, since it is beyond the far end from where you land. When flying a back course,
though, the needle will become more and more sensitive until actually passing over the antenna array
on short final. So the demand for accurate course tracking is greater on the back course than on the
normal LOC course. That, combined with the natural tendency to correct in the wrong direction, makes
flying a back course approach much more challenging than a normal LOC approach.
Aside from the aforementioned reverse sensing and decreased tolerance for course deviation, there's no
further difference between flying a back course approach versus flying a LOC approach as described in
Lesson One. The vertical aspect of the approach is managed in the exact same way, using either DME
or a secondary nav-aid radial or bearing as your point references. So go back to that first Lesson if you
need to review.
More Detail
In our progressively more complicated series of non-precision approaches, the next one in line is the
Localizer Back Course Approach. In reality, aside from a couple of very key differences, procedurally they
are not really that different from regular Localizer Approaches. However, the key differences being fairly
significant, they do merit their own Lesson. Localizer Back Course Approaches, like NDB Approaches and
other more archaic procedures, are becoming less and less common in the US; however, it's worth it to have
this knowledge in your arsenal especially if you want to fly smaller, General Aviation aircraft into somewhat
more remote airfields, as you still may well encounter one in that scenario.
For starters, let's review what a localizer is and how it works.
A localizer is a radio beam, a signal which provides guidance to pilots for finding the extended centerline of a
runway. They emanate from an array of antennae which span approximately the entire width of the runway,
and are usually located about 700 feet beyond the far end of the runway they provide guidance for. For
example, in the above photograph, you can see the localizer array for runway 5L at Indianapolis International
Airport in Indiana, USA. It's a few hundred feet beyond the reciprocal end, 23R, which is in the lower left of
the picture. When utilizing a localizer as part of an ILS or simple LOC approach, you come in from the
opposite end of the runway from where it is installed. In the diagram below, note that the runway (9/27,
running east/west) is currently being used in the westbound (27) direction, and the localizer is to the west.
Departing aircraft will fly over it, but, arriving aircraft will make their final approach from the east and will
not cross over the antenna except on a missed approach.
Localizer antenna arrays produce a highly directional signal -- a very narrow
beam, such that an aircraft deviating from the center by as little as 2.5
degrees will show full deflection on their CDI needles. The beam widens as
it goes further out, because the angle of deviation from the signal's origin is
what's being measured, not the distance from centerline. The effect of this is
that the closer to touchdown you get, the more accurately you (or your autopilot) will need to track that beam
in order to show a centered needle. However, when hitting the touchdown zone, you're still most of the
runway length away from the antenna. The tolerable deviation in terms of feet off-center is much less at
touchdown than it is at 15 miles out, but, there is still a small margin for error. (Keep this in mind, as it
becomes important once we get a little deeper into the Lesson.)
The antenna array broadcasts its beam from its origin point, 700 feet beyond the far threshold, down the
centerline of the runway and out beyond it along the entended centerline on what would be the final approach
leg of the traffic pattern. The signal goes out anywhere from 15-30nm. However, because of the way these
radio signals are engineered, the beam actually extends in the opposite direction away from the antenna array
as well, along what would be the departure leg of the traffic pattern, also for about 15-30nm. This side of the
signal is referred to as the back course.
While all localizers broadcast back courses -- it's not a choice, but a side effect of the way the signals are
constructed -- not all back courses are intended to be used. The vast majority, in fact, are not. A few, though,
have been used to construct Instrument Approach Procedures called Localizer Back Course Approaches
which rely on navigating this "extra" signal to the runway in the opposite direction from that which the
localizer was really designed and intended for. The real-world reason for doing this is that it is cheaper than
installing and maintaining a whole separate ILS system for use in the opposite direction. The resulting
approach is a non-precision approach, so, it can't be used in all of the weather situations that a full ILS can be.
If there is a need for a precision approach in that direction, a large-scale commercial airport will generally go
ahead and install a second ILS system so that the runway has two -- one for use in each direction. But for
smaller, less-often used runways and airfields with smaller operating budgets, a non-precision approach that
"comes for free" with the price of installing the precision approach in the other direction is better than
nothing.
One very, very important distinction that must be made here, when discussing localizer back courses, is the
difference between the real and simulated aviation arenas. While multiplayer servers and networks like
VATSIM have turned the hobby into an entire interactive world populated by many of the same types of
actors that exist in reality, flight simlulation software is, at its roots, a single-user system. In the real world,
airport operations staff decide which ILS systems to turn on and which ones to turn off; in the virtual one, all
ILS systems are on if the pilot is within receiving range of them. Simulated runways which have two separate
ILS systems in opposing directions using the same frequency will automatically "pop" from one to the other
when the pilot crosses a point approximately abeam midfield. Two pilots on VATSIM approaching that
scenario simultaneously from opposite directions with their NAV radios tuned to the same ILS frequencies
will each see a different ILS transmitter as being active; obviously, this is not the case in the real world,
where only the ILS system for the runway's active direction will be transmitting at any given time. So, certain
localizer back courses which might exist in the real world will not exist in the virtual world because that same
runway's "partnered," reciprocal ILS system will be temporarily "on" and facing that direction instead.
So, assuming you find a virtual ILS system which is actually operating while you're approaching from the
back-course side, what's going to be different about navigating that signal versus the front course one? The
main difference is termed reverse sensing, and this refers to how the CDI needle on your HSI or VOR gauge
moves when you deviate from the centerline of the intended course. When flying a VOR radial or a localizer
in its regularly intended direction, the CDI needle will move right if the intended course is to the right of the
aircraft, indicating that the pilot should correct toward the right. If you're too far right, the path you should be
on is to your left, and the CDI needle will move to the left, indicating you should adjust your heading to the
left to get back on it. But when you're approaching from the opposite direction, this is all reversed, so instead
of "flying toward the needle," a needle moving to the right means the pilot must correct to the left, and vice-
versa.
The reason for this goes back to the fact that it's all coming from a radio signal. The signal and the receiver
don't act any differently based on which way the aircraft is pointing. Look at the above diagram of the
localizer signal again and notice that when inbound on the ILS 27 (flying right-to-left on the diagram), a
deviation to the right is represented in blue, and a left deviation is in yellow. (For this example, on approach
to a westbound runway, right is too far north, and left is too far south -- obviously that's not the case in all
approaches depending on the direction the runway faces, but, for this one, it makes describing what's going
on a little easier.) So when flying westbound and inbound to land on 27, an aircraft in the blue area is too far
to the right and must correct to the left. And if they should perform a missed approach (or touch-and-go or
stop-and-go) and find themselves on the departure leg, it's still the case that being in the blue area to the north
means they're too far right.
(INTERESTING TIDBIT: my choice of colors here was not arbitrary. On much older VOR gauges, a band
of blue and yellow striping around the lower perimeter of the gauge, much like the flap extension markings on
a GA aircraft's airspeed gauge, indicated which "lobe" of the LOC signal you were in. Published charts and
textbooks in groundschool all had the localizers represented this way; even today, the "elongated triangle"
which represents the LOC signal is charted as being shaded more darkly on the right-hand side. For reasons
unknown, the color system was abandoned decades ago in favor of simpler left and right vocabulary; this
may have been around the time that back course approaches started being phased out.)
Now, turn the aircraft around and put it inbound from the west to east, flying left-to-right on the above
diagram. Remember, nothing about the signal nor the receiver has changed. Now, following the LOC 27 back
course to runway 9, the blue (north) area is too far left, and the yellow (south) area is too far right. But the
needle is going to move in the direction which corresponds to the color, not what corresponds to the approach
the plane is doing. Again, the receiver has no way to differentiate which side of the signal the pilot is
attempting to navigate.
The upshot of all of this is that when inbound on a back course approach, whichever side of the gauge the
needle points to, the pilot must correct in the opposite direction of what they are used to. This sounds easy
enough to do in theory, but, in practice, especially if you've flown dozens or hundreds of VOR radials or LOC
or ILS approaches, old habits are often hard to break. And, the second complication makes things even
worse!
The second issue with back courses which makes them more challenging harkens back to what I mentioned
from the outset, which is the increased sensitivity stemming from the fact that the signal narrows as you get
closer to it. Remember that it emanates from a point 700-ish feet beyond the runway threshold if you're
approaching in the normal LOC direction, which becomes 700-ish feet prior to the runway threshold when
coming in along the back course. So all along the approach, you're runway-length-plus-1400-feet closer to
the transmitter than you would be on a regular LOC, and the resulting beam is that much narrower. You have
to track it that much more accurately to achieve a centered needle, and it will throw all the way to full
deflection that much more readily. Combine this with the tendency you already have to course-correct in the
wrong direction, and flying a LOC back course can get really frustrating really quickly!
There are two saving graces when it comes to navigating a LOC back course successfully. First, if you have a
HSI gauge rather than an old-school VOR, in which the entire course directional arrow and deviation needle
rotates with the selected course setting, you can spin it around to the direction of the regular LOC approach
course. Remember, unlike a VOR, changing the OBS knob doesn't affect the left-or-right deviation indicated;
it only rotates the display. (Heck, if you're crazy, you can set it off by 90 degrees and still fly it, if you can
figure out how to interpret the needle.) But flipping it by 180 degrees relative to the back course, so that the
arrow points to the bottom when inbound, the needle will appear to move in the "correct" direction from the
pilot's right-side-up vantage.
Secondly -- you would think that trying to track a back course via autopilot would be impossible, since it will
automatically correct the aircraft's heading in the direction the needle is deviating. And, you'd be correct.
Except, many autopilots include a "BC" or "BCRS" mode. Can you guess what that does? Yep, it essentially
reverses the course-correcting mechanism so that the aircraft will automatically track the back course. Having
this mode available and active is absolutely necessary in order to fly a Localizer Back Course Approach via
autopilot. The system will not be able to maintain track on the approach course otherwise, since it will adjust
the heading to the direction the needle is drifting, which on a back course only makes the deviation worse.
Flipping the HSI to the reciprocal (or any other) heading will have no effect since the autopilot is basing its
corrective action on the deviation it is detecting via radio signal, not how that deviation appears on the gauge.
Appearing here is the Localizer Back Course

Approach to runway 17R at Grand Forks International
Airport in Grand Forks, North Dakota. It is one of the
few Localizer Back Course Approaches still in use,
and, my understanding (from the research I did
leading up to writing this Lesson) is that its real-world
use at this point is primarily as a training exercise.
But, here it is, and we can train on it too!
Like all other approaches we've discussed so far, it can

be initiated in one of two main ways -- ATC can
vector you to the Final Approach Course inbound, or,
you can be cleared to perform the full approach from
the Initial Approach Fix or one of the feeder points. In
this case, the feeder location is Grand Forks VOR,
GFK 114.3. Cross it at or above 3600 feet (at whatever
altitude ATC assigned), and fly along an outbound
course of 353 degrees to a DME of 5.3. The Initial
Approach Fix is called MANZA; it's located along the
Localizer Back Course (I-GFK 109.1) at a DME of
4.9. Flip your NAV radio from the VOR to the LOC
and turn to 354 plus or minus a wind correction; that
wind correction will be automatic if you successfully
track the LOC. Note, you're not in BC mode yet --
whether you're using autopilot or flying by hand, at
this point you're still tracking this localizer in the front
course direction!
As you fly along the LOC, your DME will count

upward from 4.9, signifying that you're further outbound from MANZA. On this chart there's a procedure
turn which has the usual marking of "remain within 10nm." Assuming your airspeed is 180-ish knots, you're
going to cover that in about three minutes. The outbound portion of the procedure turn will consume the third
minute; thus, your continued track along the outbound approach course prior to starting that turn can be no
longer than about two more minutes or 6 more nautical miles. You should therefore initiate the procedure turn
no later than crossing the 11.0 DME point.
As you commence the right turn to 039 (and, start descending from 3600 to 2400, as noted on the chart), note
that you're turning into the darker shaded area of the LOC "triangle." This is the side that will represent as
right-of-course on your VOR receiver. Your CDI should drift to the left as soon as you start the procedure
turn; ignore it for now. You'll count 60 seconds and start a left turn to 219. Note, though, that you're still
within the darker region -- even though you've now turned the airplane around, and are left of the extended
centerline from your vantage point, the CDI will still be off to the left. Here's where you'd activate your BC
tracking mode if you have it. As you encounter the approach course, while you'd think that course would be
coming in from your right (and it is), the needle will come back toward center from the left. Complete the
turn and intercept the approach course. (Don't forget to "report established" to ATC if they requested it.)
On this approach, you maintain 2400 until the FAF, which is MANZA again -- so, watch the DME count back
down to 4.9 as you track that inbound course, correcting in the opposite direction as that which is indicated
by the CDI. Once you pass that, you can begin descending to the minimum altitude. On this approach, with a
DME and therefore a reference to locate WUSIK, the minimum for straight-ins to 17R is 1200 feet MSL (357
AGL) regardless of aircraft type; note also that you do not need to time the Missed Approach Point, because
you have a DME reference for it. The CDI needle will start to get really squirrelly at this stage because you're
coming ever so close to passing directly over the LOC antenna array. At 1.5 DME you're at WUSIK, and at
0.5 you're at the Missed Approach Point of ONAYU and hopefully are well within sight of the runway.
Summary
A localizer, a highly directional radio signal which provides guidance along a runway's extended
centerline, is generated by an antenna array approximately 700 feet beyond the far threshold of the
runway it serves.
The localizer signal extends for 15-30 miles in both the downwind and upwind direction; the upwind
signal is referred to as the back course.
All localizers have a back course, but often in the simulated world a back course is eradicated by the
simulator activating the runway's "partnered" reciprocal ILS system which shares the same frequency.
A small number of back courses have non-precision Instrument Approach Procedures designed around
them, called Localizer Back Course Approaches.
When navigating a back course inbound, the pilot must contend with reverse sensing, which means
they must correct toward the opposite side from that toward which the needle drifts.
Tracking a back course via autopilot requires it to be equipped with a BC or BCRS mode.
In aircraft with fully rotating HSI gauges, the appearance of reverse sensing can be negated by setting
the OBS to the reciprocal, i.e. front course, heading even when following the back course.
Because the aircraft is significantly closer to the antenna array on a back course approach, the angle
off-course is magnified and the needle is that much more sensitive to course deviation.
Although the above two factors make LOC BC approaches challenging, in all other aspects, the
procedure is no different than any other non-precision approach.
Quiz
1: Which of the following is a true statement about localizer back courses?

a. in the real world, all localizers also broadcast back course signals.
b. all localizer back course signals have Back Course Approaches associated with them.
c. the back course signal comes from a different antenna array than the regular (front) course.
1: Which of the following is a true statement about automated (i.e. via autopilot) tracking of a back
course signal?
a. to do so, one only needs to flip the HSI to the front course heading.
b. it is only possible if the back course has a charted Instrument Approach Procedure.
c. it requires activation of "BC" or "BCRS" mode on the autopilot.
ANSWERS: 1. A ... 2. C

Lesson 4: Imaginary Lines
Introduction
This Lesson examines RNAV Approaches and explains their successful execution.
Vocabulary
turn anticipation: as aircraft do not turn instantly at each waypoint along their programmed route, this
refers to the capability of a navigation system to compensate by beginning each turn just far enough
ahead of the waypoint that the plane winds up on the new target path without overshooting it.
radius-to-fix: think of it as super-turbocharged turn anticipation -- this is a method used by complex
modern FMC units which, in a nutshell, figures out what turn rate an aircraft needs to achieve at a
given forward speed to produce an arcing path through a string of points along a curve. Units capable
of this sort of calculation are considered far superior than the simple point-to-point navigation
employed by most conventional GPS units.
Concepts
RNAV Approaches are based upon GPS Fixes, which are not locatable by any radio nav-aid; so, the
aircraft must be equipped with an advanced navigation system such as a GPS receiver or an FMC to fly
them.
While there are a variety of different types of RNAV equipment as well as many different certification
levels, the two main categories of equipment a VATSIM pilot needs to be aware of are GPS units and
RNP units.
GPS units are capable of navigating an aircraft laterally from point to point, and the fancier ones can
import entire SIDs/DPs, STARs, Victor or Jet airway waypoints, and/or IAPs such that the pilot does
not need to manually enter each individual VOR, intersection, or fix name. While many do employ
turn anticipation to a certain degree, they're not really calculating a true and complete flight path
based on the aircraft's turn performance and forward speed, but are instead connecting each waypoint
directly to the next and then navigating the plane to that path.
RNP stands for Required Navigation Performance, which refers to a navigation unit that is capable
of estimating the aircraft's turn and climb/descent performance at any given point in the flight in order
to plot a highly accurate three-dimensonal path which connects all of the waypoints on the route. Such
units calculate curved flight paths via radius-to-fix methods rather than simple point-to-point
navigation. In VATSIM, the most common example of an RNP unit would be the FMC on many high-
detail add-on jet and turboprop aircraft.
RNP units always include Vertical Navigation (VNAV) capabilities. For GPS units, some do, and some
do not. Those that do are able to fly approaches with LPV -- Localizer Performance with Vertical
Guidance; flying a GPS approach without vertical guidance is termed LP -- Localizer Performance
without Vertical Guidance, or sometimes simply LNAV -- Lateral Navigation. Most GPS Approach
plates list separate minimums depending on which of these modes you're employing.
If you do not use an add-on FMC which imports its own, updated AIRAC information, one useful
resource for updating your simulator's nav-aid database to the current AIRAC cycle is
http://www.aero.sors.fr/.
Many airports have both GPS and RNP approaches to the same runway. These will usually be
designated RNAV (GPS) Y and RNAV (RNP) Z approaches. The flightpaths for the two approaches are
not the same, so when requesting and/or accepting an RNAV approach assignment from ATC, it is
important to be clear about which one is being assigned, and whether you are able to accept it.
Unlike other approach types, ATC will typically not offer vectors onto course; they will simply clear
you direct to the starting point for the approach and immediately also for the approach itself.
When flying an RNP approach, or a GPS approach with LPV, the unit will provide vertical guidance to
help the pilot find the proper glidepath for the final approach; and while it is not considered a precision
approach, it's close, with minmums being nearly what you would see on an ILS. Most of the time there
will be two sets of minimums, and the different numbers (0.15 DA or 0.30 DA) refer to how precisely
the unit is capable of keeping its position calculation. On VATSIM you can always assume you and
your equipment are certified to whatever level you choose, as it's not enforced by anyone.
On the other hand, when flying a GPS approach with LP only, the procedure is very much like the non-
precision approaches we've discussed already, with a charted minimum altitude coming at each
waypoint then a final descent to the approach minimums after crossing the FAF. Minimums for this
type of approach are similar to what you've seen for other non-precision approach types in this rating's
previous Lessons.
More Detail
More and more, traditional radio nav-aids are being decommissioned as GPS-based navigation becomes more
and more pervasive. The expense of maintaining a radio beacon becomes a lower and lower priority as it's
used by an ever-smaller percentage of air traffic. So new approaches, using imaginary points in space defined
only by a set of LAT/LON coordinates, are more and more common as days go on. Therefore, knowing how
to read and fly them is more and more vital to the 21st-century pilot.
Most commonly, navigation systems capable of locating points in space without ground-based radio signals
fall into one of two categories: GPS and RNP. While there are a wide variety of devices with a wider array of
capabilities and twice as many different certification levels, these are the two distinctions that most VATSIM
pilots need to be aware of.
GPS Units are primarily lateral navigation systems; that is, they provide an aircraft's position in terms of
north, south, east, and west, against a two-dimensional map. When coupled with an autopilot, a plane is able
to track a path created by a series of waypoints linked in "connect-the-dots"-like form -- straight from one to
the next, then the next, and so forth. Since planes do not turn instantly, many GPS units are able to employ
some degree of turn anticipation so that it minimizes the amount that the aircraft overshoots the path of its
next leg; however, it is generally not truly calculating a precise path based on the variable turning capabilities
of the aircraft. It's mostly just getting it from each point onto the straight-line path to the next one.
RNP stands for Required Navigation Performance. In and of itself, this is a fairly vague descriptor. To boil
it down to simple terms, it refers to a navigation unit that is capable of estimating the aircraft's turn and
climb/descent performance at any given point in the flight in order to plot a highly accurate three-dimensonal
path which connects all of the waypoints on the route. An RNP unit may, at its heart, use GPS for positioning
information; but, rather than connecting these with straight lines and then assisting the plane to navigate to
these lines, it predicts a precisely shaped lateral flightpath through this series of points based on the
anticipated turning rate of the aircraft at its predicted speed at that moment. In addition, it manages the
vertical component, using modes called VNAV and Level Change which we referred to in our description of
FMC useage within the P4. (If you took that rating with us, and need a refresher on this, check out Lesson 8
of our P4 program.) In VATSIM, the most common example of an RNP unit would be the FMC on many
high-detail add-on jet and turboprop aircraft.
So while RNP units always include Vertical Navigation (VNAV) capabilities, when it comes to GPS units,
some do, and some do not. If you have a GPS which provides vertical guidance (in essence, a "virtual
glideslope"), this is referred to as LPV -- Localizer Performance with Vertical Guidance. Flying a GPS
approach without vertical guidance is termed LP -- Localizer Performance without Vertical Guidance, or
sometimes simply LNAV -- Lateral Navigation.
Now that we've covered the units themselves, let's look at the approach procedures that are associated with
them.
In nearly all cases, the naming conventions of RNAV approaches are that the GPS version is given the
designation "Y", and the RNP version is referred to as "Z". As we'll see momentarily, just because these are
both RNAV approaches to the same runway, they are not the same approach and thus when communicating
with ATC it is vitally important to clarify which one you are assigned and/or able to accept.
First, let's look at the GPS

approach to runway 28R at Fort
Lauderdale International in
Florida (KFLL), shown here on
the left. For comparison
purposes, I've put the ILS 28R
approach on the right; note, for
starters, that the flightpaths they
depict, including the course
reversal hold, are extremely
similar. As a matter of fact, the
Initial Approach Fix of JUMAR
and the Final Approach Fix of
SNAPE are exactly the same. In
the GPS approach, they are
depicted as the four-point stars
with the circular hollow areas,
because in that case they will be
located using satellite-based
means; whereas in the ILS
approach they are depicted as
DME references on the
localizer, as when flying that
approach, they are found via the
use of a ground-based radio
beacon. But for Air Traffic
Control purposes, they're the
same point in either case. Even
the Missed Approach Hold Fix
of HUKUK is the same for
either approach.
Regardless of which of these

two approaches you fly, the
procedure is the same -- FLL at
or above 2500, then 2500 to
JUMAR, remain at 2500 for the
reversal hold, then once inside
of JUMAR descend to 2000 by
SNAPE and then on down to
the minimums. Said minimums
are 257 MSL if on the ILS; but,
if you're on a GPS approach
with LPV, note that the decision
height is also 257! Without
LPV, the approch is flown just
like a LOC without a glideslope
beacon, and the minimum is
essentially 600 feet.
Now let's look at the RNP version of the approach. Note right away
that it's very different from the ILS and GPS versions, as it includes
this long arcing path to the final approach leg from the north side, or, a
45-ish degree approach angle from the northeast, or a straight-in (from
our old friend JUMAR). However, aside from the single point along
the straight-in approach path, the rest of this approach looks fairly (or
shall I say, completely) dissimilar from the two shown above. Even
the Missed Approach Procedure is completely different.
To fly this approach accurately, particularly the arc starting from the
northwest at BEPAC, a conventional point-to-point GPS isn't going to
cut it. A fully capable RNP device which can manage the arc depicted
from CUSRA, ZITPO, WONAR, PRHIB, and finally to ZUKED will
employ a technique known as radius-to-fix which means that it's
going to calculate how tight of a turn must be made in order to pass
through each point in a steady, constant-rate turn, and then will
monitor the forward groundspeed and control the aircraft's bank angle
in order to effect the exact turn rate needed. On top of that, it is going
to automatically guide the pilots to the altitudes denoted along each
segment of the charted path, and then establish the necessary descent
rate to put the aircraft on the pavement right at the touchdown zone.
Obviously, a very highly modern system is required to do this. In
VATSIM the only aircraft capable of such a thing are, for the most
part, your highly technically modeled add-on aircraft with state-of-
the-art Flight Management Systems.
Most of the time there will be two sets of minimums for RNP
approaches based on the level to which your aircraft's systems are
certified as accurate. The different numbers (0.15 DA or 0.30 DA)
refer to how precisely the unit is capable of keeping its position
calculation. (NOTE: it's a stupid abbreviation to use, since DA in an
approach ostensibly refers to Decision Altitude. As best as I can tell,
in this sense it means Degree of Accuracy.) The lower the deviation
factor, the lower the minimums. On VATSIM it may not be evident
what your RNP accuracy factor is; you can always assume you and
your equipment are certified to whatever level you choose, as it's not
enforced by anyone.
One key difference in the way that ATC treats GPS or RNP approaches from the way they handle
conventional approaches is the way they are initiated. As we've discussed in past lessons, generally speaking
the controller has two options -- either vector you toward and provide instructions for intercepting the Final
Approach Course, or, if your cleared IFR route terminates on an IAF for your procedure, they'll clear you for
the full procedure from there. RNAV approaches open up a third possibility -- they'll simply clear you direct
to the starting point for the approach path (with the presumption that you can navigate direct to it from
wherever you happen to be) and then clear you for the approach. It's not too dissimilar from being cleared
from an Initial Approach Fix, except that you could be cleared direct to the entry point from anywhere,
regardless of whether or not your filed route happens to include that point. With a GPS or FMS system, you're
expected to be able to do this; pilots using the default FSX GPS to fly, who cannot easily edit their flight path
enroute, often have to refuse RNAV approaches due to this limitation.
On that topic: if you're flying an add-on plane with an accurately-modeled FMS, it very often uses its own
database of navigation beacons and GPS fixes, rather than relying on the ones which come standard with the
default scenery that comes with your simulator's installation. If you do not use an add-on FMC which imports
its own, updated AIRAC information, one useful resource for updating your simulator's nav-aid database to
the current AIRAC cycle is http://www.aero.sors.fr/.
Summary
RNAV approaches are primarily found in two varieties:
GPS approaches, usually designated RNAV (GPS) Y, and
RNP approaches, referred to as RNAV (RNP) Z.
Both types are constructed using waypoints which are only locatable via satellite-based navigation
systems and not by ground-based radio beacons.
GPS units navigate primarily point-to-point; some are capable of providing glideslope assistance
(referred to as LPV) and some are not (referred to as LV or LNAV).
RNP units, such as the FMS on a modern jetliner, calculate a precise 3D path based on turn and climb
performance.
GPS approaches are designed very similarly to ILS approaches; when flying a GPS approach using a
unit that provides glideslope assistance, the minimums are lower than when flying it with only lateral
guidance, essentially like all other non-precision approaches.
RNP approaches nearly always include a curved, arcing path onto final, and the RNP unit will manage
that as well as the vertical approach component.
Generally, ATC will not vector you onto final but will instead simply clear you direct to the initial
approach fix from wherever you are.
If you are using a simulated GPS or FMC which relies on the nav-aid data which comes with your
scenery, you can update it using the website linked within this Lesson.
Quiz
1: Which of the following is a true statement about RNAV (GPS) Y approaches?
a. they often, but not always, mimic the flight path of the ILS approach for that runway, if
there is one.
b. all aircraft are sufficiently equipped to fly one of these approaches.
c. LPV means that there's no vertical guidance and the approach is flown in step-down
fashion like any other non-precision approach.
2: Which of the following is a true statement about RNAV (RNP) Z approaches?

a. a typical example of a unit capable of flying it is a Flight Management Computer.
b. a standard GPS, such as the one modeled in default MSFS aircraft, cannot properly
navigate these.
c. when flying one, it's a given that the nav unit will provide vertical assistance.
ANSWERS: 1. A ... 2. D

Lesson 5: Raiders of the Lost Arc
Introduction
This Lesson examines flying approaches which include DME arcs.
Concepts
Using any VOR/DME within receiving range, you can find and plot your present location quickly,
easily, and with high accuracy by determining which radial you're on, then using the DME to determine
how far out on that radial you are. Spin the OBS on your HSI or VOR gauge until it centers, and check
the "TO/FROM" flag. You don't have to set it to any charted radial, necessarily; this will work for any
imaginary point in space around the VOR.
The DME gives straight-line distance between transmitter and receiver, which will be slightly more
than your actual geographic distance, due to the altitude. However, flying a charted DME arc means
flying it by the number on the readout; no correction calculation is necessary.
A DME arc is a curved path (part of a circle, with the VOR at its center) on which the reported distance
to that VOR remains constant.
There's no setting on a conventional Autopilot which will automatically keep you on the DME arc -- it
will take manual flying, or the use of Heading Hold with constant adjustment of the heading bug to
maintain a heading that is more-or-less 90 degrees offset from the bearing to the VOR.
Generally recommended practice is to make a correction every 10 degrees, and generally accepted
tolerance for deviation is +/- 1.0 NM. If the distance drifts upward, correct toward the VOR somewhat
aggressively to remain on the arc; but if it is drifting downward, maintain heading or correct away
gently as the arc will naturally curve in toward your flight path. If your DME display includes a closing
speed, it should remain near 0.
In rare cases, the arc will be broken into several segments which include step-down altitudes. To know
which segment you're on, re-center the needle on the HSI or VOR gauge to see what your current
bearing-to-station is and compare that to the marked reference lines on the chart.
The final approach course might take any form (ILS, LOC, VOR, or NDB). Once your CDI is centered
on a course less than about 10 degrees different from the final approach course, reset your NAV
instruments to the approach course and make an approximately 90-degree turn to intercept.
Once you have flown the arc to the course intercept and have made the inbound turn, the rest of the
approach is no different than it would be from any straight-line feeder leg.
More Detail
If you happened to take the P3 program through us, you may recall that in our lesson on VFR routes and
navigation (Lesson Five), we touched briefly on using DME arcs as a way to avoid class B or C airspace
boundaries when flying via radio nav and without a GPS moving map as a backup. If you understood that
Lesson and perhaps even have employed the technique, then what we're about to explain isn't any different
than that, except that instead of choosing your own DME arc to follow, you'll be following one dictated on an
Instrument Approach chart.
If you didn't take the P3 with us, or at all -- or your memory is spotty and you just don't recall how it's done --
don't worry; we'll go over it below. We'll start by laying some groundwork concepts and then we'll move into
how the arcs work.
First, forget everything you know about VOR navigation when it comes to tracking airways or approach
courses. (Well -- just for a moment, I mean. Please remember it again later, say, when you need to track an
airway or an approach course.) VOR stations, especially those which broadcast DME signals as well, are
powerful navigation tools even aside from their ability to lay out invisible paths in the sky. Anywhere you
are, on or off of an airway, you can determine your location with a very high degree of accuracy as long as
you're within receiving range of a VOR/DME. To do so, tune it on your NAV radio (don't forget to play the
Morse identifier briefly and make sure it's the right one), then adjust the OBS setting on your VOR or HSI
gauge until the needle centers. It doesn't necessarily have to be set to a radial that appears on a chart
somewhere -- wherever you are in relation to that station will determine the point at which the needle
indicates no deviation from the selected course. If you circle the setting completely around once, the needle
will center twice -- once on your current bearing to the station, and again on the reciprocal. The "TO/FROM"
flag on the gauge will tell you which is which. Now you know exactly which direction you are from that
station, and the DME will tell you how far out along that radial you are. Using this method you can plot your
position on any scale chart and be highly confident of that location.
Note that the distance shown on the DME display is the straight-line distance between transmitter and
receiver -- which is not necessarily your lateral distance along the ground. In fact, the distance on the DME
will nearly always be slightly more than the lateral distance, because it is affected by the altitude of the
aircraft above the ground. To fully understand why you'd have to remember a little basic trigonometry, but,
the good news is that the difference is usually negligible, and the further you are away from the VOR, the less
the altitude affects the distance reading. If you are fairly close to the station and at a fairly high altitude,
though, the difference will be magnified and you'll be laterally closer to the VOR than what the DME shows.
Even better news, though, is that when flying a charted DME arc, that difference is already factored in; i.e.
you're expected to fly it to the number that actually shows on the DME display.
A DME arc is a curved path (part of a circle, with the VOR at its
center) on which the reported distance to that VOR remains constant.
Remember from geometry class that a circle is just a curve at which
every point on it is the same distance from its center. So, every nav-aid
that includes a DME signal has an unlimited number of DME arcs
which encircle it, because the arc is just an imaginary circle around
that nav-aid at a constant distance. Some approaches use DME arcs as
their feeder legs instead of straight legs because those curved paths
work better for obstacle avoidance, noise-sensitive area avoidance, or
for traffic flow in that area than a straight feeder leg. Starting an
approach with a DME arc is like starting any other approach with a
feeder leg -- ATC will instruct you how to get to the IAF and then
subsequently clear you for the approach. Their instruction will often
include "... intercept the {VOR name} DME {distance} arc," but it
doesn't have to. Clearance to the IAF then clearance for the approach signifes, as it always does, that the pilot
should fly the full approach including the feeder leg as depicted on the chart.
Now here's the bad news -- unless you're flying with a very highly complex and modern avionics suite, there's
no setting on a conventional Autopilot which will automatically keep you on the DME arc. You'll need to fly
it by hand; or, more commonly, using the HDG mode and making frequent adjustments to the heading bug.
Staying on the DME arc means maintaining a heading that is more-or-less 90 degrees offset from the bearing
to the VOR. Re-adjust the OBS so that the needle is centered and the "TO" flag is on (if it's centered with
"FROM" showing, flip it 180 degrees). Then if flying a counter-clockwise arc, fly a heading of that bearing
plus 90 (so the VOR is at your 9 o'clock; i.e. to your left); on a clockwise arc, take the VOR bearing and
subtract 90 (so the VOR is on your right at the 3 o'clock position). As you make your way around the arc,
you'll adjust the OBS to maintain a centered needle, and your heading to maintain an offset of 90 degrees
from your current radial. Generally recommended practice is to make a correction every 10 degrees to remain
on the arc but I typically prefer monitoring and adjusting on a more-or-less constant basis. Watch the DME to
see if it is drifting upward or downward; the generally accepted tolerance is within 1.0 NM of the charted
distance. If it drifts upward, correct toward the VOR somewhat aggressively to remain on the arc, but if it is
drifting downward, simply maintain your present heading, or if you do correct, correct away very gently, as
the arc will naturally curve back in toward your flight path. If your DME display includes a closing speed to
the VOR, it should remain near 0.
In rare cases, the arc will be broken into several segments which include step-down altitudes. To know which
segment you're on, look at the HSI to see what your current bearing-to-station is, then take the reciprocal (or
look at the "tail of the arrow") and compare that to the marked reference lines on the chart. For an example of
this, check out the ILS or LOC/DME approach to runway 21R into Pasco, Washington State, USA (KPSC);
it's pictured below. If you start the approach from the west at GUSSE, the first segment of the leg (between
that and EXODE) is to be flown at or above 3500; from EXODE to ZALUX (the Intermediate Fix, and in this
case the intercept point for the Final Approach Couse) you fly at 3200. To know where along that arc you are,
look to see where the HSI or VOR centers on "TO" then take the reciprocal or look at the arrow's tail.
Between 273 and 306, you're on the segment between GUSSE and EXODE; if it's between 306 and 031,
you're between EXODE and ZALUX. (And if it's any higher than about 021, you'd better start turning right!)
The final approach course might take any form (ILS, LOC, VOR, or NDB); in any case, the arc is followed
until intercepting the Final Approach Course. That course will be indicated by the bearing to the VOR as
shown on your HSI, not by your current heading! Once your CDI is centered on a course less than about 10
degrees different from the final approach course, just reset your NAV instruments to the approach course and
make an approimately 90-degree turn to intercept. Most charts will indicate a lead radial (LR) letting you
know when to make the turn to intercept the approach course. (NOTE: after having cleared you for the
approach, ATC often asks you to report making the inbound turn, so, be ready to do so.)
Once you have flown the arc to the course intercept and have made the inbound turn, the rest of the approach
is no different than any other approach with a feeder leg. I've yet to see a feeder from a DME arc which
includes a hold entry or procedure turn; since the turn from the arc to the Final Approach Course is pretty
much always a 90-degree turn, there's generally not going to be a requirement for a course reversal. Looking
at the ILS 21R to KPSC, you can see that the two arc legs are marked "NoPT", as is the leg from Walla Walla
VOR (ALW 116.4). If you start the approach from Pasco VOR (PSC 109.8) however, you have an outbound
course of 031 at 3000, a procedure turn to 346 descending to 2900, then an inbound leg at 2400 to get back to
PSC and the FAF.
In the example pictured here (which we've alluded to several times already), we're flying into Pasco,
Washington State coming from the west; the last part of our route is YKM V204 PSC, and the wind is
favoring the runway 21s for arrival; for all intents and purposes, we've been assigned 21R. Now, ATC could
clear us for the approach from PSC ("cross Pasco at or above 3000, cleared for the ILS runway 21R
approach"); but, since V204 crosses GUSSE, another option is to put us on the arc feeder. They'll say
something along the lines of "cross GUSSE at or above 3500 then turn left heading 003 to intercept the Pasco
DME 14 arc, cleared for the ILS runway 21R approach," and will likely add, "report turning inbound at
ZALUX." If you're flying it by radio nav only, you're tuned to the Pasco VOR on 109.8 already since you're
tracking the 273 radial inbound (on course 093) as part of V204. The DME will be counting down, and as it
nears 14.0 (say, a mile early, around 15.0) you'll want to start a 90-degree left turn to 003. If you land right on
the arc, the DME will be 14.0, the closing speed will drop to 0, the HSI will be pointing straight off to the
right (still set to 093), and the needle will begin drifting to the right (the bottom of the gauge, if it's an HSI) to
indicate that you are left-of-course.
As you circle around the arc, you'll continually twist the OBS to re-center the needle; as you increase the
OBS bearing, the needle will come back toward the center and then will actually fall to the left if you set the
OBS at a bearing you've not yet reached. You'll adjust the heading bug to maintain that OBS value minus 90,
since this is a clockwise arc and the station should be at your three-o'clock. You'll watch the DME to ensure
that it's still 14.0; if it goes high, make an aggressive correction to the right (maybe 20 degrees) and make
sure you're "leading" the target heading by a fair amount so you're turning in closer toward the VOR. If the
DME is less than 14, you can correct left, or, if the deviation isn't substantial, just stay straight on and let the
arc naturally curve back in toward the aircraft. If you do nothing, the DME will start to drift back up as you
maintain a straight path away from the VOR.
Once that OBS is up to 126 (i.e. you're on the 306 radial) and the needle is centered, or if you set it to 126
and the needle indicates a right correction (because you're further left than that), you've crossed EXODE and
can drop from 3500 to 3200.
Continue making constant adjustments to keep the CDI needle centered, and the heading more-or-less 90
degrees less than the bearing to the station, correcting as described above to maintain 14.0 on the DME.
However, don't get so caught up in flying the arc that you forget where you're supposed to break off of it (says
the man speaking from experience, LOL!). Note that on this approach, the turn-in point is actually marked on
the chart, at a lead radial of 023 from Pasco -- eight degrees before the inbound course of 211. Once your
bearing to station is 203 (and your heading should be 113 or thereabouts), start making that inbound turn (and
report doing so to ATC, assuming they asked you to). Since in this case the final approach course is marked
by a localizer, during the inbound turn you should flip your NAV1 radio to 108.7 to start tracking the LOC
instead of the VOR. Note on this approach that you would also begin descending to 2400, as that is the
charted altitude for that segment and the altitude at which you cross JIVDO and intercept the glideslope.
Many approaches with DME arcs are VOR approaches; these are actually a bit easier as you lose the
necessity for the step of switching your NAV radio during the turn to final, although the resulting final
approach is of the non-precision, step-down type. (Incidentally, Pasco also offers a VOR/DME approach to
21R.) The best way to really understand how to fly the DME arc is to try it, and then after the flight, examine
a diagram of your flight path (FSX calls this the "Flight Analysis") to see how well or poorly it matches what
appears on the approach chart. Here's a screenshot of my own Flight Analysis from performing the approach
described in this Lesson.
Summary
Using a VOR/DME, you can determine your location precisely by using the OBS to determine your
present bearing to the station and the DME to determine your distance along that bearing.
DME distance is straight-line distance which is affected by altitude; however, at greater lateral
distances, the distortion effect is negligible, and flying a DME arc does not require any correction
calculation.
A DME arc is part of an imaginary circle which is at a constant DME reading from a nav-aid (usually a
VOR).
There is no conventional autopilot setting that will fly a DME arc; manual flying or use of HDG mode
with constant correction is required.
Constantly adjust the OBS to determine current bearing-to-station and fly a heading offset 90 degrees
from that; closing speed as indicated on the DME should remain near 0. Adjust toward the VOR if your
DME drifts too high; adjust away or simply remain on a straight path if it is too low, and the arc will
naturally curve back in toward your path.
If there is a step-down altitude during the arc, monitor your bearing-to-station to see where it falls in
relation to the relevant reference radial.
Once you're less than 10 degrees from the final approach course, begin your inbound turn (and reset
your NAV radio to the final nav-aid, if different from the DME reference nav-aid).
Most approach charts provide a lead radial (LR) indicating when you should start your turn to intercept
the approach course.
Once intercepting the final approach course, the rest of the approach is no different than it would be
having flown it from any straight-line feeder leg.
YouTube: "How To Intercept and Fly DME Arcs" -- a simple but very well-explained video on
intercepting and flying a DME arc, using the same ILS approach I've used in my example here. The
narrator doesn't show much on how the cockpit instruments will appear, but, does illustrate the
navigation theory by adding marks and highlights to an approach chart, which make the concepts easier
to visualize.
Quiz
1: You've tuned a VOR station on NAV1 and adjusted the OBS until the CDI centers. How do you
tell which radial you're on?
a. if the "TO/FROM" shows "FROM," simply look where the arrow is pointing.
b. if the "TO/FROM" shows "TO," look where the "tail" of the arrow is pointing.
c. if the "TO/FROM" shows "TO," look where the arrow is pointing then take the reciprocal.
1: Which of the following is a true statement about flying a DME arc?

a. the bearing-to-station should remain approximately 90 degrees offset from your heading.
b. the closing speed toward or away from the station should show close to 0.
c. the accepted tolerance is usually plus or minus 1 NM from the charted distance.
ANSWERS: 1. D ... 2. D

Lesson 6: Flying in Circles
Introduction
This Lesson examines the use of circling approaches.
Concepts
A pilot's desired arrival runway, based on the surface wind conditions, might not always have an
Instrument Approach Procedure associated with it. This is particularly often the case at medium-sized
or smaller airfields.
When an IAP to the pilot's desired arrival runway doesn't exist, the pilot can choose to use any
Instrument Approach for the same airport, then circle to the runway of choice once establishing visual
with it.
An IAP specific to a different runway may be used as a circling approach, or, an airport may have a
"generic" VOR or NDB approach published for it, designated the "A" or "Alpha" approach. If there is
more than one, the second one is called "B" and so forth.
When using a runway approach as a circling approach, the minimums listed by "Circling" must be
abided by. Generic approaches only contain circling approach minimums.
After descending to the decision altitude and (hopefully) attaining visual with the runway, the pilot can
essentially make a visual traffic pattern at their discretion (within the limits imposed by ATC
instruction, if applicable) to get to the desired arrival runway. The generally accepted circling radius is
usually approximately 2 nautical miles; it's slightly less for smaller category aircraft.
ATC does not usually issue circling approach clearances as a matter of routine; they're generally
requested by the pilot, either when ATC is not sure what the pilot will want to use based on the weather
conditions, or when the pilot has been given an "expected" approach but prefers something else.
The phraseology for circling approaches is simply the published name of the approach, the word
"circling" (or "circling to"), and the number of the desired arrival runway.
There are cases where terrain or trafic dictate that a circling approach only can be performed on one
side or the runway. Those restrictions would either be clearly stated on the chart or ATC would issue a
"circle left" or "circle right" approach clearance.
More Detail
If you took the P3 through us, you may recall that we opened it with a discussion of the "inversion
phenomenon" as it relates to the usual training progression of pilots in the real world versus those in the sim
world. In reality, most pilots start by flying single-engine piston planes recreationally, under VFR conditions
only, into and out of small, local airfields which often do not even have instrument approach procedures.
They step up from there possibly to add multi-engine and then jet ratings, as well as a rating for instrument
flying, before even considering the possibility of flying for a commercial carrier -- and usually even that starts
on a smaller, regional turboprop or jet before stepping up to joining the crew of a major airliner.
In the sim world, the progression is often the exact opposite, where a majority of pilots from day one will
become a virtual 737 Captain and learn how to use complex FMC systems and fly precision instrument
approaches. The concept of a non-precision approach, or even worse, an approach that doesn't lead to a
specific runway at all but simply gets you safely to the vicinity of the airport environment, is completely
foreign and new.
So, for starters, to understand what circling approaches are, you have to let go of the automatic assumption
that all Instrument Approach Procedures are exclusively designed to bring your aircraft 99% (or, in some
cases, 100%) of the way to the pavement. If you wanted a definition of a Precision Approach, then sure,
that'd be a good one. But generally speaking, an Instrument Approach Procedure is designed simply to get an
aircraft flying in Instrument Meteorological Conditions safely to the vicinity of the destination airfield where
hopefully they can attain sight of the runway and proceed the rest of the way visually.
Secondly, the mindset of the sim pilot who flies nothing but large aircraft to large airports is that practically
any runway they are using for arrival will have an Instrument Approach -- and almost exclusively, an ILS. A
situation where there isn't a precision approach available for the runway they want to land on would just be
unimaginable. (INTERESTING TIDBIT: a very popular flight simulator add-on is one which creates a
"fake" ILS approach to runway 10 at Princess Juliana International Airport, TNCM, on the island of St.
Maarten in the eastern Caribbean. It's a very popular airport for sim pilots to fly into, but the inexperienced
ones just can't seem to fathom that there are major runways in the world without ILS approaches!) At
smaller fields this is simply not the case. The hardware required to establish an instrument approach is
expensive to install and maintain, and not all smaller fields can afford them. Those that are lucky and affluent
enough to do so may very well have only one, which serves their largest runway in the direction in which it is
most often used. Should a pilot need, due to the prevailing surface winds, to land on that runway in the
opposite direction, or land on one of the smaller runways, they might discover that there is no Instrument
Approach Procedure serving the desired runway -- or is there?
A circling approach allows the pilot to transition from his or her IFR route to the area of the airport safely in
low visibility; that is, it gives them the ability to navigate a path into the airport environment while avoiding
any conflict with obstacles or terrain, down to the traffic pattern area. Once there, if he or she is able to see
the field at that point, the pilot would essentially establish a visual traffic pattern to the runway of his or her
choice (in concert with instruction from the Tower controller, if there is one) from wherever the aircraft
happens to be. (If you haven't taken the P3, this might be a good time to do a little research on how visual
traffic patterns work; or if you have, here's an opportunity to dust off those skills.)
Circling approaches fall into two
major categories. First, an
Instrument Approach Procedure
for any runway at the airport
may be utilized. If you took our
P4 program (or anyone else's,
for that matter, if it covered
everything it was supposed to),
you might recall that at the
bottom of the approach chart is a
set of minimums, and there's
most often a different set listed
for straight-in versus circling
approaches. The straight-in
minimums are given as "S-
{runway number}" and then the
"Circling" minimums are given
under that. Since a circling
approach is a non-precision
approach, the minimums for use
as a circling approach will most
often be significantly higher than those used when flying it straight in to the primarily intended runway.
Additionally, since the circling is essentially done at the pilot's discretion (out to a radius of no more than
about two-and-a-quarter nautical miles, and less depending on the aircraft category), the decision altitudes
have to be high enough to account for safe clearance of all of that area regardless of what the pilot decides to
do from wherever they break through the cloud layer. The pilot should not go any lower than the circling
minimum until in a position where they can safely turn a base and final leg while maintaining visual contact
with the runway.
Second, certain airports have "generic" approaches (almost always of the VOR or NDB variety) which get
you to the airport environment, but, do not line you up with a particular runway. (A few that get you pretty
close might be slightly off in their alignment or use too steep a glideslope to be designated for the primary
runway they direct you toward, so are given generic desigations instead -- but many just bring you in at an
odd approach angle to all of the field's runways and aren't intended to be used for anything except a "circle-
to" approach.) When naming these, typically the FAA will simply assign an alphabet letter to it, most
commonly "A" or "Alpha." These would be referred to verbally, instead of (for example) the "VOR runway
three-one-left approach," as the "VOR-A" or "VOR-Alpha" approach. Some airports have more than one
generic approach, and subsequent ones are issued the next letter up.
(ANOTHER, DEBATABLY INTERESTING TIDBIT: in the VOR-A into Crestview, Florida pictured above
to the right, there is a somewhat unusual case going on with the minimums. The general minimum for this
approach, which I've marked with a red box, is 900 feet; however, there's a second set listed for "NOTME
FIX" as 700 feet, in the green box. The difference lies within whether or not the pilot has the navigation
capability to cross-locate that NOTME intersection. With just a VOR receiver, they cannot, and the minimum
descent altitude is 900. With a DME, they will be at NOTME when 7.3 miles out from CEW VOR; or, with an
ADF, they'll be at NOTME when KOBRA on 201 kHz is at a 007 bearing. Either way, they can then use 700
as the decision altitude for this approach.)
ATC clearance for a circling approach would most often come at the pilot's request. Upon initial contact with
an Approach controller, in most cases ATC will issue an "expect" statement naming the approach they feel is
most appropriate for you based on weather and other traffic. But if the weather conditions aren't so clear-cut,
ATC will usually ask the pilot to "say approach request," or, upon being issued an "expect" when the pilot
prefers something else, the pilot can speak up and request that instead. It'd be a pretty rare situation (though
not completely unheard of) for ATC to offer up a circling approach as the normal course of business when the
pilot first checks onto the frequency. The verbage is fairly straightfoward -- it's the name of the published
approach, the word "circling" (or "circling to"), and the number of the desired arrival runway. Occasionally
ATC will issue restrictions in the approach clearance stating which side of the runway you can perform the
circling approach. Such a clearance would indicate a "circle left" or "circle right" directive. So, requesting the
"VOR-Alpha circling to three-five" or the "ILS runway one-seven circling to three-five" would both be valid
approach choices into Crestview, Florida (KCEW) if the pilot lacked RNAV capabilities and the winds
favored a northerly landing.
Summary
A pilot's desired arrival runway, based on the surface wind conditions, might not always have an
Instrument Approach Procedure associated with it. In such a case, the pilot can choose any Instrument
Approach for the same airport, then circle to the runway of choice once it's in sight.
An IAP specific to a different runway may be used as a circling approach, or, an airport may have a
"generic" approach published designated the "A" or "Alpha" (and "B" and so on, if there's more than
one).
The minimums listed by "Circling" must be abided by.
After attaining visual with the runway, the pilot makes a visual traffic pattern at their discretion (and
per ATC instruction) to the desired arrival runway.
The circling radius is approximately 2 nautical miles; less for smaller category aircraft.
ATC doesn't usually issue circling approaches; they're typically pilot-requested. The phraseology for
circling approaches is simply the published name of the approach, the word "circling" (or "circling to"),
and the number of the desired arrival runway.
Some circling approach indicate instructions which side of the runway you can perform the circling
approach and ATC may issue these restrictions as part of the approach clearance.
YouTube: "Chambery Circling Approach Training Movie" -- a real-world cockpit view from a 757 on
approach to Chambery airport (LFLB) in France. The video does a little bit of time-lapse to skip over
non-essential sections; however, a mere forty seconds into this 3 minute, 19 second video, the ILS
runway 18 part of this approach is over with and it becomes a simple visual right traffic pattern to
runway 36. (The point is, though, that this is really all there is to a circling approach -- it's not much
more complicated than that!)
Quiz
1: Which of the following is a true statement about circling approaches?
a. minimums for circling approaches are usually lower than for straight-in approaches.
b. only an IAP which isn't specific to a particular runway can be considered a circling approach.
c. one within sight, the pilot will typically follow a standard visual pattern to get to the desired
runway.
2: Which of the following is the most proper way to refer to a circling approach with ATC?
a. "circling ILS 17 to 35"
b. "ILS runway 17 circling to 35"
c. "ILS circling 17 to 35"
ANSWERS: 1. C ... 2. B

(Part 2: Holds, Instrument Failures and Other Malfunctions)
Lesson 7: No Holds Barred
Introduction
This Lesson examines the reasons for holding patterns, their execution, and proper entry procedures.
Vocabulary
racetrack pattern: the oval-shaped circuit created by two straight legs

connected by two wide 180-degree turns. The resulting loop is shaped like a
running track which surrounds a typical school or recreational sports field (or, for you NASCAR
enthusiasts, like Dover or Martinsville Speedways).
protected area: the space around the hold fix which ATC blocks off for the aircraft to perform the
hold, which is clear of any terrain or obstacles, and within which they will not allow any other air
traffic.
Concepts
If ATC requests you to enter a holding pattern, particularly on VATSIM, it's most likely due to a high
traffic workload in the next ATC sector downstream, in which that controller is temporarily unable to
accept a handoff from your current controller. Other reasons, less likely on VATSIM, could include an
IFR hold on your arrival airport (if uncontrolled), or to wait as severe weather passes through.
Pilots sometimes request to enter a holding pattern in order to troubleshoot an equipment malfunction.
Holds are defined by a certain location (the holding fix or hold fix) which could be a VOR, an NDB,
an intersection, or a GPS fix.
The hold always consists of a racetrack pattern formed by two straight legs and two turning legs:
The inbound leg is formed along some NAV-trackable course.
The turns are always of 180 degrees and done at the standard rate (3 degrees per second / 2
minutes for a complete circle, meaning that the 180-degree turn takes one minute).
The outbound leg connects the end of the first turn with the beginning of the second and quite
often involves manual wind correction.
The length of the straight legs are usually defined by timing, but in some RNAV scenarios, are
delineated by distance.
The "default" holding pattern, unless something else is specified by ATC, is right turns, and one-
minute straight legs. If you're above 14,000 feet MSL, the default leg length becomes 1.5
minutes.
The maximum speed when performing a hold is 200 KIAS at or below 6000 feet, 230 KIAS between
that and 14,000 feet, and 265 KIAS above 14,000.
Some holds are depicted on enroute charts, STAR charts, and approach charts. If ATC instructs you to
"enter the hold at {xxxxx}," you should consult the chart to determine the headings, turn direction, and
leg lengths to be used.
When ATC needs you to enter an impromptu hold at a fix of their choosing, they will give you (a) the
hold fix, (b) the hold direction (the side of that fix the protected area will be on), (c) the course for the
inbound leg, (d) the turn direction (or if omitted, always means right turns), (e) the duration of the
straight legs (or if omitted, means one minute if you're at or below 14,000 feet, or 1.5 minutes if you're
above it), and (f) the time in terms of Zulu that you should expect further clearance.
A headwind on the inbound leg will shorten the time you should be on the outbound leg, and vice-
versa. The goal is to make the inbound leg as close as possible to one minute (or 1.5 as applicable). The
inbound leg should be timed on each circuit so that a proper counter-adjustment can be made during the
outbound leg. A rule-of-thumb for estimating the correction is that however many seconds off the
inbound leg was, two-thirds of that should be added or subtracted to the outbound leg.
A crosswind on the inbound leg will affect the track of the outbound leg. Since the inbound leg is flown
with NAV system guidance, wind correction will be automatic. Outbound is typically done via heading
hold mode on the autopilot; a good rule of thumb which accounts for the correction during the
outbound leg as well as during the two turns is that whatever crosswind correction angle is used in the
inbound, twice that correction angle (in the opposite direction) should be used on the outbound.
The recommended way to enter a hold depends on the angle from which you are initally approaching
the hold fix. The three main ways are the direct entry, the teardrop entry, and the parallel entry. The
precise entry method is not mandatory, as long as the pilot remains within the protected area for the
hold.
Unless instructed otherwise, the pilot should report altitude and time the first time the hold fix is
reached.
GPS- or FMC-based holds are done using the GPS-based ground track, in which all of the wind
correction is therefore handled automatically.
More Detail
Holding patterns are encountered surprisingly rarely in VATSIM; the main reason for that is because levels of
air traffic often pale in comparison to the levels of real-world traffic. And although ATC staffing does as well,
the ratios are such that VATSIM controllers can usually handle the workload of everyone who's out there.
Holds on VATSIM are much more common during big, busy events or fly-ins; but, since that's when ATC is
most stressed, it's all the more critical that sim pilots know how to perform them accurately.
In the real world, holds can be issued due to traffic delays, weather-related delays, or because you're headed
to a non-towered field which has some other IFR aircraft arriving to or departing from it (remember, which
you should if you took the P4 with us, that ATC can only allow one IFR aircraft at a time to operate around a
non-towered field). The latter two reasons are much more rare on VATSIM, but not unheard of. On the other
hand, in both the real and sim worlds, pilots may request to be placed in a hold pattern because they need to
troubleshoot some issue they're having, or to burn off some additional fuel if they'd otherwise be about to
land over their aircraft's maximum gross landing weight.
A hold is primarily defined by the holding fix or hold fix around which it is flown. In a properly executed
holding pattern, the aircraft approaches the hold fix along a certain radial or other NAV-definable path (not
the first time, maybe, but, we'll cover entry procedures a little further down). Once the airplane crosses the
hold fix, the pilot starts a 180-degree, standard-rate turn. If you remember what a standard-rate turn is, you
know that a 180-degree turn should take one minute. Whether it is a right or a left turn depends on the hold
instruction that is depicted or that ATC gave you; if none was specified, right turns are the default. After
turning to the outbound heading, 180 degrees different from the inbound course (plus or minus wind
correction, which we'll cover in a moment), the pilot then flies a one-minute straight leg on that heading
(again, for wind correction purposes, the duration might be lengthened or shortened; we'll get there in a bit).
If the hold is above 14,000 feet, the duration should be 1.5 minutes instead; in either case, ATC might offer a
different instruction regarding the leg length. Once it is complete, another standard-rate 180 should put the
aircraft back on the specified inbound approach course; at this point, it should be one minute on the inbound
heading to get back to the hold fix, but this is an ideal time to check timing and wind-correction angle
necessary to track the inbound course, which will factor into your next outbound leg.
The maximum speed when performing a hold is 200 KIAS at or below 6000 feet, 230 KIAS between that and
14,000 feet, and 265 KIAS above 14,000. (NOTE: if your aircraft's documentation includes a V-speed for
"max fuel efficiency," this might be an ideal time to look it up!)
There are two primary types of holds;

those that appear on charts, and those
that are made up by ATC "on-the-fly"
(I often refer to them as "impromptu
holds," but that's by no means an
official FAA or ICAO term) as needed.
If ATC instructs you to "enter the hold
at {xxxxx}," they're most likely
referring to a depicted hold on an
enroute chart, the STAR you filed, or
the instrument approach you've been assigned, which are usually there because they're right before some
major traffic-merging point where ATC needs to act as a sort of red/green traffic signal. You should consult
the chart to determine the headings, turn direction, and leg lengths to be used (NOTE: in some cases, the
charted leg length may be in terms of nautical miles rather than time; this requires the aircraft to have DME
or GPS). But, when ATC needs you to enter an impromptu hold at a fix of their choosing, they will give you
the following four to six items:
the hold fix to be used;

a cardinal direction (north, east, south, west, or some combination thereof) representing which side of
the fix you should hold on;
the course for the inbound leg;
the turn direction (sometimes given as "standard" = right, "non-standard" = left), or, if not given, right
is assumed;
the leg length (sometimes given as "standard" = one minute / 1.5 minutes as applicable), or if not
given, the default is assumed;
"expect further clearance" (sometimes called EFC); either a number of minutes or a Zulu time at which
you can expect to be given instructions to proceed out of the hold.
The hold fix could be any type of NAV-locatable point: a VOR, an intersection (either by two crossing VOR
radials or a VOR/DME fix), an NDB, or a GPS fix.
The cardinal direction ATC gives you (north, east, south, west, or some combination thereof) represents
which side of the fix you should hold on. It roughly equates to the direction of the outbound hold leg. It also
tells you the quadrant around the hold fix which will be defined as the protected area of the hold. The
protected area is presumed to be free of any obstacles or terrain which would potentially be a conflict (this is
particularly critical for holds on Instrument Approach Procedures, or any other holds where you'll be close to
the ground). Additionally, all protected areas are kept free of traffic by ATC as it is presumed by the
controller that you could be anywhere within that area at any given time. Instead of trying to predict where in
the hold you will be at any particular moment in order to route other traffic through that area safely, they
simply block off the whole vicinity at your altitude (usually out to 5nm) and keep traffic out of that entire
"box."
The course for the inbound leg to the hold fix will always be some path which is definable by your NAV
system; i.e. a VOR radial, an NDB bearing, or a GPS path to a given intersection or GPS fix. As we'll get to
in a moment, executing a hold always entails tracking that course to the fix, then turning and flying a heading
calculated by taking the course reciprocal and applying a wind correction before turning back inbound and re-
intercepting the specified course. This process allows aircraft of any NAV capability to perform the hold in
the same, predictable manner -- and predictability of your flight path is the key for ATC to be able to keep
other traffic out of your hair!
It should be noted that an inbound course to a VOR is always given in terms of the radial; so, the inbound
course will always be the reciprocal of that radial heading. Likewise, bearings to NDBs are always given in
terms of the inbound bearing; so, the course to the NDB will always be the same as the heading of the
bearing given. For GPS fixes, your GPS can always calculate a path to the fix on the heading given, and you
can simply track that path. In the case of an intersection, though, whether it's two radials crossing or a
VOR/DME location, whether the course inbound to the fix is the same or reciprocal of the VOR radial
depends on which side, inbound or outbound, of the VOR you are on at the time. (I'll explain that a little
better, with diagrams, in a bit.)
The specified turn direction tells you whether your two 180-degree turns should be right (a clockwise pattern)
or left (counter-clockwise). If a direction is not specified in the holding instructions, it is always assumed to
consist of right turns. Sometimes, instead of "right" or "left", ATC will use "standard turns" to refer to right
turns and "non-standard turns" to refer to left turns.
The length of the straight legs to be flown is the next piece of information in the hold instruction, and like the
turn direction, there's a possibility it won't be specified. If that's the case, a one-minute leg is always assumed
as standard if your altitude is 14,000 feet or less; any higher, and a 1.5 minute leg is the default instead. In the
rare case (particularly so on VATSIM) that a hold is expected to be for an extended amount of time, or if the
hold comes at the request of the pilot in order to examine some issue with the aircraft or simulator, ATC
might help the pilot out by specifying something longer, so that they're not constantly having to turn. That
presumes they are able to block off a larger protected area, as well. Another rare case is that ATC might
specify a leg length in nautical miles rather than timing; however, this would only be done if the aircraft has
GPS or DME, as it would otherwise require a distance/time calculation, and ATC is not trying to cause
additional math for the pilot in such a situation.
The final piece of information in an issued hold is an "expect further clearance" (sometimes abbreviated
"EFC") notice. ATC is required, for fuel planning and lost communications purposes, to notify the pilot how
long they will be holding. If for some unforeseen reason they are not able to release you from the hold by the
promised time, they must give you an updated EFC time prior to the first one expiring. This gives you the
opportunity to negotiate an alternate plan if your fuel situation won't allow you to hold for the expected
period and still safely make it to the destination with an appropriate safety margin. The standard accepted
form of the EFC notice is a time in terms of Zulu; but, while it's not strictly by-the-book phraseology, I have
occasionally heard it given (real-world and on VATSIM) in terms of a number of minutes from now; i.e.
"expect further clearance in fifteen minutes."
In this example, the hold
instruction given was, "Hold at
Ocala VOR northwest on the
301 radial, standard turns and
legs, expect further clearance at
2200Z." Thus you know that
you'll come into Ocala on a 121
course, then turn right to an
outbound heading of 301 (plus
or minus wind correction,
which we'll get to), fly for one
minute (again, plus or minus a
wind correction), then turn right
again to intercept the 121
inbound course to the VOR
again. The fact that you were
told to hold northwest should
make logical sense, since that
matches the direction of your
outbound leg -- that's always a
common-sense-check to make
sure you're envisioning the hold
in the same direction that ATC
did. (By the way, it's common,
as in this example, that your
inbound radial for the hold will
be along a charted airway or
STAR path -- but it's not always
the case.)
Here's one I got a year ago
(exactly to-the-day as of this
writing!), during an event
hosted by the ZDC ARTCC,
while I was flying at 9,000 feet
MSL enroute from Myrtle
Beach, South Carolina
(KMYR), to Raleigh, North
Carolina (KRDU), along the
V136, and there was a good bit
of traffic headed in toward
Raleigh: "Douglas One-Mike-
Delta, enter a hold at DENIL,
south on the V136, right turns
and five minute legs, expect
further clearance at 0130Z."
(That time was fifteen minutes
away, so ATC was doing me a
favor by allowing me to make
longer legs than a minute each
way.) On the V136 at DENIL,
you're on the outbound 009
radial of Fayetteville (FAY)
VOR, at 21.0 DME. At 9,000
feet, the speed limit was 230,
although in my DC-3 I had no
hope of flying anywhere near
that fast. Holding south means
that I would be flying my
outbound leg south, back
toward Fayetteville. And being
on an outbound radial, my
course of 009 was my inbound
course to the hold fix. So as I
crossed the 21.0 DME mark I
initiated my right turn to 189,
flew that heading (with wind
correction) for five minutes,
initiated another right turn, and
re-intercepted the 009 outbound
radial (i.e. the V136). Then I
timed the leg back to the 21.0
DME mark, getting ready to do
it again but with a time-adjusted
outbound leg, as described in
the next section. (Fortunately,
by that time, they were able to
clear me to continue in.)
Winds affect the hold in two ways -- a headwind or tailwind component will shorten or lengthen the time you
spend on the outbound leg. A crosswind component will cause you to fly a wind-corrected heading on your
inbound track; the fact that you always fly that leg with nav-aid gives you an easy way to determine the
correction angle, which you can then apply to the outbound leg.
First, the headwind or tailwind component affects the groundspeed at which you track along the straight legs
of the racetrack pattern. The goal is to adjust the outbound leg so that the inbound leg always comes back to
one minute; each lap around the circuit, you'll time the inbound leg (the point at which you finish the second
turn and roll out onto the inbound course again) back to the hold fix. In an ideal world, it should equal 60
seconds. A quick rule-of-thumb for the headwind/tailwind correction is that for any time you are short or in
excess, you take two-thirds of that and apply the opposite to the outbound leg. If your inbound leg was 75
seconds, that's 15 seconds longer than desired; two-thirds of that is 10, so you should short your outbound leg
by 10 seconds, making it 50 seconds. If the inbound leg was 40 seconds, that's 20 seconds too short; two-
thirds of that is 14 (roughly), so, you should make your outbound leg 74 seconds.
Second, a crosswind component causes your plane to fly at a slight angle to its tracked course (sometimes
referred to as a crab angle). For example, if you're flying a course of 045, but there's a wind from the north,
the crosswind component of that wind will be blowing you off course to the right -- so you'll have to point the
nose of the plane slightly left, say 040, to get the plane to follow the 045 course. An inbound hold leg always
follows a NAV-tracked course of some kind, making it easy to figure out your wind correction angle -- just
look at your heading versus the heading of the course you're tracking. Logically, one might think that you'd
simply apply this same course-correction angle on the outbound side, but, the general accepted rule-of-thumb
is to double that angle. Why? Because, the wind is going to be affecting your course the entire circuit,
meaning, in the turns as well. Think of it this way -- the course correction on the inbound leg counteracts one
minute's worth of wind; the course correction on the outbound leg has to account for three minutes' worth of
wind. So if your inbound leg of 045 was flown at 040 (five degrees left), the outbound leg of 225 should be
flown at 235 (ten degrees right).
The recommended way to enter a hold

depends on the angle from which you
are initally approaching the hold fix:
if entering between the inbound

course heading minus 70 and
the inbound course heading
plus 110, a direct entry would
be flown directly to the hold fix, then immediately into one lap of the hold pattern.
if your entry heading is along the outbound course or up to 110 degrees to the right of it, a parallel
entry is flown to the hold fix, then turning to the outbound course heading (but not necessarily tracking
exactly along the NAV path -- hence "parallel" to it) for one minute, then a 225-degree turn in the
opposite direction as the depicted hold pattern (so that you remain on the protected side) and back to
the hold fix on the inbound course.
in all other cases (approach heading is along the outbound course or up to 70 degrees left of it), a
teardrop entry is flown to and across the hold fix, proceeding on the outbound heading offset by 30
degrees toward the protected side for one minute, then a turn in the direction of the hold pattern to join
the inbound course.
Here's an easier way to think about hold entries that makes much more sense to me:
If you're coming into the hold fix needing a 90-degree turn or less to get onto the inbound holding
course, use a direct entry.
If you're coming into the hold fix where you're going to cross the fix and end up on the protected side,
use a teardrop entry.
If you're coming into the hold fix where you're going to cross the fix and end up on the non-protected
side, use a parallel entry.
The good news is that the precise entry method is not mandatory, as long as the pilot remains within the
protected area for the hold. Regardless of the method chosen, unless the controller tells you otherwise when
giving the initial hold instructions, you should report crossing the hold fix during your entry, giving your
current altitude and the time in Zulu.
Now let's look at one final example where we put all of this together,
and we'll use the hold from the Missed Approach Procedure for the
ILS runway 8R approach at Miami International Airport (KMIA) in
Miami, Florida.
So we've just attempted an ILS approach at 8R and something's gone

wrong; perhaps we didn't have the visibility minimums, or a landing
gear didn't go green-and-locked, or something. We need to go hold for
a bit while the weather conditions improve or we have time to look at
the gear problem. First things first -- let's power up, reconfigure the
aircraft for climb (gear up, flaps set for takeoff), and get some positive
climb going. We'll report the missed to ATC if we're able, as we set the
autopilot for 3000 feet and runway heading. They've responded that
we're to fly the published missed and report established in the hold. As
we pass 800 feet we'll adjust the heading bug counter-clockwise to initiate a left turn to 270, and start tuning
the NAV1 radio to the Dolphin VOR on 113.9 (the standby frequency should already have been set, when we
initially reviewed the Missed Approach Procedure); set 355 on the OBS. Engage NAV mode to intercept, and
the aircraft will turn toward 355 and get established on the course.
Since we're about to enter a hold at 3000 feet, our autothrottle's airspeed reference should be set to no more
than 200 KIAS.
Next comes the hold entry. Once we're on the DHP 355, we'll watch
the DME count upward to 11.5, signifying we're at BRBRA. Given
that our goal is a true course reversal, based on the FAA-recommended
hold entry techniques, we have the choice of whether we want to fly a
teardrop or a parallel entry. If we were instead coming in from the east
toward the west, i.e. crossing toward the protected area, we'd definitely
prefer a teardrop; coming west-to-east would call for a parallel. But
straight out on the outbound heading, we can do either one. My preference is always the teardrop (even in
some cases when the accepted recommendation would be parallel), because it gets you turning in the
direction of the hold's turns; whereas the parallel has you starting the hold by turning in the contrary
direction, against the hold, and that just feels weird to me. But either method is fine here. For a teardrop,
cross BRBRA then turn to 305 (30 degrees left of the reference radial) and fly for one minute, then turn right
to re-intercept the inbound radial (with OBS now set on 155). If you fly the parallel, cross BRBRA but stay
on 335 for one minute, then turn left (i.e. remaining on the protected side) to a heading that is somewhat less
than 155 (say maybe around 110 or so; a 45-degree intercept is usually recommended) to re-join the inbound
radial.
If we hadn't been instructed otherwise, we'd ordinarily report to ATC that we had crossed BRBRA the first
time, when we initiated our entry maneuver. However, having been instructed to "report established in the
hold," we'll now do so, as we start our first right turn to 335. As we fly the hold we'll be switching the
autopilot back and forth between NAV and HDG modes; here's where we switch to HDG mode, but, we must
take absolute care to ensure the plane turns right, and not left, to the selected heading. We also need to make
sure it's turning at standard rate (three degrees per second, taking 60 seconds to complete the 180-degree
maneuver); if it's not, we need to adjust the bank angle setting, or fly the turns ourselves in order to get it
right. Rolling out on 335, we'll note the time and start counting one minute. At the end of that minute, we'll
spin the heading bug back to 155 (again taking care to ensure a standard-rate turn) and re-engage NAV mode,
starting the timer as we re-join the radial.
During the inbound leg, we'll be doing two things: (a) noting the time it takes to get back to BRBRA at DME
11.5, and (2) noting the wind correction angle the aircraft establishes to remain tracking the radial. Chances
are, with wind coming from the east (as it must have been if we were landing on Runway 8), you'll be pointed
slightly left of 155 (let's say for this example, 150), and there'll be a slight headwind component as well. The
time back to BRBRA might therefore be something like 66 seconds rather than 60 seconds. Take note of
these two facts as you start your second complete circuit of the hold.
As we cross BRBRA for the third time now, we'll start the second full lap of the racetrack, but this time
instead of 335 we'll be turning to a wind-corrected heading. On the inbound leg we were pointed at 150 to
track 155; i.e. our wind correction angle was five degrees left. On the outbound leg, to counteract the wind on
the remaining three-quarters of the loop, we'll correct ten degrees right, to 345. Then, starting the timer as we
roll out on the target heading, we have to adjust the time of the outbound leg as well. Seeing as our inbound
was six seconds too long, we'll take two-thirds of that and make the outbound four seconds short; i.e. 56
seconds. After that time has elapsed we'll turn at standard rate back to 155, re-intercept the DHP 355 radial /
155 inbound bearing, and start the process all over again until ATC clears us otherwise.
One final word -- if you happen to have a GPS or FMC unit which has an automatic hold feature, you're in
luck!... because all of the hard work is going to be done for you. If you get the settings right, the unit is going
to draw out a perfect racetrack pattern, but will use your ground track to compare it with. What that means
for you is that all of the wind-correction becomes automatic, because whatever adjustment in heading and
timing the autopilot needs to make to maintain that perfect consistent racetrack shape, it will do on its own.
(You'd think that those of us filing /A who get stuck in a hold might envy you, but we're way too busy to be
jealous!)
Summary
Holds are used when ATC is unable to accept additional traffic in a certain area due to workload,
weather, or IFR holds on non-towered fields; pilots can request them to buy time to troubleshoot a
problem.
Holds can be depicted on an enroute, STAR, or approach chart, or created impromptu by ATC.
The hold is a racetrack pattern of a straight leg on a specified inbound track to the specified hold fix, a
180-degree turn (to the right unless specified otherwise), another straight leg, and another 180-degree
turn to rejoin the dictated inbound track.
Typically the straight legs are one minute; if holding above 14,000 feet, the default is 1.5 minutes;
either can be overridden by ATC.
Speed for holds should not exceed:
200 KIAS up to 6,000,
230 KIAS to 14,000, and
265 KIAS above that
ATC's hold instruction will include:
fix,
direction,
inbound course,
turn direction (optional),
leg length (optional), and
a time to expect further clearance
The angle of wind correction used to track the inbound course should be doubled when on the
outbound course, to account for wind correction during the two turns.
The duration of the inbound leg should be timed; the duration of the outbound leg should be adjusted
by two-thirds of the timing discrepancy in order to bring the inbound leg back to its correct length.
The recommended method of entering the hold depends on the angle at which the pilot approaches it;
the exact technique is not as critical as remaining on the protected side of the inbound course.
The three hold entries are:
Direct entry used when needing a 90-degree turn or less to get onto the inbound holding course
Teardrop entry used when you are going to cross the fix and end up on the protected side, and
Parallel entry used when you are going to cross the fix and end up on the non-protected side
Unless instructed otherwise, the pilot should report altitude and time the first time the hold fix is
reached.
Some GPS and FMC units have hold functions which rely on ground-track information, making the
wind correction process automatic.
YouTube: "VFR/IFR Holds on Boston Virtual ARTCC" -- a recording of an interactive "virtual ground
school" lesson conducted by our ATO partner, Boston Virtual ARTCC (http://www.bvartcc.com/). It's
just over an hour long, but extremely well-presented and informative, and covers just about all of the
information presented here, with the only exception being the holds depicted on IFR charts. If you
watch this video you'll come out being an expert on the terminolgy and execution of any holding
pattern.
Quiz
1: If the inbound course to the hold fix with right turns is 305 and you're approaching at a heading
of 090, which is the recommended entry method?
a. direct.
b. teardrop.
c. parallel.
d. none of the above.
2: If your inbound course to the hold fix is 290 but a heading of 285 was required to track it, what
should the recommended wind-corrected outbound heading be?
a. 100.
b. 105.
c. 115.
d. 120.
ANSWERS: 1. B ... 2. D

(Part 2: Holds, Instrument Failures, and Other Malfunctions)
Lesson 8: Flying Blind
Introduction
This Lesson describes considerations when flying in low visibility.
Vocabulary
"the hood": a physical device worn by real-world student pilots practicing flying by instruments alone,
which blocks the view out of the windows and limits the student to being able to see only the aircraft
instruments. This allows them to gain experience in zero-visibility scenarios even when the weather
conditions aren't as bad as that. Simulator pilots have the benefit of being able to control the weather,
so, no "hood" needs to be worn in order to practice these skills.
Concepts
When flying IFR, pilots will occasionally encounter visibility conditions so limited that they can see
neither ground nor horizon references. To fly successfully in such situations, they must rely on
instrumentation alone.
Real-world pilots in zero-visibility conditions often get disoriented because the gravity sensations in
the cockpit distort what is truly up or down relative to the ground, particularly when turning, and pilots
lose the visual references they ordinarily compensate with. Simulator pilots have different but related
challenges because of the total lack of inertial forces acting on their body.
The most important tool for effective no-visibility flying is a proficient and consistent instrument scan.
The Artificial Horizon / Attitude Indicator is the highest priority instrument and should garner the
largest chunk of your focus. Airspeed and altimeter are next, followed by heading / horizontal situation,
and finally, vertical speed and turn rate / coordination.
Distractions are a leading cause of pilot disorientation when flying solely by instruments. If attention is
diverted due to a navigation or engine system management issue, the inexperienced pilot will often lose
attitude and heading control quickly. The trick is to divert your attention only for a handful of seconds
at a time, then resume your instrument scan. When there is a multi-person crew, one person should
solely be dedicated to flying the aircraft while the other troubleshoots the issue.
When flying as a single-person crew in IMC, autopilot use is just shy of an absolute requirement.
Know your aircraft and its autopilot well, so that you can reduce your workload and focus on
navigation and situational awareness. But don't trust it outright as malfunctions, real and simulated, can
be caused by system failures or human error.
Cockpit instruments can fail, too, although in simulators we have some degree of control over this.
Pilots should be able to recognize instrument failures and know how to obtain the information
necessary to keep the plane out of trouble so the result is not fatal. Being familiar with the aircraft, and
knowing what pitch/power/configuration is normally used in a given situation to achieve a certain
performance profile, is key in such scenarios. More on this is covered in the next several Lessons.
The worst situation that can occur due to pilot disorientation is Controlled Flight Into Terrain, which
describes a crash in which the aircraft was capable of flying high enough to avoid ground obstacles --
but for some reason, related to pilot error or misjudgment, did not.
More Detail
We know that flying in IMC, Instrument Meteorological Conditions, refers by definition to a situation where
a pilot does not have enough visibility to avoid flying into the ground, land-based obstaces, or other aircraft
by visual reference alone. Air Traffic Control is there to assist with aircraft avoidance, but with respect to the
obstacles and terrain, this means that pilots in IMC must be able to aviate and navigate solely via instruments.
Most of the time, flying in IMC means there is a cloud layer that obstructs their view of the ground,
obliterating any visual references they have to navigate with. GPS, and radio navigation methods as a backup
to that, have been extensively discussed in the P4 as well as this rating so far, and these allow flights to
proceed normally in such circumstances. But this Lesson focuses on flying in a total absence of visibility,
when not only is navigation by sight rendered impossible, but the weather is so bad that the pilot cannot even
see the horizon. In these cases, navigation is a secondary concern; first and foremost, the pilot must be able to
keep the aircraft flying upright, without any outside reference whatsoever for pitch and roll.
Simulator pilots, and even many real-world ones, are often over-dependent upon technology in such cases.
GPSs and autopilots are marvelous devices, but, when they fail, a pilot must be able to control the plane him-
or herself in order to avoid a simple electronic glitch from spiraling into a fatal outcome. Keeping an aircraft
upright sounds like a simple enough task, but, without visual pitch and bank references, pilots cannot rely on
their own sensation of up and down to orient the aircraft properly. Real-world pilots are acted upon by inertial
forces during banked turns that distort their perception of gravity. Simulator pilots, except those flying very
high-end professional simulators designed and built for airline crew training, do not feel inertial forces at all
since they are totally stationary while "flying."
Enter the artificial horizon, also called the attitude indicator -- the most important of the pilot's gauges
when outside visibility is limited. A gyroscopic instrument which is powered by the aircraft's vacuum-
pressure system, this gauge shows a representation of the aircraft's position relative to the horizon; or, more
properly, the horizon's position relative to the aircraft. Keeping the aircraft level and under power is the first
and most important step to keeping it flying when nothing can be seen outside.
A proficient and consistent instrument scan, anchored by the artifical horizon, is key to maintaining
orientation while flying blind. This gauge should garner the largest chunk of your focus. Airspeed and
altimeter are next, as these help the pilot avoid stalls and crashes. These are followed by heading / horizontal
situation, to continue to guide the plane safely away from obstacles and terrain (and toward the destination).
Finally, vertical speed and turn rate / coordination are last, as these provide secondary information that can be
deduced by looking at the other gauges. Scanning through each of these should be a near-constant process,
but the gaze should frequently return to the artifical horizon so that the aircraft is always kept upright and
pitch-level, unless deliberately made otherwise. Remember that in the old adage of "Aviate, Navigate,
Communicate" -- Aviate comes before Navigate. It's first and foremost to ensure the aircraft is not about to
enter a stall and is otherwise performing within safe limits. THEN you can check to see that it's headed in the
right direction.
When something has gone wrong, it's critical to maintain that consistent instrument scan -- even if the
autopilot is on. Real-world situations have occurred where pilots have flown under the delusion that an
autopilot is engaged when it was not, with sometimes fatal results. They can become disengaged
inadvertently, or intentionally and then forgotten, both in the real and simulated arenas. A pilot should always
assume that he or she is in control of the aircraft, even when the autopilot is (allegedly) engaged. After
several real-world incidents in which distracted crews crashed aircraft which were perfectly capable of safe
flight, an industry-standard concept called Crew Resource Management (AKA Cockpit Resource
Management) now makes it mandatory practice to be explicitly clear about which crew member is
responsible for flying the aircraft while anyone else present works on fixing the problem. Single-person crews
must focus a handful of seconds at a time to the issue, then return their attention to the aircraft's flight
performance.
The next few Lessons will cover potential instrument failures in greater detail; however, generally speaking,
pilots must be familiar with their aircraft (a) to recognize the signs of an instrument mis-reading, and (b) to
know what performance inputs are usually made to the plane in order to keep it flying safely. A non-working
airspeed gauge is a serious safety problem; however, the pilot can function without it (just long enough to get
the aircraft on the ground to get it fixed) by knowing what pitch, power setting, and flap and gear
configuration is used in any given segment of flight. This level of familiarity can also help the pilots to know
when something else has gone wrong -- for example, if you know what power setting usually puts you at final
approach speed but you're inexplicably too fast, you should wonder why this is -- your landing gear might be
up, eliminating a source of drag which otherwise would keep the airspeed in its usual range. If your aircraft
isn't accelerating down the runway during takeoff as it usually does, check the prop pitch. If it's not climbing
out after departure like it should, check the flaps. Something is causing the plane to behave out-of-the-norm;
shrugging it off is usually unwise, and occasionally fatal. But, none of these warning signs will be evident in
an aircraft you have little or no experience with.
The worst situation that can occur due to pilot disorientation, as we alluded to above, is called Controlled
Flight Into Terrain. This is the National Transportation Safety Board's official term for an airplane crash due
to the pilot or crew's failure to maintain sufficient altitude for their position to avoid colliding with the
ground, despite flying an aircraft which was perfectly capable of doing so at the time. This is always a result
of pilot error of some kind; usually the root cause is a loss of positional awareness (i.e. they weren't where
they thought they were), but occasionally it's a lack of altitude awareness (i.e. they weren't as high as they
thought they were). A malfunctioning gauge can be a contributing factor, but if the aircraft was able to be
flown out of trouble and the pilots didn't, they definitely attain the lion's share of the blame. Even if an
altimeter goes haywire, the pilots should be able to recognize the issue and put the aircraft into a gentle climb
and point it away from any ground-based obstacles. A simple clogged static tube or some other easily-
rectifyable issue should not spell disaster and death for dozens or hundreds of passengers.
Fortunately, in the simulated world, we have two advantages -- first is that we have direct control over
instrument failures, and second is that we can't kill anyone no matter how badly we screw up the flight.
However, if you've flown hundreds or thousands of hours of IFR flights and are looking for a new challenge,
perhaps it's time to add that next dimension of realism, enable the occasional random aircraft system failure,
and see how well you handle the adversity of the unexpected!
Summary
IFR pilots occasionally fly in visbility so low that they lose all exterior horizon references.
Because gravity sensations are distorted (or non-existent, for simulator pilots), the pilots must develop
an active instrument scan which focuses the bulk of their attention on the artificial horizon (AKA
attitude indicator).
Airspeed and altitude are the second-most important, followed by heading / HSI, and lastly, vertical
speed and turn rate / coordination.
When troubleshooing an aircraft problem, pilots must maintain their instrument scan while also
examining the issue, even if autopilot is engaged, as accidental disarming and other malfunctions can
occur in both real and simulated aircraft.
In multi-person crews, one person must always be designated as the pilot flying while others
troubleshoot the issue.
Pilots should be familiar with the performance profile of their aircraft in every phase of flight, both to
be able to recognize out-of-the-norm situations, and to be able to fly with a malfunctioning gauge if
necessary.
Familiarity with the aircraft avoids situations called Controlled Flight Into Terrain, an incident
designation for when the pilots failed to avoid the ground in an aircraft that was capable of doing so at
the time.
Website of the National Transportation Safety Board -- the United States Government's official agency
in charge of investigating transportation accidents, determining their causes, and recommending action
or policy in order to avoid similar incidents in the future.
Wikipedia: Eastern Air Lines Flight 401 -- a Wikipedia article describing the fatal crash of a Lockheed
L-1011-1 TriStar passenger jet into the Florida Everglades in 1972. The crew, preoccupied with a
landing gear issue, failed to recognize that they had inadvertently disarmed the aircraft's autopilot and
entered into a shallow descent.
Quiz
1: Which of the following instruments should garner the most attention when in zero-visibility
situations?
a. the artificial horizon (AKA attitude indicator).
b. airspeed indicator.
c. altimeter.
2: Which of the following is a true statement about troubleshooting a problem while in flight?
a. all crew members should focus all of their attention on fixing the issue.
b. if autopilot is engaged, pilots do not need to focus on maintaining altitude and airspeed.
c. the time it takes to resolve a problem is usually magnified if the pilot is unfamiliar with the
aircraft.
ANSWERS: 1. A ... 2. C

Lesson 9: Speed Demons
Introduction
This Lesson covers recognition of, effects of, and preventive techniques for pitot tube failures.
Vocabulary
diaphragm: a stretchy material over one end of a tube or container, which flexes as the pressure inside
the vessel increases and decreases. Diaphragms are frequently used in engineering as a way to measure
pressure and translate that to a mechanical movement, like an indicator needle.
Concepts
The pitot/static system on the aircraft is a pair of tubes with diaphragms in them to measure the
pressure of the air inside. The pitot tube is pointed into the airstream, so the pressure inside it increases
as the flow of air into it gets faster (called "ram air pressure"); the static tube is not pointed into the
airstream, so it measures the general air pressure outside the aircraft.
The dynamic pressure is the difference between the pitot tube and static tube pressure, and it is this
difference which is translated (mechanically, usually) into an indicated airspeed.
When pitot tubes become clogged, the indicated airspeed will not read properly. If the blockage is
complete, the airspeed indicator will start to function sort of like an altimeter, increasing while
climbing and decreasing while descending.
Climbing with a clogged pitot tube is particularly dangerous, because the indicated airspeed will
increase while the climb will actually cause the real airspeed to decay, leading the pilot into an
unexpected stall situation.
The airspeed indicator is the only instrument affected by a pitot tube blockage.
Pitot tube icing can be a cause of a blockage. Nearly all aircraft are equipped with a heating element
that can be turned on (with a switch labeled "Pitot Heat" or "Probe Heat," usually) which will melt
the ice, or, prevent it from collecting in the first place. If it is inoperable, sometimes simply descending
into warmer air can clear up the issue. Most aircraft operating checklists include the use of pitot heat
anytime the aircraft is to be airborne, just as a preventative measure.
Other external issues (such as insects or dirt) can clog a pitot tube, which would possibly not be
rectifyable while in flight. These should be inspected as part of the preflight checklist prior to starting
the aircraft.
When a clogged pitot tube cannot be fixed, the pilot can use GPS groundspeed or DME closing speed
as reasonable estimates, although the discrepancy between groundspeed and indicated airspeed must be
considered.
Without airspeed indication, being familiar with the aircraft's performance parameters and setting the
usual power/pitch/configuration should, all other factors being equal, result in the usual forward
airspeed.
A flight should not continue without an operable airspeed indicator; the pilot should divert to the
closest safe landing site.
More Detail
How does an airspeed indicator work?
If you took the P2 course with us, you'll probably recall a brief discussion about how airspeed indicators
work. Mostly in that discussion, we were focusing on the difference between indicated and actual airspeed.
The primary mechanism of measuring the plane's speed is by looking at the pressure of the airstream it is
moving through, and as the plane goes faster, that pressure increases, resulting in a higher indicated airspeed.
As the aircraft goes higher, the air density decreases, so the pressure of that airstream at the same speed is
lower. So, the higher the plane flies, the greater the difference between its actual forward speed through the
air and the airspeed which is indicated in the cockpit. In fact, for every thousand feet of altitude, the plane's
actual forward speed gets around another 2% higher than the plane's indicated airspeed. (And, remember, it's
the indicated speed that is critical for stalls, since it can be thought of as a measure of the force of the air that
is producing lift against the wings. That'll come into play later on in this Lesson, when we talk about flying
without a functioning airspeed gauge.)
But now let's look at the measuring system in more detail -- since this will help us understand better what is
going on when part of it stops working properly.
The system which measures the various air pressures around the aircraft, which is used in both airspeed and
altitude indicators, is the pitot/static system. There are two tubes associated with the system are called (by
probably no surprise) the pitot tube and the static tube (or sometimes static port, which more properly
refers to the opening to the tube). The pitot tube is the one which is pointed forward, straight into the
oncoming airflow. The static tube is not; it is often flush with the side of the aircraft, or, occasionally vented
through a small port on the side of the pitot probe. In this sort of setup, which is fairly common, the
pitot/static system is essentially a tube within a tube; the innermost one is the pitot, pointed forward, while
the outer one is the static source which is vented to the side. The upshot of all of this is that the pitot tube
measures the pressure of the air which is being rammed into it by the aircraft's forward movement -- in fact,
it's referred to as the "ram air pressure." The static tube, on the other hand, is measuring the ambient outside
air pressure, absent any of this ramming business.
It's the difference between the pitot and static pressures, called the dynamic pressure, which is then
translated into an indicated airspeed. That translation can be physical, via the use of diaphragms and
mechanical links, or electronic, via sensors and processors. Either way, it's then displayed in the cockpit on
the airspeed gauge.
What happens during a pitot tube failure?
Most of the time, when a pitot tube malfunctions, it's due to some kind of blockage which prevents the free
flow of air to and from the diaphragm or sensor. When this happens, you would think that the indicated
airspeed would freeze in place or drop to zero; and in some cases, where the main opening is blocked but a
secondary hole (like a drain hole or other vent) is open, that's what will happen. But in the case of a complete
blockage of the pitot system, the result is a bit different. Because it's not just the pitot pressure being
displayed, but the relationship of that to the static pressure, what actually happens is that the airspeed
indicator starts functioning really similarly to the altimeter. As the aircraft climbs, the airspeed on the gauge
will increase, and as the aircraft descends, the speed shown will decrease.
Because the gauge doesn't just freeze or drop to zero in this scenario, it is not always obvious that a
malfunction is occurring. When the blockage first occurs, the gauge will probably hold its current reading,
masking the situation to the pilot as long as he or she is at cruise and nothing much is changing. It's during
the next climb or descent that things might start to look odd. During a descent in which the airspeed starts to
show a decreasing trend, the tendency will be to want to increase power or downward pitch to recover the
speed, and if the situation goes unchecked and the pilot doesn't start to understand what is happening, the
aircraft can overspeed and get into trouble. However, the more dangerous scenario is a climb, because the
aircraft while nose-up will show an increasing forward speed while it is actually slowing down -- and any
pilot who passed the P2 ought to know immediately what happens when a plane combines a pitch that is too
high with airspeed that is too low. If the plane has an angle-of-attack indicator or a stall horn or stick-shaker,
and either one warns you of a stall about to occur, the response should be fairly immediate and automatic --
whether or not the airspeed gauges agree, lower the nose and add power. Do that first, and ask questions later.
(Yes, real airline crashes have occurred because pilots failed to do this.)
The one spot of good news is that the airspeed indicator is, in fact, the only gauge which is affected by a pitot
tube blockage. If all other gauges are reading normally, and only the airspeed indicator is acting squirrelly,
there's a pretty good bet that it's the result of a pitot tube blockage, making it somewhat easy to diagnose once
you realize something isn't right.
How can a pitot tube failure be fixed or prevented?
There are two main causes of a pitot tube blockage. The most common cause is that it freezes over with ice.
Remember that even on a fairly warm day on the surface, the temperature at altitude can be well below
freezing -- in fact, with the average drop in temp being 2 degrees C for every thousand feet, even on a fairly
mild day of 68 degrees F (20 degrees C), you only have to go to 10,000 feet to be in freezing air. Add a little
moisture to the mix and, boom, you've got a clogged pitot. For this reason, the vast majority of aircraft are
equipped with a heating element within the pitot tube which is activated by a switch in the cockpit labeled
"Pitot Heat" (or sometimes "Probe Heat"). Most aircraft checklists include the use of pitot heat as standard
procedure, just as a preventative measure, since th electric drain is negligible and so there's no real negative
effect from doing so. However, if your checklists don't include this measure, or you forget, and your pitot
should ice over in flight, engaging the pitot heat after-the-fact will often rectify the problem within a few
minutes. If the heating element isn't working, sometimes descending back into warmer air will melt the ice. If
the icing is really severe or the water doesn't drain out once melted, it may occasionally be the case that the
blockage can't be resolved until you're back on the ground.
The other possible cause is a blockage due to some other foreign matter, such as dirt, insects, or what-have-
you. (In the airline crash referenced above, it was a wasp's nest that was ultimately determined to be the
culprit.) The only real preventative measure you can take for this is to inspect the pitot probe thoroughly prior
to takeoff and remove any debris. Once airborne, there's not much you're going to be able to do to clear it out.
How can I proceed safely if a clogged pitot cannot be rectified in-flight?
Because airspeed, and particularly Indicated Airspeed, is such a cruicial performance parameter for
maintaining safe flight, flying without an operable airspeed indicator is a very dicey situation indeed. But it
doesn't need to spell death. There are two main ways a pilot can maintain control and get the plane safely
back on the ground; however, the key in this situation is to do so immediately instead of trying to finish out
the flight normally. This is definitely a case where you would divert to the closest available safe landing spot.
First, use other available references for speed. Most GPS units display the aircraft's current groundspeed.
You can tune a VOR/DME, LOC/DME, or NDB/DME and if you're tracking fairly straight toward or away
from it, the closing or separation speed indicated on the DME readout will give you at least a very good
approximation of groundspeed. However, remember that groundspeed and airspeed are not the same thing,
and ensure that you account for that. To approximate your IAS based on your groundspeed, you first have to
figure in the decay in IAS due to altitude (true airspeed increases around 2% for every 1,000 feet you go up),
and then you have to factor out any wind. A strong tailwind can make your groundspeed look okay when in
reality your airspeed is perilously low. For example, a groundspeed of 260 knots at 24,000 feet translates to
approximately 175 KIAS; however, if 60 knots of that groundspeed is due to a tailwind, then really your true
airspeed is 200 and your indicated speed would be more like 135 -- much closer to the aircraft's stall speed
than what you might have thought. The closer you are to the surface and the less of a factor the wind is, the
more reliable a GPS- or DME-based groundspeed can be as an estimate of KIAS.
Second, Pitch + Power = Performance. This is an old pilot's adage which essentially means that the airspeed
you get is a function of how you pitch the aircraft and what power setting you use. Essentially, all other
things being more-or-less equal, if you hold the aircraft at X degrees pitch and set the thrust to Y (percent N1,
or RPM, or manifold pressure, or whatever your plane's power setting is measured by), it will settle into a
forward airspeed of Z, every time. (I like to throw in that aircraft configuration, i.e. the flap and gear settings,
make a difference too; if you're on final approach holding 3 degrees pitch at 55% N1, your airspeed will be
different if you're at 10 percent flaps with gear up versus 30 percent flaps with gear extended.) Being able to
fly your aircraft successfully like this depends on being familiar with it, knowing what the proscribed pitch,
power, and configuration settings are for each phase of the flight, and knowing what airspeed to expect in that
situation. Many simulator pilots like to boast that they fly a wide variety of aircraft; but if they don't achieve
this level of familiarity with any one model, they're not really worthy of calling themselves a "pilot" as
opposed to just being able to "drive a plane!"
Summary
Airspeed is measured by the pitot/static system, a pair of tubes with diaphragms in which the pitot tube
is pointed into the oncoming airstream and the static tube is not.
The difference between the resulting air pressures is displayed as indicated airspeed.
When a pitot tube becomes clogged, the indicated airspeed will usually increase during climbs and
decrease during descents, much as the altimeter does. Since the actual airspeed is likely doing the
opposite, this is a particularly dangerous failure during climbs as it can lead to an unexpected stall.
Blocked pitot tubes do not affect any other instruments.
The most common cause of blockage is ice, and most aircraft are equipped with pitot heat, which can
usually rectify the problem in-flight, or else the pilot might be able to descend into warmer air; if the
blockage is from some other cause, it may not be fixable until touchdown.
A preflight check to ensure no blockage, as well as the preventative use of pitot heat, can avoid most
pitot tube blockages.
When a clogged pitot tube cannot be fixed, the pilot can use GPS groundspeed or DME closing speed
as reasonable estimates (allowing for the difference between that and indicated airspeed).
Being familiar with the aircraft's performance parameters and setting the usual
power/pitch/configuration should, all other factors being equal, result in the usual forward airspeed.
A blocked pitot tube is a dangerous situation and the closest safe landing location should be
sought!
Quiz
1: Which of the following is a true statement about pitot icing?
a. it can occur even if the surface temperature is fairly mild.
b. it can be prevented by engaging Pitot Heat prior to departure.
c. if it occurs, engaging Pitot Heat while at cruise often solves the issue.
2: Which of the following is a true statement about flying without a functioning airspeed indicator?
a. as long as the speed shown on the DME or GPS is above the stall speed, the aircraft is safe.
b. the flight should continue as normal; the situation isn't critical until final approach.
c. remembering "pitch + power (and configuration) = performance" often enables pilots who are
familiar with their aircraft to land safely.
ANSWERS: 1. D ... 2. C

Lesson 10: The Data is Inconclusive
Introduction
This Lesson examines recognition of, effects of, and preventive techniques for static tube failures.

As discussed in the last Lesson, the pitot/static system on the aircraft is a pair of tubes with
diaphragms in them to measure the pressure of the air inside. The pitot tube is pointed into the
airstream, so the pressure inside it increases as the flow of air into it gets faster (called "ram air
pressure"); the static tube is not pointed into the airstream, so it measures the general air pressure
outside the aircraft.
Multiple instruments in the aircraft rely on a functioning static pressure tube. If it clogs, the airspeed,
altimeter, and vertical speed will all read improperly.
A clog in the static tube causes the altimeter to freeze at the current reading, and the vertical speed to
freeze at zero.
The airspeed gauge will begin behaving very erratically with a blocked static tube; it will still increase
and decrease with a change in airspeed, but if the aircraft climbs above the altitude it was at when the
blockage occurred, it will under-report the airspeed; and if the aircraft descends below it, the airspeed
will be over-reported. The effect is magnified the further away the aircraft gets from the altitude of
occurence.
Static blockages can be airframe-ice-related; as there is no heating element associated, descending to
warmer air may fix the issue. But, this should only be attempted if the pilot has sufficient visibility to
see that it is safe to descend.
External issues (dirt, debris, insects, etcetera) can block a static port just as they can a pitot tube; this
should be checked during preflight to ensure an unobstructed opening.
There is often a way to switch from a primary to a backup static port; which, if that port is not blocked
also, would rectify the issue regardless of the cause. In aircraft with non-pressurized cabins, the backup
static port is often inside the cockpit, negating any concern about it too being affected by airframe
icing.
In real-world aircraft without built-in alternate static ports, when faced with an otherwise unresolvable
static tube clog, it is sometimes advised to physically break the face of the VSI to create a new opening
to the static chambers.
If a static blockage cannot be rectified, a pilot may have few options to land safely, especially when
visibility is limited; an ILS/DME approach is probably the safest bet.
More Detail
What is the static tube?
The static tube (often referred to as the static port, which is actually the opening to the tube) is the feeder line
to the airspeed, altimeter, and vertical speed gauges for the measurement of the baseline ambient air pressure
around the aircraft.
It is the pressue that the altitude gauge compares to the altimeter setting in order to display the current
altitude (this is generally done mechanically, through diaphragms and linkages, but I use the word
"compare" just to make the concept a bit easier to understand).
The vertical speed gauge works by measuring the airflow from one internal pressurized chamber to
another; as the plane's altitude and therefore the static pressure changes, the valve between the two
allows the pressure to escape one chamber and equalize with the other at a predictable rate, and the
result is displayed on the gauge as a measurement of the speed of the climb or descent.
We have already discussed how the airspeed gauge works; it compares the ram-air (pitot tube) pressure
to the static pressure to determine how fast the airstream is passing by the plane.
What happens when the static tube becomes blocked?
Because the static pressure is involved in the measurements shown by each of these three gauges, all of them
will malfunction in one way or another when the static tube becomes obstructed. If the obstruction is
complete, the static tube will be sealed off, and the pressure within it will no longer change with the aircraft's
altitude, but will remain more-or-less constant.
With the static pressure now remaining the same regardless of a change in altitude, the altimeter will
continue to display the altitude at which the blockage occurred, regardless of any climb or descent.
With the static pressure now unchanging, the two chambers that measure the vertical speed will remain
equalized, and no airflow will pass between them. Therefore the vertical speed gauge will show zero,
consistent with the unchanging altitude, regardless of what the aircraft is actually doing.
With the static pressure now holding constant at whatever it was when the blockage occurred, but the
pitot tube still measuring ram-air pressure, the airspeed gauge will still appear to function normally,
and in fact will read accurately as long as the plane's actual altitude remains unchanged. However, if
the aircraft goes higher but the static pressure doesn't drop as it would be expected to, the airspeed
gauge will start to show a lower indicated speed than what would be normal for that situation. And as
the plane goes lower, the airspeed gauge will display a higher indicated airspeed than it should.
Because the effect of a blocked static tube on the airspeed gauge is sort of complex, I'm going to take a
moment to explain that further.
We already know that as a plane's altitude increases, the indicated airspeed will decrease in relation to a
constant true airspeed. So, an aircraft maintaining a constant velocity through the air will appear to slow
down as it flies higher, and speed up as it flies lower, according to the airspeed indicator. A blocked static tube
will tend to exaggerate that effect, so that as the plane climbs, the indicated airspeed will plummet much
more quickly than it should; and a descending plane will indicate a much higher speed than it should, higher
even than its actual true airspeed in some cases.
In fact, when a static port becomes blocked, the airspeed effect can be so subtle (especially if there is little
change in altitude) that detecting and recognizing the issue can be difficult. Add to that the fact that one
would ordinarily expect airspeed (both true and indicated) to drop when the plane climbs, and to increase
when the plane descends. Therefore, figuring out that there's a problem based on airspeed indication alone is
certainly a challenge. The main and more obvious indication, and the usual first sign of a static port problem
to be recognized, is the unchanging altimeter and vertical speed.
What steps can I take to rectify a blocked static tube?
The best advice about static ports is to make sure, before entering the cockpit, that they are unobstructed and
clean. Most modern airliners have clear markings on the fuselage to highlight the area around the static
port(s) so that the attention of ground crew members and pilots is drawn to that area, in order to ensure it
remains clear.
If a blockage occurs in flight, it could be due to airframe icing. As we'll get to in a later Lesson, airframe
icing is dangerous for many reasons. Descending to warmer air can help, as long as the pilot can see that it's
safe to descend; in IMC, descending without an altitude reference should not be considered an option. But the
blockage could also be due to some other foreign object or substance and may not be able to be cleared in-
flight. However, many aircraft have the ability to switch to an alternate static source; essentially, another hole
you can open to allow outside pressure into the static chambers, bypassing the clogged one. In many cases, at
least in aircraft without pressurized cabins, that alternate source is inside the cockpit, where it should be
protected from debris and dirt; worst-case scenario, the pilot can physically ensure it's unblocked (and,
presumably, if the cockpit's heated, it will be free of ice). In real-world situations, if no alternate source is
available, it is possible to create an impromptu opening into the static chamber from the cockpit by smashing
the face of the vertical speed gauge. It obviously renders that gauge unreadable, but it frees up the other two.
(Any of the pitot/static gauges will actually work, but since this is the least critical of the three, this is the one
that's generally recommended).
What can I do if I am unable to resolve a static tube blockage in flight?
Unresolvable static tube blockages are extremely serious conditions because they render an aircraft without
reliable airspeed or altitude references. If I were to be flying a plane in IMC (no visibility) which became
crippled in this manner, I would probably take the following steps:
Find the nearest VOR/DME, fly direct to it, and hold there. At least with your location known, you
have a chance to avoid hitting any terrain or obstacles.
Hold the aircraft slightly nose-up and power for a slight climb. With no true reference to your
altitude, you must be sure you're not in danger of encroaching any high terrain, towers, buildings, or
other structures. Remember the "Pitch plus power equals performance" mantra from the last Lesson?
Use it to make sure you've set the plane up so that it's gaining altitude. The ground is some
undetermined distance below you; make sure you're getting further away from it, at least until you get
above the clouds.
Ascertain your fuel situation. Figure out what your fuel range is, and what's available as far as safe
landing sites within that range.
Find the landing site within that range with an ILS/DME that has the best visibility. To get down
safely, you'll need to follow a safe path to the ground, possibly without being able to see it, know how
close it is, or know your airspeed. So an ILS with DME gives you the best shot at getting onto
pavement in one piece.
Go ahead and declare an emergency. In the real world, this will require some post-incident
paperwork; a small consideration when your life is on the line. In VATSIM, if in uncontrolled space or
in an area where ATC isn't able to accommodate, it might require disconnecting and challenging
yourself to manage this offline without controllers' assistance.
The difficult part is going to be figuring out how to intercept the glideslope at the proper altitude, since you
will have no idea what altitude you're starting from. Hopefully you have some ground visibility to try and
estimate what a few thousand feet looks like; or, some distinct cloud layers to gauge yourself off of.
Otherwise, you might intercept a "false lobe" of the ILS signal and end up trying to track a glideslope that's
way too steep. It suffices to say that landing safely in this situation is a challenge and not something you want
to encounter every day (or every lifetime!).
Summary
The static port is the source by which the altimeter gets its reading; the vertical speed gauge works by
detecting the rate at which the static pressure changes, so it too is affected by problems with this
system.
The static port also provides the baseline pressure to which the pitot pressure is compared, so it affects
the airspeed indicator as well.
When the static port clogs, the altimeter will freeze at its current reading, and the vertical speed
indicator will drop to zero regardless of any actual climb or descent occurring.
With a blocked static port the airspeed gauge will behave normally if altitude remains unchaged, but
will begin under-reporting if the plane flies higher, or over-reporting if the plane goes lower than the
altitude at which the blockage developed.
Static blockages can be ice-related and descending into warmer air can help; but, they may also be due
to other dirt or debris.
Some aircraft allow the pilot to switch to an alternate static source, and this is sometimes located inside
the cockpit.
In the real world, physically breaking the face of the VSI gauge can create a new alternate static source.
If a static blockage cannot be rectified in flight, a pilot is in real danger, as they are completely without
reliable airspeed and altitude references; an ILS approach with DME may be their best hope of getting
on the ground safely.
Quiz
1: Which of the following is usually the best method for resolving a static port blockage?
a. turning on the pitot heat.
b. switching to an alternate static source.
c. engaging the wing anti-ice device.
2: Which of the following best describes the danger of flying with a blocked static port?
a. the pilot has no reliable reference to airspeed or altitude.
b. the pilot cannot tell how the aircraft is pitched or banked.
c. the pilot cannot successfully intercept and track a VOR or ILS signal.
ANSWERS: 1. B ... 2. A

Lesson 11: Vacuum Sucks, and Fuses Blow
Introduction
This Lesson discusses perils and pointers for flight with vacuum-system or electrical failures.
Vocabulary
vacuum system: most light aircraft are designed and built with a mechanical method of powering the
gyroscopes within the attitude indicator and heading indicator. A vacuum pump is attached to and
powered by the engine, and the suction is transferred from the pump to the gauges by a set of hoses;
this suction is what spins the gyros. This is preferred to electricity because it allows the gauges to
continue to function in case of electrical power loss. However, vacuum system problems are also
possible.
dead reckoning: the process of tracking your position on a chart using the heading and the speed-over-
time; but before you can simply fly the headings and distances on the chart, a conversion from KIAS to
true airspeed must be done, and a correction for the reported wind must be factored in as well.
Concepts: Vacuum Failures
In the majority of light aircraft, the vacuum system powers the gyroscopic instruments, which include
the attitude indicator and the heading indicator and/or HSI. The turn rate indicator is also gyroscopic
but is usually powered by a very small electric gyro rather than the vacuum system.
As we mentioned in a prior lesson, pilots cannot rely on their body's perception of up / down / banked,
due to the inertial forces which disrupt this sensation. Simulator pilots have no inertial references,
which can actually make partial-panel situations easier rather than harder.
An instant failure of the vacuum system can be somewhat difficult to assess because the gyro
instruments will slowly fall off of their readings as the gyros spin down from their normal RPMs. Real-
world vacuum failures are often gradual, making it even harder for the pilot to recognize the issue. A
periodic check of the suction gauge is a good way to spot a vacuum problem before the aircraft is in a
dangerous situation.
The main danger of vacuum failure is when a pilot fails to recognize the issue and follows the
erroneous attitude indication into what he or she believes is straight and level flight, while in reality
pitching and banking it unusally, which can put it dangerously close to a downward spiral or a stall.
Unusual attitude recovery with no attitude indicator and not enough visibility for outside roll and pitch
reference is attained and maintained by centering the turn coordinator and watching the altimeter and
VSI for indication of climb or descent, cross-checked by airspeed and power setting. Pilots must
understand that each of these gauge's reaction to an attitude change is slow, and they must not
overcorrect as a result. Recommendations often include trimming for straight and level flight, then
flying solely by rudder for lateral control, and power for vertical.
Aircraft cockpits always contain a wet compass to use as a fallback to the heading indicator, although it
is more prone to bobbing and spinning around with bumps and other movements. Turns are made with
the turn coordinator gauge by counting out the seconds and ensuring standard-rate turns, then leveling
the aircraft and verifying the new heading once the compass has settled into a constant reading.
The standard term for reporting a vacuum failure to ATC is a "no-gyro" situation. In VFR conditions
this would not necessarily constitute an emergency, but in IMC it should always be treated as such.
ATC can direct a "no-gyro approach" in which the pilot starts and stops turns when told by ATC. Once
on final approach course, normal procedure is to make half-standard-rate turns (1.5 degrees per
second). Real-world controllers are duty-bound to prioritize you in an emergency; VATSIM ATC can
do this on a workload-permitting basis only.
Concepts: Electrical Failures
Depending on the aircraft and the situation, an electrical failure could be limited to a single circuit, or
could involve the whole electrical system.
For most light aircraft, a total electrical failure will affect the turn coordinator, the external and internal
lighting, the COM and NAV radios and GPS, and the autopilot.
The most serious consequence of an electrical failure on VATSIM is usually the loss of avionics.
Without NAV radios and GPS, as well as autopilot, the pilot must hand-fly the aircraft and has no
reliable navigation method other than by dead reckoning and/or visual reference.
Even with a simulated loss of COM radios, whether a radio failure will knock out your voice or text
communication (or both) on VATSIM depends on the aircraft model. If you've been knocked out of
both voice and text, use your pilot client to set your squawk to 7600 (not, I repeat, not 7500!).
Depending on the controller's workload, you may be asked via Private Message to disconnect from the
network.
External lighting failures can be ignored on VATSIM, because the network does not read and transmit
your aircraft's lighting state; if you see other aircraft activating and deactivating lights, this is done by
your pilot client. Internal lighting failures are only critical if your instrument panel cannot be seen.
If your turn rate indicator is the only gauge rendered inoperative by failure, this is usually a fairly
benign condition, since rate of turn can be deduced from the heading indicator, and slip/skid indication
is achieved by gravity alone and is thus unaffected by the lack of power.
Depending on the aircraft model, a tripped circuit breaker might be able to be reset (or a blown fuse
replaced); however, if there is some underlying cause being simulated, a simple reset may only cause
the same circuit to overload and fail again. Information on how to troubleshoot specific electrical
failure conditions should be contained in your aircraft's documentation.
More Detail
Part 1: Vacuum System Failures
Way back in the P2 rating, we discussed the basic cockpit instruments and how they work. In that Lesson, we
described that the attitude indicator (artificial horizon), heading indicator and/or HSI, and turn rate indicator
all function via gyroscopes -- small wheel-like masses that are spun at a high speed, and then used for their
properties of physics that give them stability and resistance to change in direction, much like a spinning top
or a bicycle wheel. The spinning weighted wheel inside the gauge resists a change in orientation. So when the
plane pitches and rolls, the gyroscope in the attitude indicator stays level with the horizon; when the plane
changes heading, the gyroscope in the heading indicator or HSI remains pointed in the same direction; and
also, the gyroscope in the turn rate indicator has a reference for the change in heading so it can indicate the
rate at which it is changing.
The turn rate indicator's gyro is usually driven by a small, electric motor, so, we'll cover that in Part 2 of this
Lesson.
However, most light aircraft are designed and built with a mechanical method of powering the gyroscopes
within the attitude indicator and heading indicator. A vacuum pump is attached to and powered by the engine,
and the suction is transferred from the pump to the gauges by a set of hoses; this suction is what spins the
gyros. There's usually a gauge on the cockpit panel somewhere that indicates the suction level. Now, the
whole idea behind this setup is so that the gauges continue to function in case of an electrical failure.
However, vacuum system failures are possible, too, and pilots must know how to recognize such a failure and
how to function without the gauges it powers.
Recognizing a vacuum system failure is critical, particularly in a zero-visibility situation, for several key
reasons. First, if the pilot is relying on the attitude indicator, and it starts to read erroneously, the pilot may
very well follow the erroneous indications into what he or she believes is straight-and-level flight, but what is
in reality a dangerously banked and/or pitched attitude. Pilots cannot rely on their body's sensations to
determine what their orientation to the horizon is -- inertial forces, particularly when banked and turning, can
distort this. (And, simulator pilots don't have any such sensations, anyway.) They must rely on the
instruments to tell them what is going on, and when the instruments start giving them conflicting information,
they must immediately determine which ones are accurate and which are failing, in order to avoid dangerous
maneuvers possibly leading to a downward spiral or stall. Making that recognition more difficult is the fact
that the effect is usually gradual. Even in an instant loss of suction, the gyros take some time to spin down
from their operating RPMs, resulting in a gradual fall-off from normal attitude and heading indications. The
reality is that most vacuum failures in the real world are gradual, making the detection of the conflicting
information even more difficult. A periodic check of the suction gauge, or a glance at it the instant you realize
something isn't right, can make diagnosing this issue easier. (NOTE: what units is it measured in? Doesn't
really matter. Normal readings tend to be around 5. Most gauges have a green range indicating what the
normal operating suction level is.)
If you don't have a working attitude indicator, and you can't see the horizon outside, you're going to have
your hands full. Vacuum failures in VMC would merit a diversion to the nearest suitable landing site; a
vacuum failure in IMC would almost always constitute declaring an emergency. The standard term for such a
situation is "no-gyro" -- ATC may or may not understand "I've lost my vacuum system," but they are trained
to understand what "no-gyro" means and what you will and will not be capable of in such a condition.
Always remember: in the real world, ATC is mandated to give priority to emergency aircraft, possibly
including vectoring others out of the way to clear your path to a safe landing site. However, in VATSIM, to
avoid the abuse of emergency declaration to anoint oneself the highest priority handling (since there are no
regulatory consequences, like in the real world), it is always up to ATC whether they can accept and handle
your emergency, and, one can never be declared in uncontrolled space. (You are more than welcome to divert
to the closest airport, but you can't make anyone get out of your way.) VATSIM ATC may very well ask that
you either disconnect from the network and continue your emergency in an empty sky, or, that you remain
online but discontinue the emergency and proceed with normal flight.
So, how do you maintain straight and level flight with no attitude indicator and no horizon outside? It's not
easy. But your turn rate indicator, which as we mentioned works by gyroscope but is electrically driven, now
becomes your roll indicator. Note that an attitude adjustment, while instantly reflected on the attitude
indicator, will take a few moments to show up on the turn rate indicator -- and, when rolling back to level,
sometimes the indicator will switch to the other side temporarily. Make small adjustments and wait for the
gauge to settle in to a constant reading. The same concept applies to pitch with respect to the vertical speed
indicator. Again, the adjustment in attitude will take a few seconds to reflect on the gauge. The best advice is
to go totally hands-off on the control yoke, and make all adjustments with trim to get back to straight, level
flight. From there on, you will make very small adjustments using primarily the rudder for turns, and power
adjustments alone for climb and descent.
Your regular ("wet") compass is now your heading indicator. Problem -- it, too, often lags in its indication,
and bobs and bumps all over the place during turns and anytime the plane gets jostled around a bit. To get a
good read on your heading, you need to be flying straight and level, and wait for it to settle in to a constant
indication. When turning, it's pretty near completely unreadable, so the best method to find a new heading is
to start from a known heading, then perform a standard-rate turn for the appropriate duration, then level out
and check your new heading. If you didn't land exactly on your target, make another turn using the same
method and check again.
If you are working with ATC to get to an instrument approach you can perform in order to get down safely,
they might offer to direct you via a "no-gyro approach." The procedure is to make standard-rate turns, starting
and stopping them when directed by the controller; once on final approach, you'll be told to start making
"half-standard-rate" turns from there on, meaning that the turn rate should be 1.5 degrees per second rather
than the usual 3. Again, remember that real-world ATC must make you a priority in an emergency situation;
VATSIM controllers will only do this if they can without sacrificing service to anyone else.
Part 2: Electrical Failures
Electrical failures can have vastly different effects depending on the aircraft, and how well or thoroughly its
electrical system is modeled in the simulation. They can be limited to one circuit, or, could encompass the
entire electrical system. Your aircraft's documentation should give you some information on what electrical
failures are possible and how to prevent and/or troubleshoot them.
Generally speaking, a total electrical failure will affect the turn rate indicator, the external and internal
lighting, the COM and NAV radios and GPS, and the autopilot. The loss of the avionics is usually the most
devastating -- without NAV radios and GPS, dead reckoning is the only way to keep track of your position,
and without visual references to cross-check, this is going to be especially difficult, even moreso if you don't
have a reliable record of exactly where you were the instant the failure occured. However, having to manage
all of the computation involved while hand-flying the aircraft is bound to be overwhelming, even for an
experienced pilot.
With your COM radios out, it's hit-or-miss whether you'll be able to communicate with VATSIM ATC.
Whether you lose voice comms or both voice and text comms will depend on the aircraft and how it's
modeled, and your pilot client. If you're totally cut off from them, the best course of action is probably to
disconnect and troubleshoot the problem while not on the VATSIM network. If you do elect to stay online
without comms, you'll need to set your squawk to 7600; since your simulated transponder is probably dark,
you should use the pilot client to adjust the setting. In vPilot, this is done with the .x command; .x followed
by a space and the new squawk setting, so, .x 7600 [Enter]. Don't forget, it's 7600, NOT 7500! It's already
likely enough that ATC will ask you to disconnect if you can't talk to them; but, accidentally setting the
"hijacking" code instead of the "no radio" code is a sure-fire ticket off of the network. (NOTE: remember that
in VATSIM, the pilot client acts as your transponder, even though your simulated cockpit has one which may
or may not be operating. In reality, an electrical failure will knock out your transponder completely, and
you'll be just a primary radar target with no identifying data block nor altitude verification information. Not
good!)
Lighting is usually not a huge issue: a loss of internal lighting is only a problem at night, when your
instrument panel can't otherwise be seen. Real-world pilots who do night flying are supposed to carry a
flashlight for emergencies; and who knows, but, some high-end add-on simulated planes might include some
crazy modeling of a solution like this. During the day, panel lighting isn't needed anyway. As for external
lights, on VATSIM it's probably not your biggest concern, since external light status is not sent over the
network. vPilot apparently does have a way to exchange information between it and other users on using
vPilot, so some of the other pilots around you may see your lights in the state you have them in. But others
will see your aircraft lit up however their pilot client decides it should be based on where you are and what
phase of flight you're in. Long story short -- the loss of external lights isn't as big a concern on VATSIM as it
would be in the real world.
Loss of external lighting (landing lights) is a concern only at small, remote airports without adequate
illumination of the runways and taxiways. In the case of loss of landing lights, it is advisable to divert to a
larger airport that has adequate lighting.
If your turn rate indicator has failed, assuming it's the only gauge rendered inoperable, this isn't usually a
huge cause for concern. As long as you have vacuum presuure, you can gauge your turn rate by using your
heading indicator. A standard-rate turn means 3 degrees per second. Every 10 degrees should tick by in just
over 3 seconds, and a 90-degree turn should take 30 seconds. (Now, if your turn coordinator fails and you've
already lost vacuum pressure, well, you've got issues, to put it mildly.) The bottom portion of the turn
indicator, the turn coordinator AKA the slip/skid indicator, cannot fail since it operates only on gravity and
lateral G-forces.
Depending on the level of detail and realism represented in your particular simulated aircraft, a tripped circuit
breaker might be able to be reset (or a blown fuse replaced). The problem is (and again, this depends on how
detailed the electrical system is modeled on your particular aircraft of choice), if you reset a breaker or
replace a fuse and the problem which caused the circuit to overload hasn't been addressed, it's just going to
overload and trip the breaker or blow the fuse again. Information on how to troubleshoot specific electrical
failure conditions being simulated within your aircraft model should be contained in your aircraft's
documentation. Don't forget you can ask ATC to place you in a holding pattern if you need a few moments to
work through some issue while not worrying about top-of-descent, fetching ATIS, approach briefing, or other
high-brainpower tasks at the same time.
Summary
The vacuum system generally powers the gyroscopes which stabilize the artificial horizon and the
heading indicator / HSI.
Without a functioning attitude indicator or the outside horizon visible, pilots cannot rely on their body's
perception of up, down, and banked.
Vacuum failures are often gradual, but even in instant failures, the gyroscopes take a few moments to
spin down from their operating RPMs, resulting in a gradual falloff of normal readings.
Pilots may follow the incorrect indication on the artificial horizon before realizing something is wrong;
most aircraft include a suction gauge which can be used to confirm suspicions about vacuum failure.
When flying "no-gyro" (which is the term used to report the condition to ATC), bank is deduced via the
turn rate indicator, pitch is deduced via the vertical speed indicator, and heading is deduced via the wet
compass; all of these react slowly to changes, so pilots must take care not to overcorrect.
If ATC offers to direct a "no-gyro approach" (which VATSIM ATC can always decline due to
workload, unlike in the real world), they will direct when to start and stop each turn, which should be
performed at standard rate; at the point where you are on final they will direct you to begin making
half-standard-rate turns.
Depending on the aircraft model, electrical failure can be limited to one circuit, or it can be a total
electrical failure.
Total electrical failures are fairly catastrophic since that would tend to knock out COM and NAV
radios, GPS, autopilot, turn rate indicator, and interior and exterior lighting.
The loss of all navigation capability is the most devastating since you can then only rely on dead
reckoning, and to do so you need to know exactly where you were the instant the failure occurred.
Whether a loss of COM radio (both voice and text) is properly simulated depends on the aircraft and
pilot client; you can use the pilot client to set your squawk to 7600 (indicating radio failure) even
though your simulated transponder is dark, and you can send your controller a private message --
however, you may be asked to disconnect if you can't communicate with ATC.
Loss of internal lighting is only a problem at night (real-world pilots carry a flashlight as backup).
Loss of external lighting is only a cause of concern if landing at remote airports that lack adequate
illumination of runways.
Turn rate indicator failure is usually not a problem as long as it is not combined with a vacuum system
failure.
If a single electric circuit has failed, it may be possible (depending on the aircraft simulation) to reset
the breaker or replace the fuse, but, if some underlying cause is being simulated which remains
unaddressed, the circuit will likely fail again.
Specifics on troubleshooting electrical issues varies by aircraft model, and information on what to do
should be in the model's documentation.
Quiz
1: Which of the following is a true statement about vacuum system failures?
a. they affect the turn rate indicator, the artifical horizon, and the vertical speed gauge.
b. they can be difficult to detect since the gyroscopes take time to wind down.
c. they are caused by a tripped circuit breaker or blown fuse.
2: Which of the following is a true statement about a total electrical failure?

a. the pilot will find him- or herself without any navigation capability whatsoever.
b. in VATSIM, with no transponder, there's no way to change your squawk code.
c. if you set squawk 7600, VATSIM ATC must allow you to fly "lost communication" procedures.
ANSWERS: 1. B ... 2. A

Lesson 12: The Cold Shoulder
Introduction
This Lesson examines the various ways in which ice can adversely affect a flight.
Vocabulary
AIRMET: an Airman's Meteorologicial information notice. These are categorized as S / Sierra for
mountain obscuration by clouds or fog, T / Tango for turbulence and sustained 30+-knot surface winds,
or Z / Zulu for light-to-moderate icing at freezing levels.
SIGMET: a notice of Significant Meteorologicial information; this is a notice of severe weather of
numerous different types. One of the SIGMET categories is for severe icing conditions.
PIREP: a Pilot Report; a radio notice from a pilot to ATC regarding turbulence, icing, wind
conditions, or other safety-related concerns that the controller (and the ATC system at large) then
passes on to other pilots planning to operate in the same area.
Concepts
On the ground, in cold weather, ice can form during precipitation which then freezes onto the plane.
When this occurs, aircraft are "de-iced" by the airport's ground crew, which sprays a de-icing fluid (one
of a couple different types of chemicals) all over the outside of the plane. There are time limits, which
vary depending on the type of precipitation and the ambient air temperature, for how long an aircraft
may remain on the ground after being de-iced; if they do not take off within that limit, they must be de-
iced again prior to departure. Generally speaking, VATSIM does not simulate de-icing operations; but,
some high-end ultra-realistic add-on aircraft models do include such considerations.
In flight, ice can build up on props, on the leading edges of wings and tails, or on the airframe itself.
The ice disrupts the airflow, impeding thrust (on the prop) or lift (on the wings), increases drag, and
increases weight. Structural surface ice can also block the static port, which we discussed in an earlier
Lesson. Ice can also affect an aircraft by clogging the pitot tube; we discussed using pitot heat as a
countermeasure in another previous Lesson.
In piston engines, carburetor icing can occur when there is moderate or high humidity, even in mild
temperatures, due to the effects of the intake air's change in velocity as it passes through the narrowed
point of the intake. The collection of ice will further narrow the air intake, causing the engine to run
richer than where the mixture control is set. Engines are particularly susceptible to this when flying
under reduced power, such as during a long descent. Carb heat should only be engaged when needed,
as engines usually run less fuel-efficiently with it on. Pilots should lean the mixture aggressively in
humid conditions, and monitor carburator temperatures (if available) to determine when carb heat
should be activated.
Clouds contain water droplets, which can remain in liquid form down to temperatures of -40 degrees
Celsius. When an aircraft flies through such conditions, the water hits the surface of the plane and
freezes to it instantly, causing a very rapid buildup of ice. In freezing outside air temps and without
anti-ice countermeasures (as outlined below), clouds should be avoided at all costs.
Propellor anti-icing measures include heating elements and chemical dispersal systems.
Wing anti-icing (or de-icing) systems include electric heating elements, heat vents and ducts from the
jet engine (called "bleed-air" systems), chemical dispersal systems, and inflatable "boots" which flex
the wing surface momentarily in order to break off any collected ice layer.
If in-flight ice countermeasures are proving ineffective, the best course of action is usually to descend
to warmer air. The air temperature will rise an average of two degrees Celsius for each thousand feet of
altitude lost.
On landing, icy surfaces will extend braking distance, and pilots should plan to rely more on thrust
reversing and aerodynamic brakes (if available), and less on wheelbrakes, to avoid skidding. Also, this
is a perfect example of why landing at a minimal vertical speed is not the main goal in landing, as a
delay in getting the plane's weight onto the wheels can contribute to sideways skidding upon
touchdown.
Aviation weather forecasts, including AIRMETs and SIGMETs, as well as PIREPs from a given area,
will often include warning areas for "light," "moderate," or "severe" icing. The FAA prohibits aircraft
which are not equipped with federally certified anti- and de-icing measures from flying into such areas.
There are several online sim-flight-planning resources which include briefing about weather conditions,
including information about icing. VATSIM controllers will often broadcast ice and other weather
warnings. But unlike in the real world, simulator pilots are never prohibited from flying somewhere
due to weather concerns, because the degree to which they simulate such considerations is always their
choice, and often dependent upon the aircraft model they choose to fly and how realistically such
conditions are incorporated into the simulation.
More Detail
From the outset of this conversation, it is important to draw an important distinction -- and that is one
between the real and simulated worlds. Much of what this Lesson covers is based (loosely and in very general
terms) on real-world considerations and regulations. However, in flight simulation, the degree to which icing,
and anti-icing and de-icing, is simulated often depends greatly on the aircraft model being flown. Flight
Simulator and its default aircraft do include certain minute degrees of realism in this arena; however, it's not
until you get into the complex, highly accurate and realistic add-on aircraft that you start requiring a higher
degree of procedural adherence to ice warnings and icing countermeasures. Regardless of whether the aircraft
model you choose to fly supports such a level of ice simulation, you always have the ability to determine how
much or little realism you choose to employ in your sim-flying -- and, of course, you can control the weather!
Because of this, VATSIM controllers take a somewhat passive role in terms of weather advising and
procedural adherence -- they'll report the conditions as they appear within their weather database, but do so
with the understanding that each pilot may or may not choose to abide by such advisories or may even be
simulating weather conditions different than that which the network is broadcasting.
The reasons ice is dangerous to airplanes are numerous. We've already discussed how it can clog static and
pitot tubes, and why pitot heat should be engaged just about anytime you're airborne. However, the main
dangers of ice go far beyond its effect on your cockpit gauges. When it builds up on propellors, wings, and
the airframe, it disrupts thrust and lift, adds drag, and adds weight. Ice can also collect in the carburetor
intake of a piston engine, choking off its supply of air for combustion. None of these things are helpful for
continued, controlled flight.
Several online flight simulation planning resources (including SimBrief and SkyVector) contain real-world,
real-time information on AIRMETs and SIGMETs, including those regarding ice. If you are planning a flight
into such conditions using an aircraft model which simulates their effects, these are important parts of the
briefing to study. Generally speaking, in order to fly safely and legally into conditions where probable icing is
forecast or has been reported, your aircraft must be equipped with anti- or de-icing countermeasures
(technically speaking, anti-ice measures are to prevent ice, and de-icing measures remove ice which has
already accumulated). (NOTE: in the real world, such equipment must meet certain FAA standards in order
to be considered legal for flight into icing conditions. Some smaller sport or recreational aircraft do include
some anti- and de-icing measures that are meant to help pilots avoid death in case they find themselves in
situations which weren't expected or forecast, but, that aren't quite up to the standard for certification when it
comes to deliberate flight into such conditions.)
Before you even take off, you might encounter ice. Cold-weather precipitation such as snow, sleet, freezing
rain, and other similar weather conditions can cause a buildup of ice on your aircraft while sitting on the
ground. All commercial airports in cold-climate areas, and many smaller ones, have de-icing stations and
crews which spray airplanes with a chemical (usually alcohol-based) which removes the built-up ice and can
temporarily inhibit its re-forming. The duration for which this is effective varies based on the air temp and the
type of precipitation, so, in response to incidents (including a high-profile crash in Washington, DC in
January of 1982), the FAA has developed time limits within which an aircraft must take off after being
sprayed. If ground traffic or procedural delays extend the takeoff past this limit, planes must head back to the
de-icing station for another hose-down. VATSIM does not simulate this type of operation nor do they enforce
the time thresholds. Only the most high-end add-on aircraft even include this possibility in their simulations.
For pilots using such aircraft in such conditions, they simply need to inform their Ground controller of their
needs, and they will accommodate, as long as any inconvenience to other traffic isn't substantial.
Once you depart, even if the weather is above freezing (or even fairly mild!) on the ground, outside air temp
at altitude could easily be freezing or below. Remember from our P2 lesson on Standard Atmosphere -- the
average loss in temp is 2 degrees Celsius for every thousand feet of altitude. Therefore even a relatively mild
day of 68 degrees Fahrenheit (20 degrees C) becomes freezing at or above 10,000 feet. Lower surface temps
become freezing OATs at lower altitudes. Clouds, which contain lots of moisture, should be avoided at all
costs if your aircraft isn't equipped to deal with the consequences effectively. Water droplets within them can
be as cold as -40 degrees C and will result in a very, very rapid buildup of ice on the airplane as it passes
through.
If the air is particularly humid, even well above freezing, one phenomenon that piston-aircraft pilots must
watch out for is carburetor icing. Ice can collect around the carb air intake even when the outside air temp is
substantially greater than 0 Celsius, because of the way the air pressure changes as it passes through the
narrow part of the intake. As the ice collects and the opening gets smaller, the result is that the mixture runs
richer (more fuel, less air) than where the control is set. If left unchecked, the engine will run more and more
poorly until the excess fuel in each cylinder effectively chokes out any remaining air (the engine "floods"),
and the engine stops. Engines are particularly susceptible to this when running at low power for extended
periods, like during a long descent. Some aircraft handbooks recommend carb heat during every descent and
landing; however, it does cause the engine to run less fuel-efficiently, so opinions on this practice differ.
During moderately to excessively humid days, pilots should be aggressive in their efforts to keep the mixture
properly leaned, and consider engaging the carb heat during reduced power maneuvers or whenever the carb
temps start dropping dangerously close to freezing.
When ice builds up on the leading edges of the propellor, its effectiveness is greatly reduced, resulting in a
loss of thrust. To prevent this, some propellor-driven aircraft are equipped with anti-icing systems built into
the blades. These usually take the form of either a heating element, or a chemical dispersal system which
spreads a fluid similar to that which ground crews spray on for de-icing. The heating elements draw power
from the electrical system, and the chemical system is limited by the amount of fluid in the reservoir; so,
either should only be used if ice is expected or observed.
Wings are susceptible to ice buildup, also primarily on the leading edge. When this happens, the airflow over
them is disrupted, reducing the amount of lift produced; the built-up ice also has weight to it, further
countering the reduced lift. Wing anti-icing systems can be similar to those in propellors, using either an
electric heating element or a chemical. Additionally, in jets, some wing systems use vented and ducted warm
air from the engine (called "bleed-air" systems) as a means of heating the leading edge and keeping ice away.
If the anti-ice measures are not present or not effective, some planes (usually smaller ones) have a pneumatic
rubber "boot" system over the leading edge; think of it as two thin layers of rubber with a thin airtight
chamber between them. When inflated, the skin flexes, popping the built-up ice off just as twisting an old-
school plastic ice-cube tray pops the cubes out. The flow is then reversed as to return the boot to its normal
shape, returning the wing to its normal condition. These types of systems are usually cycled periodically
rather than constantly engaged.
If in-flight ice countermeasures are proving ineffective, the best course of action is usually to descend to
warmer air. As we mentioned earlier, the air temperature will rise an average of two degrees Celsius for each
thousand feet of altitude lost. Your OAT gauge is a useful tool for determining how far you might need to
descend in order to get out of the freezing conditions.
When landing in winter precipitation, there are two important considerations a pilot must keep in mind. First
is that the distance needed for the landing roll is likely to be longer, and pilots should plan to increase their
use of reverse thrust, spoilers / speedbrakes, and other aerodynamic braking (if available) while reducing
reliance on wheelbrakes to slow down. This will avoid the tendency to lock the brakes and skid sideways.
Another practice that will avoid skidding is to get the weight of the plane onto the wheels firmly and
promptly. An icy runway is not an ideal place to participate in your Virtual Airline's contest to see who can
touch down with a vertical feet-per-second rate in the single digits! Holding the plane's weight off of the
wheels is inviting a traction-related mishap, especially if there should be a gusty crosswind. In low-traction
situations you want to plant the plane firmly onto pavement (without breaking it, of course) and get that full
traction between rubber and road as quickly as possible.
Summary
Ground de-icing is done by spraying a chemical on the outside of the aircraft which removes ice and
slows its re-forming; there are time limits (which vary by temp and type of precipitation) for how soon
a plane must take off after de-icing.
Ice buildup on propellors, wings, or the airframe disrupts lift, adds drag and weight, and can block the
pitot and/or static ports.
Carburator (carb) ice, which can occur on relatively warm days, restricts the airflow into a piston
engine. It is more common on humid days and during low-power maneuvers.
Carb heat can prevent icing to occur, but, opinions differ as to when it should be used, as it does have
an adverse effect on performance and fuel-efficiency.
Clouds often contain water droplets at temperatures as low as -40 C.
Props and wings sometimes have heating elements or chemical sprayers built in as anti-icing measures;
jet aircraft sometimes employ a "bleed-air" system of ductwork which vents warm engine exhaust
through the wings.
Descending to warmer air is often a backup solution for otherwise unresolvable icing problems.
When landing on potentially slick surfaces, pilots should touch down firmly and use minimal
wheelbraking to avoid skidding.
Aviation weather forecasts occasionally include AIRMETs and SIGMETs which are weather notices
about potential safety issues in a planned flight.
VATSIM ATC will often broadcast AIRMET and SIGMET info, but, the extent to which icing and anti-
or de-icing is a consideration for VATSIM pilots depends highly on their choice, as well as how
realistic and sophisticated their simulated aircraft model is.
Wikipedia: "Air Florida Flight 90" -- a description of a January 1982 fatal airline crash which was
chiefly caused by improper de-icing procedures.
Quiz
1: Which of the following is a true statement about pre-flight de-icing operations?
a. VATSIM pilots must be aware of this operation on days with winter precipitation.
b. VATSIM ATC enforces time limits for takeoff after a plane has been de-iced.
c. all default aircraft in FS9 and FSX include provisions for simulating ground de-icing.
2: Which of the following is a true statement about carb icing?

a. it happens only when the OAT is below freezing.
b. there are no side-effects to running with carb heat on constantly.
c. engines are particularly susceptible to carb icing when at reduced power.
3: Which of the following is a true statement about landing with potential surface ice?
a. the landing roll distance will be shorter on icy surfaces than on dry ones.
b. pilots should attempt to land with as minimal a vertical speed as is possible.
c. pilots should use wheelbrakes as gently as possible to avoid skidding.
ANSWERS: 1. E ... 2. C ... 3. C

Glossary
(NOTE: VATSTAR considers the P4 Rating a prerequisite for its P5 program, so, some terminology
encountered in the P5 Lessons which does not appear below could possibly be included in the P4 Glossary.
Please check there first before contacting the CFI regarding any alleged ommisions.)
ADF: see Automatic Direction Finder.

AIRMET: an Airman's Meteorologicial information notice. These are categorized as S / Sierra for
mountain obscuration by clouds or fog, T / Tango for turbulence and sustained 30+-knot surface winds,
or Z / Zulu for light-to-moderate icing at freezing levels. (Lesson 12)
Alpha approach: see generic approach.
alternate static source: a method of resolving a blocked static tube by which the pilot can select a
backup static port from which the ambient air pressure can be measured and used by the pitot/static
system instruments. (Lesson 10)
anti-icing: any method employed by aircraft and pilots to prevent ice from forming and/or collecting
on an aircraft; typically this refers primarily to in-flight measures, and includes chemical sprayers,
heating elements, and/or ducts which route warm engine exhaust to critical surfaces, among others.
(Lesson 12)
Automatic Direction Finder: a radio on which you would tune an NDB; the ADF gauge will then
display a direct-to bearing to that beacon, but unlike a VOR it does not offer any ability to provide
course correction information. In the ADF display, an arrow will always point toward the source of the
NDB signal. There are three main types: (1) a fixed-card ADF gauge, which always lists heading 000
at the top, so the number the arrow points to (the relative bearing) must be added to the aircraft's
current heading in order to get the compass-based bearing to the station; (2) a rotatable-card ADF
gauge, which the pilot can manually twist so that the aircraft's current heading is on top; and (3) a RMI
or Radio-Magnetic Indicator which gyroscopically maintains the aircraft's present heading on top.
(Lesson 2)
back course: a side effect of the way a localizer's radio signal is engineered, which broadcasts the
beam along what would be the departure leg of the same runway, for anywhere from 15-30 miles.
(Lesson 3)
BC mode: a mode many autopilots employ which, when engaged, enables them to track a back course
properly (i.e. accounting for the reverse sensing in such a scenario). (Lesson 3)
bearing: in a navigation sense, it means the direction to a certain point from your current location. In
casual circles it can be used interchangably with "heading"; but to be technically accurate, heading is
the direction you are traveling, whereas bearing is the direction to the location or object in question. In
aviation navigation it most often refers to the direction toward an NDB or VOR beacon. (Lesson 2)
"boot": see de-icing "boot".
carb heat: see carburetor icing.
carburetor icing: can occur when there is moderate or high humidity, even in mild temperatures, due
to the effects of the intake air's change in velocity as it passes through the narrowed point of the intake.
The collection of ice will further narrow the air intake, causing the engine to run richer than where the
mixture control is set. Engines are particularly susceptible to this when flying under reduced power,
such as during a long descent. Carb heat should only be engaged when needed, as engines usually run
less fuel-efficiently with it on. (Lesson 12)
circling approach: an Instrument Approach Procedure which is being used to navigate toward an
airport environment, but not as a straight-in approach to any particular runway. Once within sight of the
field, the pilot will fly a visual pattern to "circle" to the desired arrival runway. (Lesson 6)
Controlled Flight Into Terrain: a designation given to an aviation incident given by the National
Transportation Safety Board (which investigates airplane crashes in the US); it describes a situation in
which the aircraft was capable of flying high enough to avoid ground obstacles but for some reason did
not. (Lesson 8)
DA: while in some instances this means Decision Altitude (see the P4 Glossary), in terms of RNAV
approaches it means Degree of Accuracy; the different numbers (0.15 DA or 0.30 DA) refer to how
precisely the unit is capable of keeping its position calculation. (Lesson 4)
de-icing: any method employed by aircraft, pilots, and/or ground crew to remove ice which has
collected on part of an aircraft. Specifically in the case of ground operations, it refers to the process of
spraying an aircraft with a de-icing fluid (one of a couple different types of chemicals). There are time
limits, which vary depending on the type of precipitation and the ambient air temperature, for how long
an aircraft may remain on the ground after being de-iced; if they do not take off within that limit, they
must be de-iced again prior to departure. (Lesson 12)
de-icing "boot": a device comprised of two thin layers of rubber separated by an airtight chamber,
which is fitted over a critical surface on the outside of an aircraft (typically the leading edge of the
wings). If ice collects on it, it can be inflated, which "pops" the ice off; the air is then sucked out to
return the wing surface to its normal shape. (Lesson 12)
dead reckoning: the process of tracking your position on a chart using the heading and the speed-over-
time; but before you can simply fly the headings and distances on the chart, a conversion from KIAS to
true airspeed must be done, and a correction for the reported wind must be factored in as well. (Lesson
11)
diaphragm: a stretchy material over one end of a tube or container, which flexes as the pressure inside
the vessel increases and decreases. Diaphragms are frequently used in engineering as a way to measure
pressure and translate that to a mechanical movement, like an indicator needle. (Lesson 9)
direct entry: a method of entering a holding pattern in which the aircraft crosses the hold fix and
turns directly into the first full lap of the hold. (Lesson 7)
DME arc: a curved path around a VOR (part of a circle, with the VOR at its center) on which the
reported distance to that VOR remains constant. This is often used as a feeder leg to an Instrument
Approach. (Lesson 5)
dynamic pressure: the difference between the pitot tube and static tube pressure, which is translated
into an indicated airspeed. (Lesson 9)
EFC: see Expect Further Clearance.
Expect Further Clearance: the last part of a hold instruction from ATC in which the controller tells
the pilot approximately how long they should expect to remain within the holding pattern before
being cleared further along to their destinaion. (Lesson 7)
fixed-card ADF gauge: see Automatic Direction Finder.
generic approach: an Instrument Approach Procedure to an airport which does not have a specific
runway associated with it, and thus may only be used as a circling approach. These are usually
referred to as the airport's "Alpha" ("VOR-A" or "NDB-A") approach; subsequent letters are used if
there are multiple such approaches available for a single airport. (Lesson 6)
GPS unit: in addition to making a highly accurate determination of its location based on signals from
satellites in Earth orbit, an aviation-related GPS unit is capable of navigating an aircraft laterally from
point to point, and the fancier ones can import entire SIDs/DPs, STARs, Victor or Jet airway
waypoints, and/or IAPs such that the pilot does not need to manually enter each individual VOR,
intersection, or fix name. (Lesson 4)
hold entry: a method of entering a holding pattern while remaining within the hold's protected area;
the method used is dependent upon the direction from which the aircraft approaches the hold relative to
the inbound hold course. The three main types are the direct entry, the parallel entry, and the
teardrop entry. (Lesson 7)
hold fix (aka holding fix): a VOR, an NDB, an intersection, or a GPS fix around which a holding
pattern is constructed. (Lesson 7)
holding pattern: a circuit flown around a specified hold fix which is meant to delay a flight's forward
progress. It is usually requested by ATC to regulate traffic volume ahead, but could also be employed
for any other reason a flight's progress must be temporarily halted. (Lesson 7)
homing: naviagting a path straight toward a target location until the aircraft is directly over top of it.
(Lesson 2)
"hood": a physical device worn by real-world student pilots practicing flying by instruments alone,
which blocks the view out of the windows and limits the student to being able to see only the aircraft
instruments. (Lesson 8)
inbound bearing: same as simply bearing; in NDB terms this refers to a straight-line course that starts
at your present location and ends at the beacon. (Lesson 2)
instrument scan: the technique by which pilots fly safely in zero-visibility conditions; a constant
pattern of redirecting their attention among the most important cockpit gauges. The artificial horizon is
the highest priority in the scan, followed by altimeter and airspeed, then by heading and navigation,
and finally by vertical speed and turn rate. (Lesson 8)
localizer (LOC) approach: a non-precision approach which includes a localizer for tracking the
extended centerline, but for which a radio-based glideslope beacon does not exist. (Lesson 1)
Localizer Back Course Approach: a non-precision approach in which the back course of a LOC
signal provides the lateral guidance for the approach. (Lesson 3)
LNAV: see LP.
LP: Localizer Performance without Vertical Guidance, also sometimes referred to simply as LNAV
(Lateral Navigation) -- a designation regarding a GPS unit which indicates that it is not capable of
providing vertical along with the usual lateral guidance while performing a GPS-based approach.
(Lesson 4)
LPV: Localizer Performance with Vertical Guidance, a designation regarding a GPS unit which
indicates that it is capable of providing vertical along with the usual lateral guidance while performing
a GPS-based approach. (Lesson 4)
NDB: see Non-Directional Beacon.
NDB approach: a non-precision approach (either to a specific runway, or to an airport evnironment
generically) in which an NDB bearing provides the approach's lateral guidance. (Lesson 2)
"no-gyro": the standard term for reporting a vacuum system failure to ATC. They may choose to
direct a "no-gyro approach" in which the pilot starts and stops turns when told by ATC. Once on final
approach course, normal procedure is to make half-standard-rate turns (1.5 degrees per second).
(Lesson 11)
Non-Directional Beacon: a radio nav-aid that can be tuned on an ADF radio; the ADF gauge will then
display a direct-to bearing to that beacon, but unlike a VOR it does not offer any ability to provide
course correction information. NDB frequencies can be anywhere from 190-1750kHz but in the US are
mostly in the 200 to 400 range. They are denoted by a geographical name and most often a two- or
sometimes three-letter identifier. See also Automatic Direction Finder. (Lesson 2)
non-precision approach: an approach in which your vertical guidance all comes from the chart itself
rather than from a glideslope indicator. (Lesson 1)
non-terminal approach: an NDB approach in which the NDB is located somewhere other than the
airfield, meaning that the leg from the Final Approach Fix to the Missed Approach Point must be timed
as there is no nav-aid to mark it. (Lesson 2)
outbound bearing: this can be thought of as a radial of an NDB, although "radial" more properly
refers to a VOR. It's a course that begins at the beacon, passes through the airplane, and continues on
beyond it in a theoretically indefinite straight line. (Lesson 2)
parallel entry: a method of entering a holding pattern in which the aircraft crosses the hold fix, turns
to a heading equal to the reciprocal of the inbound hold course (though not necessarily tracking it in the
outbound direction), then turns inbound in the opposite direction as the hold turns, to remain in the
protected area and join the inbound hold course, prior to returning to the hold fix and starting the first
full lap. (Lesson 7)
PIREP: a Pilot Report; a radio notice from a pilot to ATC regarding turbulence, icing, wind
conditions, or other safety-related concerns that the controller (and the ATC system at large) then
passes on to other pilots planning to operate in the same area. (Lesson 12)
"Pitch + Power = Performance": an old pilot's adage which essentially states that holding a certain
given combination of pitch attitude and engine power level should result in a predictable forward
airspeed. To be completely accurate, differences in flap and gear configuration should be factored in as
well. This adage allows a pilot to fly relatively safely with an inoperable airspeed indicator. (Lesson 9)
pitot heat: a system in many aircraft which employs a heating element within the pitot tube to prevent
ice from forming and blocking the airflow into it. (Lesson 9)
pitot/static system: a pair of tubes with diaphragms in them to measure the pressure of the air inside.
The pitot tube is pointed into the airstream, so the pressure inside it increases as the flow of air into it
gets faster (called ram air pressure); the static tube is not pointed into the airstream, so it measures
the general air pressure outside the aircraft. (Lesson 9)
pitot tube: see pitot/static system.
protected area: the space around the hold fix which ATC blocks off for the aircraft to perform the
hold, which is clear of any terrain or obstacles, and within which they will not allow any other air
traffic. (Lesson 7)
published hold: a holding pattern whose parameters (hold fix and direction, inbound course, turn
direction, leg length) are depicted on an enroute chart, a STAR chart, or an approach chart. (Lesson 7)
racetrack pattern: the oval-shaped circuit used in a holding pattern created by two straight legs
connected by two wide 180-degree turns. (Lesson 7)
radio-magnetic indicator: see Automatic Direction Finder.
radius-to-fix: a method used by complex modern FMC units which calculates the turn rate an aircraft
needs to achieve at a given forward speed to produce an arcing path through a string of points along a
curve. (Lesson 4)
ram air pressure: see pitot/static system.
relative bearing: see Automatic Direction Finder.
Required Navigation Performance: see RNP.
reverse sensing: the concept in which following a back course toward a runway results in the course
deviation indicator to swing in the opposite direction as it normally would, relative to which way the
pilot must correct to re-join the lateral approach path. (Lesson 3)
RMI gauge: see Automatic Direction Finder.
RNAV approaches: approaches based upon GPS Fixes, which are not locatable by any radio nav-aid;
so, the aircraft must be equipped with an advanced navigation system such as a GPS receiver or an
FMC to fly them. (Lesson 4)
RNP: Required Navigation Performance, which refers to a navigation unit that is capable of
estimating the aircraft's turn and climb/descent performance at any given point in the flight in order to
plot a highly accurate three-dimensonal path which connects all of the waypoints on the route. In
VATSIM, the most common example of an RNP unit would be the FMC on many high-detail add-on jet
and turboprop aircraft. (Lesson 4)
rotatable-card ADF gauge: see Automatic Direction Finder.
sensitivity: when referring to tracking a course via radio beacon, it refers to how far off-course the
plane must get before the course deviation needle is fully deflected to one side. More specifically, it
refers to the notion that there is more sensitivity (i.e. less tolerance for deviation) on a back course
than when tracking a localizer in the normal direction. (Lesson 3)
SIGMET: a notice of Significant Meteorologicial information; this is a notice of severe weather of
numerous different types. One of the SIGMET categories is for severe icing conditions. (Lesson 12)
static tube: see pitot/static system.
step-down descent: this refers to the method by which a non-precision approach is flown where the
pilot descends ("steps down") to each new reference point's minimum altitude after crossing the
previous one. (Lesson 1)
teardrop entry: a method of entering a holding pattern in which the aircraft crosses the hold fix,
turns to a heading 30 degrees offset from the outbound course toward the protected area side, then
turns inbound in the same direction as the hold turns to join the inbound hold course prior to returning
to the hold fix and starting the first full lap. (Lesson 7)
terminal approach: an NDB approach in which the NDB is located on the airfield at the Missed
Approach Point for the procedure. (Lesson 2)
turn anticipation: this refers to the capability of a navigation system, as it is approaching a waypoint
associated with a change in course, to begin the turn just far enough ahead of the waypoint that the
plane winds up on the new target path without overshooting it. (Lesson 4)
vacuum system: a mechanical method of powering the gyroscopes within most light aircrafts' attitude
indicator and heading indicator. A vacuum pump is attached to and powered by the engine, and the
suction is transferred from the pump to the gauges by a set of hoses; this suction is what spins the
gyros. (Lesson 11)
VNAV: Vertical Navigation; the capability of a navigation unit to provide altitude-related guidance in
addition to guidance regarding lateral position. (Lesson 4)
VOR approach: a non-precision approach (either to a specific runway, or to an airport evnironment
generically) in which a VOR radial provides the approach's lateral guidance. (Lesson 1)
If you see a term you don't understand, or feel there is one that should be included here but isn't, please e-mail
Tomas Hansson (cfi@vatstar.com). Note that VATSTAR considers the P4 Rating a prerequisite for its P5
program, so, some terminology encountered in the P5 Lessons which does not appear above may possibly be
included in the P4 Glossary. Check there first before contacting the CFI regarding any alleged ommisions.


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P5 Rating: Advanced IFR Concepts

(Part 1: Non-Precision Approaches)

Lesson 1: This is Getting VOR-ing

What You Need to Know

Back to Section Table of Contents

Tomas Hansson (cfi@vatstar.com)

Lesson 2: A Non-Directional Approach... seriously

What You Need to Know

Homing an NDB means naviagting a path straight toward it.

ANSWERS: 1. C ... 2. D ... BONUS: C

Back to Section Table of Contents

Tomas Hansson (cfi@vatstar.com)

Lesson 3: Taking the Back Roads

What You Need to Know

For starters, let's review what a localizer is and how it works.

Appearing here is the Localizer Back Course

Like all other approaches we've discussed so far, it can

As you fly along the LOC, your DME will count

1: Which of the following is a true statement about localizer back courses?

Back to Section Table of Contents

Tomas Hansson (cfi@vatstar.com)

Lesson 4: Imaginary Lines

What You Need to Know

First, let's look at the GPS

Regardless of which of these

2: Which of the following is a true statement about RNAV (RNP) Z approaches?

Back to Section Table of Contents

Tomas Hansson (cfi@vatstar.com)

Lesson 5: Raiders of the Lost Arc

What You Need to Know

1: Which of the following is a true statement about flying a DME arc?

Tomas Hansson (cfi@vatstar.com)

Lesson 6: Flying in Circles

What You Need to Know

Back to Section Table of Contents

Tomas Hansson (cfi@vatstar.com)

Lesson 7: No Holds Barred

What You Need to Know

racetrack pattern: the oval-shaped circuit created by two straight legs

There are two primary types of holds;

the hold fix to be used;

The recommended way to enter a hold

if entering between the inbound

So we've just attempted an ILS approach at 8R and something's gone

Back to Section Table of Contents

Tomas Hansson (cfi@vatstar.com)

Lesson 8: Flying Blind

What You Need to Know

Back to Section Table of Contents

Lesson 9: Speed Demons

What You Need to Know

How does an airspeed indicator work?

What happens during a pitot tube failure?

How can a pitot tube failure be fixed or prevented?

Back to Section Table of Contents

Tomas Hansson (cfi@vatstar.com)

Lesson 10: The Data is Inconclusive

What You Need to Know

What happens when the static tube becomes blocked?