PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION AND TEACHING - INTRODUCTION

LECTURE 15: APPLIED AXIOLOGICAL ISSUES AND NATURE OF

VALUES IN TEACHING
By – Raphael Tumaini O’maitarya
0755340506/0655820165: Email – rafaeltumaini@gmail.com
_________________________________________________________

QUESTIONS AN ANSWERS
1. Argue for or against whether axiology is relevant to the teaching.
Introduction
Axiology is the branch of philosophy about values.
- Axiology studies values with its philosophical sub-branches of ethics
and aesthetics relates to teaching.
- The process of teaching and learning is dominated by value issues, as
they are inseparable, teaching and values/ethical issues are invisible.
Main body
- Philosophical sub-branches of axiology.
- These are namely:
 Ethics, and
 Aesthetics
- The two sub branches relate greatly to the teaching and the learning
processes.
- Ethics explains more about into ethical issues, ought to, laws, by laws
and social culture.
- Aesthetics elaborates about beauty and ugly and arts (performing and
fine art).
- This Can be seen in the following explanations;
Ethics
- Judgment of values of the society
 Ethics is about judging values of peoples’ performed actions.
 Teachers have to recognize cultural values of the students and the
community in general.
 This calls for teachers to consider the values pertaining to judgment
of human act in terms of cultural values of right and wrong, good and
bad, responsibilities and discipline.

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- Ought to issues
 Ethics is about the following ought to issues which are directed
related to teaching;
o How ought a teacher to be like or act like
o Relationship of a teacher and students.
o How ought the students to act.
o Should a doing-well student be reinforced or punished?
o Is punishment warranted as means of regulating students’ acts?
o Can teaching be effective without punishment?
- The issue of “ought to’ is about doing responsibly.
- It is about see that justice is attained.
- This is because rights and responsibilities are inseparable.
Teachers professional code of conduct
- Teaching is part of education which is a right for everyone.
- But teaching as a human activity has responsibilities attached with
for both a teacher and the students.
- In professions like teaching, teachers are guided by some rules of the
game.
- This understanding become the foundation of teacher’s code of
conduct.
- Professional code of conduct refers to a collection of guiding rules or
principles of “dos” and “don’ts.”
- As part of ethical issues, teacher’s professional code of conduct is the
pillar of teaching activities at schools.
Beauty and ugly
- Beauty or ugly is relative.
- Relativism refers to dependability of judgment.
 It is about having no uniformity on judgment of values.
 According to relativism, reality is relative.
 This means that it depends.
 It depends on where you teach, what is considered good or evil
despite some universal laws to exist on what is regarded as right or
wrong.

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  Relativists argue on the premise that “beauty is in the eye of the
seer.”
 This means that an example, or a case or lesson presentation one of
your student values as good, beautiful or handsome, another
student may view them as bad, ugly, or gloomy.
 It means beauty relative.
 As the teacher you need to understanding that your students are
divided in judging what is beautiful or ugly during teaching and
learning.
 Relativists conclude that “beauty is relative” because the moment
you say honey is sweet you find that sugar is sweet too.
 Relativists thus conclude that values are relative.
 But should teachers leave things at schools and classrooms to go in
shambles because of relativism?
 Surely not!
 There should be some guiding standards for students’ likewise
teachers’ actions.
Arts (performing and fine)
An art is a set of images with symbolic meanings as means of
communication.
- The art has the main function of being one of the ways of
communicating human knowledge, skills and attitudes.
- The art may be categorized into performing art and fine art.
Performing Art;
 It is one of the branches of aesthetics whereby it applied in
classroom teaching when students perform variously learning
activities by simulating or imitating something or peoples related
to the lesson being taught.
 For instance, in History subject the performing group may perform
by acting as slaves when the teacher teaches the topic of slave
trade.
 The performing artists may use their faces to pretend to be
somebody.

3
 They may also use plastic, clays, metals or even paintings.
Music
Music is one of the performing arts, whose medium is sounds or
voices.
o Music may be formal, when it is composed of notes and
systematized.
o Non-formal is when the music may be without written notes.
o All in all, music has the wider application like when teacher
teach memorization of the first rudiments of alphabetical
order to children.
o Poems too are sung in schools to convey the hidden message
through the beautiful rhythms.
o Poems can be combined to perform and sung.
o Thus, teachers may use poems to teach some various events.
o Consider African poets such as Shabaan Robert and Ole
Soyinka's poems.
o Their poems have been helpful to teachers in schools, when
they teach literature studies and languages too.
Fine Art
Fine art is another form of art that may represent beauty.
o Formerly it used to constitute five issues such as painting,
sculpture, architecture, music, and poetry, likewise drama and
dancing too were minor parts of it.
o Contemporary fine art has added more constituents; these are
architecture, films, photography, imagination, theatre drama and
printmaking.
o Teachers have used such fine art components to teach several
issues in the classes as visual teaching aids.
o Visuals may also include drawings, sculpture, design, and
crafts. Currently fine art is also expressed through photography,
video, and film making.
Theatre
One of the collaborative forms of fine art also includes theatre where
performers act a certain event as imagined.

4
 o The theatre performers might use this means such as a gesture,
speech, song, music or even dance to communicate the intended
message in the classroom situation.
Culture
Culture is one of components of aesthetics as total ways of people’s
knowing, believing, and behaving.
o It encompasses issues like languages, traditions, customs,
archeology, symbols, and other values.
o Teachers use this concept in Civics when teaching pupils about
their national culture.
Conclusion

2. What is teachers’ professionalism code of conduct in teaching.

Clarify moral issues related to teaching profession.
Introduction
Professionalism is referred to as the system of people with specialized
skills enabling them to meet clients’ needs.
- A professional worker such as a teacher, possesses a specialized
skill enabling him/her to offer a specialized service of teaching.
- It is added that professionals undergo long intellectual training so to
enable them to offer specialized services.
- They are responsible for maintaining the competence and integrity
of a profession.
- In general, they are supposed to be a role model to their clients.
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 - This requires some regulations, such as code of conduct.
- As a professional, teaching has a code of conduct.
Main body
What is teachers’ code of conduct?
- The code of conduct in this course refers to a collection of guiding
rules or principles of “dos” and “don’ts.”
- Whether teaching is a well-defined profession hence with its code of
conduct, has been subject of debate among teachers and politicians.
- In professions like teaching, teachers are guided by some rules of
the game.
- Some “dos” include punctuality at place of work, self-respect, and
even abstaining from criminal cases.
- Unless teachers adhere to their code of conduct students as their
clients will cease to respect them.
Moral issue related to teachers’ code of conduct
- Teachers must model.
 They must have strong character traits such as he following;
o Self respect,
o Perseverance (determination),
o Honesty,
o Respect,
o Lawfulness,
o Fairness,
o Patience, and
o Unity.
 As an educator, teachers must treat every student with
kindness and respect without showing any favoritism,
prejudice or partiality.
 Teachers should show dignity, truthfulness and they have to
foster responsibility & freedom.
 Teachers SHOULD create a safe, productive, and positive
learning environment in their teaching career.
 Teachers are expected to maintain challenging expectations
that will improve the potential of all learners through

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 meaningful and inclusive participation in the classroom,
school, and community.
Conclusion

3. Write short notes as they appear in the axiology of teaching:

i. Axiological issues in Teaching
Axiology comprises of the following;
 Ethics (Ought to or not to) and
 Aesthetics (Beauty, Ugly, Art).
Ethics and Ought
- Ethics deals rules that govern human conduct on whether the act
is correct or incorrect, moral or immoral, good or evil.
- It is about moral values of human conduct or acts.
- It deals with issues like;
 Difference between morally right and wrong actions (or
values, or institutions).
 Which actions are right and which actions are wrong.
 Are values absolute, or relative?
 How is right and wrong defined?
 How a human being is ought to behave?
Aesthetics
- Aesthetics deals with issues of human taste.
- This is why it is normally concluded that beautiful and ugly
depend on principles of taste.
- Also, the dictum goes that “…beauty is in the eye of the seer…”
- Axiology too, has some big issues, such as:
 Is there a normative value or objective that is superseding all
others?
 Are values 'in' the world like tables and chairs and if not, how
should we understand their ontological status?
 What is beauty?
 How do beautiful things differ from the ugly ones?
ii. Teachers’ code of conduct

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 - Teachers’ code of conduct is a collection of guiding rules or
principles of “dos” and “don’ts” which teachers are professional
individuals have to overserve.
 Teaching is a well-defined profession.
 Hence, it has code of conduct that govern that profession.
 In their professions of teaching, teachers are guided by some
rules of the game.
 Some “dos” the following;
o Punctuality at place of work,
o Self-respect, and
o Abstaining from criminal cases.
- Unless teachers adhere to their code of conduct students as their
clients will cease to respect them.
iii. School regulations
- School regulations are some of axiological issues in the teaching
profession.
- These include by-laws enacted by the school authority and laws of
a certain country.
- Students who adhere to school regulations are sometimes awarded
but those who do not are punished.
- The question would be, is it justifiable for teachers to punish
wrong doers?
- This calls us to focus on the issues of discipline versus rewards and
punishment in teaching.
iv. Punishment and rewards
Punishment
Punishment is the opposite of reward.
- This may be in terms of penalty, aimed at trying to force or sway
away a student from containing misbehave.
- A teacher punishes the students who have committed an action
which is against rules and procedures set to ensure good conduct at
school.
- Ethically everybody at school is supposed to do what is right or
what is correct and avoid wrong doings.

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 - Wrong doings are normally judged by the society’s values due to
ethics of a certain place about dos and don’ts.
- Every normal human being is expected to act rationally without
being controlled by emotions.
- Any act done with emotions it may turn to be wrong morally and
irrationally.
- For instance, it is your right to be angry at someone.
- But to what extent is your anger justified.
- How many times are teachers’ and parents’ anger justified before
they punish students or children?
- It is the question of investigation.
- Unjustified anger leads to cruelty and inhuman acts, unethical and
immoral. It should to be avoided.
Rewards
Teachers need to be informed that rewards belong to the realm of
axiology.
- For this purpose, philosophers have their proposals to teachers
about values of discipline, motivation, rewards and punishment in
issues of teaching and learning before they can resort into
rewarding or punishing a learner.
- Reward, in this course, means good returns for doing something in
a good manner.
- It is an incentive through words/comments like good, excellent,
nice, good job, well done.
- Rewards too may be in terms of material; cash or other gifts such
as sweets, ball pens, exercise books, even clothes.
- Likewise, rewards may be in terms of actions such as smiling at
someone, giving a chance to go to leave with pay or a surprise
appreciation.
Teachers have long recognized the importance of rewards and often
have used them to change learners’ behaviour”.
- These words can be applied by teachers while teaching to support
students or learners who follow up or perform well school
regulations and teachings in the classroom environment.

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 While rewards might lead to best results, they have their negative impact
as well.
- Issues of rewards will be dealt well in psychology of education.
- Let it be mentioned here that an effective use of reward is the one
that is given timely.
- The reward should be given, when the task has been accomplished
at the required standard.

3. Give reasons why teachers should Avoid Punishment. You answer

should be based on idealism, naturalism and pragmatism schools of
thought.
4. What are philosophical positions of idealism, naturalism and
pragmatism on the social debate of imposing punishment as means
of molding behaviour of students in teaching and learning?
Introduction
Punishment is the act of inflicting some kind of pain or loss upon a
student who have misbehave or misdeed.
- Punishment may be in terms of penalty, aimed at trying to force or
sway away a student from containing misbehave.
- A teacher punishes the students who have committed an action
which is against rules and procedures set to ensure good conduct at
school.
- Ethically everybody at school is supposed to do what is right or
what is correct and avoid wrong doings.
Main body
The following is the position of different philosophies on the use of
punishment at school;
Idealism:
Idealists are supportive of conforming discipline, which students are
required to follow without questioning.
- Idealists do not believe in free discipline because it is likely to lead
the child astray.
- However, some researches differ with idealists and they enumerate
disadvantages of punishment which include:

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  Empirical research reveals that punishment does not
eliminate undesirable behaviour, instead it makes it to recur.
 It simply serves notice to stop undesired behaviour but does
not suggest to student an alternative desirable act as such it
does not direct the recipient of punishment the alternative.
 It results into more unexpected behaviour such as cheating
and the punished begins to avoid and if possible, to stay away
from the punisher, at school dropout behaviour will increase,
the punished student will escape the punishing teachers;
 Students begin to hide their talents.
Naturalism
- Naturalists like oppose teachers who impose their will on
students.
- They are of opinions that control over children that leads to
submissiveness should be minimized.
- They propose to achieve learner centered learning through
expression of love and sympathy to children.
- They oppose punishment to children.
- The reasons provided by this philosopher include:
o That experience is the best teacher; as such nature has its
natural consequences that may punish whoever acts against
it.
o So, if a child or an adult who runs on a slippery floor
without care will fall down naturally.
Pragmatism
- Pragmatists believe in social discipline.
- They maintain that discipline comes through purposive and
cooperative activities.
- So, teachers, according to this perspective, are the ones with a
problem and not the students.
- For them a teacher is an arranger of purposive activities.
- Failure to arrange such cooperative purposive activities leads to
indiscipline in schools.
Conclusion
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5. Based on your understanding and experiences what you think are
effective ways of using Punishment.
Introduction
Punishment is an instrument of/or action through which the child or
pupil is forced or determined to modify his/her behaviour in a desired
and accepted way by the parents or teachers.
- Effectiveness of punishment in molding students’ behaviour
depends on the ways it is used by the teacher.
Main body
Different philosophies have proposed different ways in the use of
punishment at schools.
- Perfect philosophies have absolute suggestions while extremes
philosophies such as idealists offer suggestions which seemed that
they should be avoided.
- This indicates a need for mixed (eclecticism) approaches in the use
of punishment.
- What is needed is to take what is positive from one side and leave
limitations on the other.
- There are some best ways on how you might administer the
punishment:

Acceptable way
 Punishment should be used in a correct way following
procedures set by school administrations.
Warn students first
 Teachers have to learn how to warn the student twice or
thrice before punishing him or her.
Not for intimidation
 It should be given to express reality that took place; not as a
way to show power.
Objectivity
 It should be objective, not administered on the subjective,
bias, feelings on somebody.
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 Consistence
 Be consistent in administering the punishment, otherwise
lobbying should be avoided by wrong doer.
Intensity
 Administer it in full force because the greater the intensity
the likely the reduction of misbehavior.
No provocation
 The punishment should not be accompanied with angry
words that provoke emotion on the side of the victim.
Timing
 Always timing is the best way of curing; it means the
punishment should be given in time when the event occurred
not later.
Conclusion
All in all, punishment should be used carefully due to undesirable
consequences reported by empirical studies and wisdom. Most of not-
rigid philosophies argue for the shift of paradigm of teaching from
teacher-centered to learner-centered approach as a solution to all
problems in class and outside the class.

6. What are positions of Theology and Theodicy in Teaching as they

relate to moral issues.
Introduction
Theology and theodicy are sub-branches of metaphysics but their themes
are also based in the branch of axiology.
- Whereas theology comes from two Greek words - Theo refers to
God, ology/logos means science of.
- Hence, theology refers to the study of supernatural issues like
God, angels and spirits.
- On the other hand, theodicy comes from two Greek words Theo
meaning God, while dike means related to.
- Hence, the study of issues related to gods, spirits.

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 - The two sub-branches differ in means towards their ends.
o While the theology studies god/God by using faith,
o Theodicy does the same but using rationalizing.
Main body
- The two sub-branches relate to the teaching process in the
following ways;
Religious education system
 In some countries education systems like Iran, Iraq, Saudia,
Vatican City have rules on religious and not secular.
 Basing on this fact, the teacher is advised to consider
religious issues before starting to teach students.
 In such countries, some schools they even begin with prayers.
 And while teaching, a teacher might be interfered with
sentences related to call a help or thank from God, Allah,
even gods.
Religious subjects and periods
 In some schools some teachers teach religious
knowledge.
 In some schools too often school timetables for
teaching have been interfered to allow believers join
prayers.
 Religion is pursued because people believe that it
makes children and adults alike, to behave with fear on
committing irresponsible acts.
Religions related supporting services
 In some schools supporting services like counseling are
provided with support of religion teachings.
 Teachers are also using scriptures to guide students in
avoiding bad conducts.
Conclusion
Suffice it to say that this is how these two sub-branches relate to the
teaching process.

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7. Discuss how aesthetic improve teaching and learning processes.
Introduction
Aesthetics is a sub-branch of axiology that is about the values of an
outside appearance.
- It is about is about
o How some things look like;
o Beauty values, and
o Even principles of arts.
- It as a social science that deals with nature of beauty, art, taste,
culture and nature.
- Moreover, it is broadly regarded as the study of sensory or
sensory-emotional values or judgments and taste.
- As such, it has been regarded as a critical reflection on art, culture
and nature.
Main body
Aesthetics is about Beauty in Teaching
Beauty as being a person’s, animal’s, place, object or idea’s
appearance it is referred as loveliness or perceptual experience of
pleasure such as:
o The happiness,
o Entertainment,
o Positive feedback,
o Meaning,
o Satisfaction.
Beauty may be expressed in various ways such as through Art.
Aesthetics as Art in Teaching
An art is a set of images with symbolic meanings as means of
communication.
o It is also described as “a product or process of deliberately
arranging items often with symbolic significance in a way that
it affects one or more senses.”
o The art has the main function of being one of the ways of
communicating human knowledge, skills and attitudes.

15
 o The art may be categorized into performing art and fine art.
Performing Art
It is one of the branches of aesthetics whereby groups perform
variously by simulating or imitating great people or the oppressed
ones.
o For instance, in History subject the performing group may
perform by acting as slaves when the teacher teaches the topic
of slave trade.
o The performing artists may use their faces to pretend to be
somebody.
o They may also use plastic, clays, metals or even paintings.
Music
Music is one of the performing arts, whose medium is sounds or
voices.
o Music may be formal, when it is composed of notes and
systematized.
o Non-formal is when the music may be without written notes.
o All in all, music has the wider application like when teacher
teach memorization of the first rudiments of alphabetical
order to children.
o Poems too are sung in schools to convey the hidden message
through the beautiful rhythms.
o Poems can be combined to perform and sung.
o Thus, teachers may use poems to teach some various events.
o Consider African poets such as Shabaan Robert and Ole
Soyinka's poems.
o Their poems have been helpful to teachers in schools, when
they teach literature studies and languages too.
Fine Art
Fine art is another form of art that may represent beauty.
o Formerly it used to constitute five issues such as painting,
sculpture, architecture, music, and poetry, likewise drama and
dancing too were minor parts of it.

16
 o Contemporary fine art has added more constituents; these are
architecture, films, photography, imagination, theatre drama and
printmaking.
o Teachers have used such fine art components to teach several
issues in the classes as visual teaching aids.
o Visuals may also include drawings, sculpture, design, and
crafts. Currently fine art is also expressed through photography,
video, and film making.
Theatre
One of the collaborative forms of fine art also includes theatre where
performers act a certain event as imagined.
o The theatre performers might use this means such as a gesture,
speech, song, music or even dance to communicate the intended
message in the classroom situation.
Culture
Culture is one of components of aesthetics as total ways of people’s
knowing, believing, and behaving.
o It encompasses issues like languages, traditions, customs,
archeology, symbols, and other values.
o Teachers use this concept in Civics when teaching pupils about
their national culture.
Conclusion

8. In reference to “teachers’ professional code of conduct”,

examine the suitable proposed behaviours at school
environment in view of axiological theories as follows;
i. Theory of mean of Aristotle
ii. The Platonic theory of Plato
iii. Utilitarianism of Geremy Bentam
iv. Epicureanism of Epecurus
v. Motivist theory
Introduction
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 - Teachers’ professional code of conduct is the best of the teacher
while practicing teaching at school.
- Axiological theories are statement of encouragement for
teachers and learners to do what is right and avoid doing what
is wrong (Ethical and moral statements).
Main body
Views of theories
Theory of mean of Aristotle – encouraging avoids extremes and
remains moderate.
The Platonic theory of Plato – good conduct can be cultivated
through intellectual capacities
Utilitarianism of Geremy Bentam –the action is either right or
wrong depending only on its consequences.
Epicureanism of Epicurus – encourage pleasure and education
should lead to pleasure life.
Motivist theory - the action of behavior should be judged as right
or wrong according to motive or intention behind that action
Conclusion

8. Differentiate classical ethical theories from modern ethical theories.

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 PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION AND TEACHING - INTRODUCTION
LECTURE 16: APPLIED LOGICAL ARGUMENT ISSUES IN TEACHING
By – Raphael Tumaini O’maitarya
0755340506/0655820165: Email – rafaeltumaini@gmail.com
______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Describe the concept of Logic. Explain how the categories of logic apply to Teaching.
Introduction
Logic is the fourth branch of philosophy which question about how to make a correct argument
- Logic distinguishes correct argument from incorrect one in terms of its coherence,
propositions, syllogisms and fallacies.
- This makes logic and its categories to relate to the processes of teaching and learning.
Main body
Most teachers may not be informed of how logic issues trickle down into the activity of teaching
which always start with the process of planning a lesson.
- The truth is logic is directly related to teaching because it is what make teaching be
systematic and therefore scientific.
- The following is how logic relate to teaching;
Guide for analysis of teaching materials
 It is argued that the process of teaching begins with analysis of the following
teaching documents in teacher’s portfolio;
o Syllabus,
o Clarity of the philosophy of Benjamin Bloom’s classification of what
people know (cognition), what people do (psychomotor) and what people
feel (affective).
 Logical Coherence Theory in Teachers’ Lesson Plans
o Experienced teachers are normally acquainted with the documents such as:
 A syllabus,
 A scheme of work,
 A lesson plan,
 Lesson notes, and
 The table of specification.
 Lesson development
Development of a lesson inside the classroom is done step by step;
 Teachers have start with the logical and correct use of chalk board
 The lesson begins with introduction and follows other parts of lesson
development such as the following;
 New knowledge
 Consolidation
 Reflection

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  Conclusion
 Evaluation
 Lesson’s presentation
o A lesson can be presented either deductively or inductively.
o Deductive teaching is about presenting a lesson from the general
understanding (what is known) to specific understanding (what is not
known).
o Inductive teaching is presenting a lesson from specific understanding what
is not known) to general understanding (what is known)
 Relationship between Bloom’s taxonomy
 Logical relationship between Bloom’s taxonomy the syllabus,
schemes of work and evaluation based on the table of specification.
 The connection of Bloom’s proposals with the entire process of
teaching and learning is logical.
 This relationship guide teachers to teach what intended to be taught.
 Failure to see this logical connection might be resulting into hardships
for students to learn what is professionally planned for them.
 Consequently, what a teacher intends in the lesson plan it is not what
s/he teaches in the classroom.
 Similarly, this can lead evaluated what is not taught.
Conclusion
Most teachers are less informed of how logic informs the entire logical process of
planning the lessons. Consequently, teachers fail to see the logical connection but
teaching and planning and evaluation.

2. Demonstrate how the process of planning a lesson is logically happening.

3. In classroom situation planning of teaching activity relates with logical flow. Discuss with
illustrations on how a teacher plans a lesson coherently right from a syllabus, via scheme
of work, lesson plan, lesson notes, to table of specification.
4. Prepare a 40 minutes period of the subject of your choice, from a school and a classroom
of your choice, demonstrating the application of logic in e process of lesson planning
Introduction
Planning for teaching means teachers’ ability to think strategically how the lesson will be taught
and how teaching activity will be carried out in the classroom.
- Teachers are teaching students with clear classification of concepts about the following:
 What students should know (cognitive knowledge),
 What students should do (psychomotor) and
 What students should feel (affective domains).
- The popular classification of what to teach in order for students to learn in academic at
schools is popularly known as “Bloom’s taxonomy.”
- It is from this classification that curriculum developers get action verbs related to the
three domains in formulating a syllabus (syllabi), and objectives at classroom level.
Main body

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The analysis of curriculum material
- Any teaching begins with analysis of the subject syllabus.
- Curriculum which is one of the curriculum official document containing the following;
o Aims,
o Goals,
o Objectives, and
o Strategies for teaching and learning.
- The analysis of curriculum material is important so as to arrive at rational and useful
analysis.
- It determines relevance, validity and usefulness of materials in facilitating the teaching
and learning process.
The realization of the curriculum goals and specific instructional objectives
- That stage leads to the realization of the curriculum goals and specific instructional
objectives.
- For example,
 The syllabus,
o You develop a scheme of work as a long-term plan.
 A scheme of work
o You develop the teaching lesson plan.
 The lesson plan
o You develop lesson notes.
- From all those documents (syllabus, scheme of work and lesson plan)
o Teachers prepare a table of specification to evaluate with balance what has
been taught and learnt.
o Failure to take notice of this connection logically leads to ineffective
teaching and learning.
Various Elements in the Plan for Teaching
- The logical flow is also in various Elements in the Plan for Teaching.
- Consider the following charts;

i. Blooms taxonomy totable of specification

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 Blooms’ Classification (Taxonomy)

Curriculum Aims

Syllabus Objectives

Schemes of work objectives

Lesson Plan objectives

Lesson Notes

Table of specification

ii. Cognitive Blooms Taxonomy in planning an evaluation

Categories of Behaviour to be Verbs Common in the Syllabus, plans,
Learning level changed examinations
Level 1) Recall Arrange, define, describe, label, list,
Knowledge recognize, relate, reproduce, select, state;
identify
Level 2) Understand, Classify, summaries, report, discuss, re-
Comprehension write, Paraphrase, give examples,
discuss, theories;
Level 3) Use or apply, solve a Solve, perform, respond, manage,
Application problem discover;
Level 4) Interpret elements, Breakdown, relate, compare, analyze,
Analysis relations divide, experiment or measure;
Level 5) Construct a new Arrange, assemble, formulate, propose,
Synthesis structure, or model organize;
Level 6) Assess effectiveness Review, revise, justify, substantiate,
Evaluation defend.

iii. Sample of the Civics syllabus for Secondary school Level in Tanzania
(Form One)

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Topic Sub Topic Learning Activities Teacher’s Ref.
Strategies
Government Parliament At the end of the topic a …
Organs student be able to;
Define concepts the
government, parliament,
executive, judiciary;
Identify organs of republic
government;
Analyze functions of each
organ.

iv. Scheme of work

- This is where the syllabus draws action verbs of behaviors from Bloom’s taxonomy.
Mont. Wk No. Topic S. T/Acts Stud. T/Aids Ref
Periods topics Acts
Guide
studs. to: To:
-Define -define
govt;
-Identify
three -Identify
orgs;
-Analyze
six (6) -analyses
functions.

v. Lesson plan
Sample of a Lesson Plan
Classroom’s Particulars For -F1 B

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 Date Class Stream Time Period Registered Students Present students
Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total

Competence: A students should demonstrate ability to ___________________________

Main Topic: Government Organs.
Sub-topic: Parliament
Education Goal: Students to understand the meaning and functions of the legislature;
Lesson’s specific objectives: By the end of 40 minute a student of F1B should be able to:
· Define concepts parliament correctly;
· Analyze six functions of the government;
· Demonstrate procedures of how the parliament conducts its
sessions.
References: ________________________ (APA)
Teaching Aids: _____________________
Common Steps followed in Lesson Development
Stages Time Teacher’s Activities Student’s Activities
Introduction 5 Mins -Display a chart showing Structure and functions of - Observe the chart and learn from
parliament it
-Brain storm students to give definition of parliament - Based on later experience
based on early experience; students will orally clarify concept
of parliament.

New Knowledge 10 - Using different cases and examples, guide students - Participate in discuss and give
Mins. to have short discuss on functions of parliament; examples and cases lead to identify
- Lead students to mention at least three functions of functions of parliament
parliament -To individually mention three
functions of parliament;

Reinforcement
10 -Guide students to sit in groups to discuss importance -To form groups and discuss
Mins. functions of the parliaments. importance of each function of the
parliament;
- Present their findings
Reflection 10
Mins. - Guide Students to reflect on country’s parliament and -Bring about own experience on
relate what learned to what they know of country’s parliament by
Tanzanian parliament responding to guided questions
- Ask groups to demonstrate parliament steps of - To contribute points using own
sessions; experience.

Consolidation - Prompt questions - Respond to prompt

5 Mins. - Provide exercise. questions on Tanzanian
Parliament
- Ask questions
- Do an exercise

Evaluation: Teacher’s evaluation ………………………………………

Students’ evolution ……………………………………….
Remarks ………………………………………………………………..

Conclusion
At the level of a lesson plan, if you check closely, you may discover that the following;

24
 - There is still a focus of what started from Bloom’s taxonomy in relation to the classroom
lesson plan.
- What is taught in the class should be assessed later.

7. What is a Table of Specification (ToS)? Discuss how and why is it used for assessing taught
lessons.
Introduction
A table of specification is a tool that guides a teacher to check and balance the items for
examinations.
- It acts as a balance that helps a teacher to be sure of weight of items against the spent
time to cover various behaviors along six Blooms’ cognitive levels of learning.
- A table of specifications is simply a test plan made of two parts.
- The objectives covered are on the left part with levels of learning across the top.
- Each level of Knowledge, indicate how many items to be included on the test for each
objective and level of learning.
- The following is a sample for Table of Specification
Items Objectives/Competences Total
Topic Subtopic Kowlg. Comp. App. Analy. Synths Eval. No %
Govt. Parliament of Qs
Composition 2 1 1 4/10 40
Legislation 1 1 1 3/10 30
Procedure of 1 1 1 3/10 30
Grand 4 2 2 2 10/10 100
Total

Main body
The following is how ToS is it used for assessing taught lessons;
What measured is what learned
- TOS is a tool used to ensure that a test or assessment measures what is taught and learned.
- It ensures that the content and thinking skills learned have to be test intends to measure.
- Thus, when used. appropriately, it can provide response content and construct (i.e., response
process) validity. evidence.
Classroom procedure for teaching is a logical
- ToS guide teachers to make sure that a classroom procedure for teaching is a logical
process.
- This is how logic relates to your lesson plans and evaluation.
A two-way chart which describes number of test items
- ToS is a two-way chart which describes the topics to be covered by a test and the number of
items or points which will be associated with each topic.
- Sometimes the types of items are described, as well.
A decision-making tool to teachers
- A table of specification (TOS) can be used to help teachers frame the decision-making
process.
- As a test construction tool, it improves the validity of teachers' evaluations based on tests
constructed for classroom use.

25
 Promote technical ability of teachers to prepare a test
- ToS allows a teacher to create a test in a technical manner where process is being observed.
- When a comprehensive TOS is created, it ensures alignment between the items or elements
of an assessment and the content, skills, or constructs that the assessment intends to assess.
Assist to create fair test items
- One f the purpose of a table of specifications is to identify the achievement domains being
measured.
- This enables creation of fair and representative sample of questions.
Conclusion

9. Differentiate Deductive Logic Teaching from inductive logic teaching.

Introduction
Deductive and inductive are two of four logical principles om argument.
- The other two are retroductive and abductive.
- Deduction is an act of reasoning or arguing from general understanding to specific ideas.
- The deductive logic relates to the teaching as an act and as a profession.
- Inductive logic is the rational process of reasoning and arguing from specific to general.
- The inductive logic relates to the teaching as an act and as a profession.
Main body
But how will you discover that you are keeping to this type of logic in the classroom situation
and therefore how can you differentiate the two?
Deductive logic teaching
- You will be teaching deductively if you will emphasize top-down model.
- This model perceives the teacher as superior in the process of teaching, as much knower.
- Teacher-centered methods such as lectures, storytelling, and guest visitation are
deductive.
- This is because a teacher gives and students take what is given by the teacher.
- Such teaching reflects its major aim of transmitting knowledge, attitudes and skills from
one generation to the other.
- Critically, the deductive approaches or teaching methods do not consider student as
active in discovering the solutions to problems.
- As such it is blamed for not cultivating students’ critical thinking skills; instead it leads
students to manipulate facts.
Inductive logic Teaching
But how will you discover that you are keeping to this type of logic in the classroom situation?
- An inductive approach to teaching starts with examples and simple explanations and asks
learners to find general understanding for themselves.
- The method is delivered to Socrates old meiotic, who wished to be like a midwife so as
help the learners deliver knowledge in the same manner as the midwife assists the mother
to deliver the child.
- You will be counted to teach inductively in case you engage students with simple facts
and letting them to discover general understanding.
26
 - The inductive method of teaching means that the teacher presents the rule that guide
practice, and then the learners do free practice.
- Teacher engages by involving students using various learner centered strategies.
- The inductive teaching begins with teachers’ acts of setting of empirical observations,
and students seeking patterns in those observations, and then theorizing about those
patterns.
Conclusion

10. Discuss how you as a teacher can inculcate critical thinking in teaching process.
Introduction
Cultivation of critical thinking among learners of different qualities may be achieved through
various strategies.
- There are several designs of critical thinking for classroom training of students.
- These teaching strategies including,
o Group arguments,
o Group discussions,
o Debates over topics of academic interest,
o Experimentation in groups,
o Clinical mock-ups,
o Seminars and
o Workshops.
- Others include
o Intellectual competition through study groups,
o Debates, and
o Let students give their proposals.
Main body
The following are teaching strategies/methods that can be used to inculcate critical thinking in
teaching process
Group arguments
- Group arguments begin by giving students some literature to read and get prepared for
classroom argumentative discussion.
o Students are provided prior challenging questions to work on while reading the
literature.
o Then, when the students meet for classroom discussion the questions are
reflected upon and they start discussing along the questions under guidance of
the teacher.

Group Discussion
- Group discussion design is said to defer from group arguments in that the latter is done
under supervision of the overall elected leader while the former is not.
o This strategy is done by dividing students into smaller groups.
o You introduce to students guiding notes and questions for them to work on.

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 o Give students literature to read and discuss in groups under democratically
elected leaders.
o Let each group report its findings in classroom.
o Let the leader welcome comments and questions to the presenting group.
o Be sure you follow up the discussion and evaluate each group towards the end.
Debate Strategy
- In debate strategy students or their teacher may choose the theme of academically
interesting topics.
o You should provide them with literature to explore the motion. Prepare
proponents and opponents.
o Let students select the chairperson, secretary and time keeper.
o Let each side be informed of the given time to argue the case.
o Make sure backbenchers are involved to challenge and cheer where necessary.
o At the end the chairperson moderates the motion.
o Voting follows to get the winning side by majority of votes, and then comment
generally on strengths and weaknesses.
Experimentation
- Experimentation groups strategy is a setting where by the main focus of discussion is
on the procedure used in carrying out experiments, reporting the findings, lateral
experiences and discoveries.
o The report should conclude into the relevance of findings to the real world
or society in which the students live.
o Likewise, the teacher becomes the leader of the class to guide experiment
and discussion.
Clinical mock-ups
- Clinical mock-ups design is said to be similar to dramatizing the subject matter
through cases like those in courts of law.
o The unique nature of this design is that students and teacher must emulate
the court procedures in that there must be a judge, elders, the accused and
the respective witnesses.
o All this is prepared in relation to a given topic of the respective subject or
issue.
Seminars and Workshops
- Seminars and workshops designs are elaborated to be more involving strategies in that
they are student-centered in which leadership and role-playing is to be done mostly by
students.
o This means that after being given direction on how to go about it, students
prepare and conduct workshops and seminars.
o As in other designs the teacher is vigilant to monitor effective discussions.

Intellectual Competition
- Intellectual competition design should be conducted in such a way that students
compete in groups by answering well guided questions, from the teacher, that demand
higher level of thinking to cover the subject matter at hand.

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 o Young students are very flexible in learning anything of their level in any
style in Socratic meiotic method.
Conclusion

11. Teachers four essential documents namely: syllabus, scheme of work, lesson plan and
lecture notes are guided by philosophical concepts. Based on four branches of philosophy,
show how philosophical concepts are reflected across those documents.
- Briefly describe meaning and roles of four essential teachers documents in
teaching activity
- Identify four branches of philosophy
- Identify philosophical concepts reflected across the four documents
- Show how philosophical concepts are reflected with regard to four branches of
philosophy
i. Metaphysics concepts – Syllabus (aims and purpose of education, goals,
objectives and competences).
ii. Epistemological concepts – The entire content of the syllabus (Topics,
subtopics, strategies, techniques,)
iii. Axiological concepts – systematized, well-designed structures of each of the
four essential document (arts of drawn columns and rows)
iv. Logical flow concepts – systematization of content (from general to specific
or vise verse)
12. How can you exhibit or prove the application of logic as a branch of philosophy, in the
entire processes of teaching and learning in the classroom situation?
- Clarification of four branches of philosophy
- Clarification of processes of teaching and learning
- Application
i. Logic is implemented with the systematic presentation of the lesson.
ii. Deductive or top-down presentation, and with both teacher and students
produce correct arguments when presenting the facts of the lesson.
iii. Inductive or from specific to general with learners be the centre of
teaching and learning processes, and the teacher plays coaching role.
iv. Language of instruction being oriented towards simplification of ideas,
facts and propositions for easy understanding of the lesson.

29
30
 PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION AND TEACHING - INTRODUCTION
LECTURE 17: PHILOSOPHERS AND PHILOSOPHIES
INFLUENCING TEACHING
By – Raphael Tumaini O’maitarya
0755340506/0655820165: Email – rafaeltumaini@gmail.com
______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Distinguish philosophy parse from “a philosophy” (philosophies-ism).

2. In your own words, try to differentiate between: Philosophy and a philosophy;
and a school of thought and philosophies.
Introduction
Philosophy per se is a concept with many perspectives.
- It is about general understanding which attempt to answer four fundamental
questions on what is reality, knowledge, values, and correct arguments.
Main body
Philosophy vs a philosophy (ism)
Philosophy (per se) refers to four raised fundamental problems namely:
 What is reality,
 What is knowledge,
 What is values, and
 What is correct argument?
- The four fundamental questions (FQs) lead to four branches of philosophy
namely;
 Metaphysics,
 Epistemology,
 Axiology, and
 Logic.
A philosophy is a philosopher’s form systems of thinking (isms), created to assist in
answering philosophical fundamental questions.
- The system of thinking lead to development of various schools of thought.
- Some of them are to mention as:
 Idealism,
 Realism,
 Naturalism,
 Positivism
 Pragmatism.

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School of thought vs philosophies
School of thoughts are th system of thinking developed philosophers.
- Philosophers are great sage (wise), who contributed to answer the four
fundamental questions.
- They developed systems of thinking in attempt to answer philosophical
fundamental questions.
- There are many intellectuals, whose written views about the four fundamental
issues have been” overtaken by time” meaning that their views are no longer
remembered.
- Yet, there are other learned men and women, whose proposals have survived.
- Such men and women include:
 Thales - the founder of formal philosophy as we know it today;
 Pythagoras - a philosopher who made important developments in
mathematics, astronomy, and the theory of music.
 Socrates - the founder of critical inquiry;
 Plato - the founder of idealism on the theory of knowledge; and
 Aristotle the founder of realism
 Maria Montessori - the founder of pre-school education.
- The system of thinking was developed by philosophers lead to development of
various schools of thought.
 School of thought is a particular way of thinking, especially one designed
by philosophers try to solve a problem.
 A school of thought is the perspective of a group of people who share
common opinion and belief.
- School of thoughts developed to become philosophies.
- Philosophies is plural of a philosophy.
- Some of philosophies are:
 Existentialism,
 Progressivism,
 Essentialism,
 Constructivism,
 Reconstructivism,
 Feminism.
Conclusion

32
3. Discuss the place of classical philosophies of idealism and realism in teaching
and its realities.
Introduction
Philosophies are school of thoughts develop by philosophers to respond to various
problems.
- The school of thoughts contributed to answer the four fundamental
questions.
- They responded to four philosophical fundamental questions on the
following;
 Reality (Metaphysics)
 Knowledge (Epistemology)
 Value (Axiology)
 Correct argument (Logic)
- Teaching is reality.
- As a reality, teaching relates with philosophical fundamental questions and
claims.
- Teachers are surrounded by realities in their teaching profession that make
them to wonder.
- These include issues about:
o Curriculum Content (Knowledge),
o Fellow Teachers,
o A Learner,
o Teaching Methods,
o Teaching Materials (Books),
o Teaching and Learning (T/L) Environment,
o Assessment,
o Students’ Behaviour,
o Discipline,
o Punishment.
Main body
Idealism and realism are classical (ancient) philosophies.
- As the system of thinking, these school of thoughts were developed by
philosophers when attempted to respond to philosophical fundamental
questions.
- These classical philosophies have profound effect in teaching and its
realities.

33
Idealism
Idealism is a philosophy which belief that knowledge comes from within an
individual learner.
- Great exponents of idealism are Socrates and Plato.
- Originally conceived by Plato, idealism states that the only true reality is the
reality within the mind.
Teacher
 Idealists regard a teacher as a key figure not a student.
 For idealists, the teacher is required to be a role model that may be
imitated by the learners, example in “smartness.”
 Teachers need to develop children to their true potential and guide
their minds so that they are living up to their purpose.
 Critically, this is what is known as teacher-centered teaching
approach.
Leaners/students
 For idealist, the learner is assumed to be the knower of nothing who
need to accumulate knowledge from the teacher.
 Thus, in teaching, teacher supposed to dominate the class, and the
learner is assumed as an empty receptacle of what the teachers
provides.
 Learners should be disciplined and be obedience and submissive.
Curriculum
 Since one of its aims is to stress on spiritual environment, then the
teacher or head teacher is expected to be aware of idealist curriculum
comprises subjects and subject matter that promotes generation of
ideas.
 Subjects like philosophy, social science, sociology, and religion/
 The idealist curriculum demands religion to be taught to students.
 Consequently, the school timetable will have a place for religious
subjects.
 For the idealists, any “subject that provides adequate opportunities for
the development of the creative self” is fit to enter into curriculum.

34
  In case you will be a head or academic master you will have to ensure
students are allowed to go for their respective religious classes.
Teaching methods
 Idealist believe in learning process that foster development of ideas.
 For them, ideas are what are real things, and not concrete things.
 A such, the teaching methods should be that make the teacher with
authority and command students understanding.
 Teachers at the center of teaching and learning are required to use
such teaching methods like lecturing, library use, guest speaker and
study tour.
 Such methods exercise students mind and assist them to experience
the world though the use of mental power.
Teaching aims/objectives
 On the aim of teaching in idealism is to assist learners to have self-
realization.
 Teaching has to ensure that students reach at self-actualization.
 As such, teaching academic subjects should only be a guide towards
discovery of realities of life.
 Its source should focus on intellectual (knowledgeable) abilities of
individuals.
Realism
Realism is as a philosophy, whose beliefs vary on four fundamental questions.
- For a realist, what is reality? Is the question whose answer is viewed as
objective, i.e., a “concrete things?”
- It is the opposition of idealism which stresses that reality is ideas, which
are real.
- But for realists, what is real is the concrete thing such as a stone, or a
house,
- They argue that we do not see an “idea”.
- It is the chair we see that is objective and real, not the concept of the
chair.
o Thus, the central theme of the realists is a “reality in terms of
concreteness.”
- Great exponents of realism philosophy from Western world include:

35
 o Aristotle 384-322 B.C,
o St. Thomas Aquinas,
o John Locke.
- From Africa we have figures like:
o Nelson Mandela,
o Paul Kagame 1957.
- In Tanzania, most of Nyerere's proposed economic, political and even
social theories were largely real.
- However, from early 1980s his plans started to be regarded as idealism.
- The reason is because his ideology of Ujamaa or African Socialism and
his philosophy of Self-Reliance of 1967 could not be implemented.
The teacher
- Realists do not attach much importance on teacher’s personality as idealism
does.
- Instead, it urges the students to be taught by practical examples about
realities surrounding them.
Leaners/students
- Students should be assisted by teachers to give their opinions.
- Students should be involved in teaching through concrete observations to
discover truth or solve their problems.
Teaching methods
- Realism promote the use of practical teaching methods.
- The learning environment has to be enriched with concrete and real things as
teaching and learning resources.
Curriculum
- For realists the curriculum is viewed as the means for forming learner’s
desirable habits.
o Such habits should be achieved through the mastery of subject-matter or
contents.
Teaching methods
- Teachers should create the learning environment in which students
propose solutions which are practical, consistent, and scientific to the
identified problems that one is counted as a realist.
Conclusion

36
4. Discuss how the following modern Philosophies suggests about teaching
realities; naturalism, positivism and liberalism.
Introduction
In the modern period of philosophy, the philosophies that dominated, particularly
in western countries were: naturalism, positivism (empiricism) and liberalism.
Naturalism
Naturalism is a philosophy, whose theory is based on “nature.”
- Naturalists view the nature as a whole reality.
- The central view is thus nature.
- Its exponents of naturalism include:
o Democritus (400 B.C),
o Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778 A.D),
o Maria Montessori (1870-1952), and
o Frederick Froebel (1780-1852).
A Teacher
- Naturalism views the mother nature as the grand teachers for what one
should do to ive a better life.
- It advocates that mother nature is the supreme teachers.
- Thus, most of the answers from the naturalist student or teacher on any
raised questions or issues about teaching will reflect naturalist theory.
Curriculum
- For Naturalists curricula contents should to draw their subject matter
from focused reality namely nature.
- Again, naturalists focus on five subjects that are regarded to be holistic in
the sense that they cover main objectives of human’s life.
- The imperative subjects viewed by naturalists as imperative not to miss
in curriculum include: physiology, physical, natural sciences,
mathematics and languages.
Teaching methods
- For naturalists the best teaching methods are exploration of the nature.
- It advocates the use of observation, study tour and exploration as
teaching methods.
- As such, student’s sensory organs which for them are gateways of
knowledge and key experiences have to be trained right from the earlier
stages of schooling; such as pre-primary stage.

37
Positivism
Positivism is another philosophy, which focuses on the beliefs in empirical world
with its basis on the five senses.
- Positivism is stemmed from the Latin "a posteriori," meaning "based on
reasoning and facts.
- It is a teaching philosophy based on evidence-based.
- Thus, for positivists reality is what can be observed.
- The proponents of positivism include figures like:
o Francis Bacon (1561-1626 A.D), and
o August Comte (1700 A.D).
Teacher
- Positivism is a teacher centered philosophy that rejects intuition, matters
of mind, essences, and inner causes.
- The teacher prioritizes evidence-based knowledge, relies specifically on
scientific evidence, such as experiments and statistics.
- This philosophy relies on laws of matter and motion as valid, and bases
truth on provable fact.
Teaching methods
- Positivism is using brief, clear, concise discussion and does not use a
descriptive story from human feelings or subjective interpretation.
- It does not allow any interpretation because of the value-free reason.
- Positivism is a term used to describe an approach to the study of society
that relies specifically on empirical scientific evidence, such as controlled
experiments and statistics.
- It advocates that that classroom experience should be structured around
its demonstration-oriented, experience-based principles.
- Positivism is a philosophy which holds that knowledge is proved through
actual experiment.
- So, in education, knowledge is the absolute truth, which teachers and
students should learn it through appropriate instructional methods.
- In education, positivism leads to a teacher-centered approach to
pedagogy.

38
 Curriculum
- Science is the only valid knowledge. (b) Fact is the object of
knowledge. (c) Philosophy does not possess a method different from
science.
Learner
- Positivism places a learner at submissive position in teacher student relation.
- This means that knowledge is conferred from the teacher and is distributed
to the students.
- A students should be provided education as for their physical ability, mental
ability and interest.
Liberalism
This philosophy is based on the medieval concept of the liberal arts or, more
commonly now, the liberalism of the Age of Enlightenment.
- It has been described as "a philosophy of education that empowers
individuals with broad knowledge and transferable skills, and a stronger
sense of values, ethics, and civic engagement.
- It is based on the rights of the individual, liberty, consent of the governed,
political equality and equality before the law.
Curriculum
- Liberal education is an approach to undergraduate education that promotes
integration of learning across the curriculum.
- The curriculum is suggested to comprise academic and experiential learning,
in order to develop specific learning outcomes that are essential for work,
citizenship, and life.
- Curriculum should comprise political tradition and a branch of liberalism
that advocates free market and laissez-faire economics; civil liberties under
the rule of law with especial emphasis on individual autonomy, limited
government, economic freedom, political freedom and freedom of speech.
- The curriculum should comprise subjects like;
 Grammar.
 Logic.
 Rhetoric.
 Arithmetic.
 Astronomy.

39
  Music.
 Geometry.
Teaching methods
- It advocates that in learning environment, teachers and students are learning
partners through different means of learning such as discussion, debate, role
play, collaboration, experiential tasks and field trips in the community.
- The goal of a liberal studies major is to train students to communicate
effectively, both orally and in writing, to develop skills in critical thinking
and problem solving, and to imbue critical thinking with ethical thought.
A Leaner
- Liberal education produces students capable of continuing to educate
themselves.
- Students have to be endowed with the necessary intellectual frameworks,
curiosity, and methods to pursue a life of learning and vocational success.
Conclusion

5. Contemporary Philosophies have great influence on modern Teaching

practices. Discuss this based on idea and assumptions of contemporary
philosophies.
Introduction
Contemporary philosophies are philosophies which are currently influencing
today’s; world actions.
- As such, a philosopher is counted as contemporary if his/her work solves
current problems.
- For instance, some of Socrates’, Plato’s, and Aristotle’s theories, though
of many years, they are sometimes still counted as contemporary because
they have continued to used in our time to solve existing problems.
- A good example is “Socratic inquiry method.”
- It is still used by teachers to shape students’ critical thinking.

40
 - Among the current philosophies of our time in influencing the fields of
teaching include the following:
o Existentialism,
o Pragmatism,
o Progressivism,
o Essentialism,
o Deconstructionism,
o Constructivism,
o Feminism, and
o Linguistic analysis.
Main body
Existentialism
Existentialism is a philosophy whose beliefs centre on existence.
- Its central theme is that reality is an existing phenomenon that precedes
essence (ideas).
- The exponents of existentialism include figures like:
o Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855), and
o Karl Jaspers.
Teachers
- In simpler terms it requires a teacher to ask reflectively:
o What comes first in life between essence (ideas) and existence?
o Is it the essence or the existence?
- Furthermore, existentialist teachers would argue that,
o We live to eat and not eat to live.
o Self-knowledge (subjectivism or individualistic) is more important
than any other thing for the existentialist.
Curriculum
- The emphasis of the existentialism philosophy is the call to consider the
real existing problems of life like death, fate, fortunes, oppression and
diseases.
- For a teacher, existentialists tell them that they should be aware to link the
subjects topics they teach in classrooms with existing situations of
realities.
Pragmatism

41
Pragmatism is a philosophy, whose belief is based on reality about “what works is
real.”
- This seems to imply that what is true is what is useful and in turn what is
useful is what is real.
- Furthermore, this seems to suggest that “usefulness” of something (what)
works is the basis of truth.
- This can be well exemplified on the truth of a statement, that a statement
should be judged by the effects it has on our actions.
o In teaching the usefulness of the method of teaching and learning
should be judged by its effectiveness in bringing about quality
results.
- Furthermore, it means that truth should be seen as what the whole of
scientific inquiry ultimately agrees on.
- In other words, pragmatism urges you to know that what is obtained
through scientific investigation has value.
o The methods teachers use has been scientifically tested.
- However, that does not close the door for you to continue searching for
better teaching methods.
- Exponents of pragmatism include:
o William James,
o Charles Sanders Pierce, the founders, and
o John Dewey.
Teacher
- For Pragmatism, teachers should count what works, what produces effects
practically as reality.
- Teachers have to underscore what is theoretical as un-real.
- The pragmatist teachers neither support the rigid prescribed (prearranged)
nor the un-prescribed (unplanned) curricula.
Curriculum
- Pragmatism contends that truth is not static.
- Therefore, the curriculum should be unplanned
- Pragmatists are flexible on the type of curriculum that works and is
practical.
- If the two categories of curricula work, pragmatists are ready to
employ both.
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 - However, they propose to integrate the curriculum with the life and
experiences of children/learners.
Student
- For them life and experience of the student should be integrated with
activities of the school.
Teaching methods
- Pragmatism holds that no single philosophy, or methodology is
capable of solving all problems.
- It is for this purpose that the idea of eclecticism or integrated curricula
comes.
- Pragmatists are of view that it is good to combine multiple working
methods of teaching should be involved when planning curricula.

Progressivism
Progressivism is the parallel philosophy to pragmatism.
- This is because it is a direct outcome of the influence of pragmatism on
education.
- Its claim is that human development progresses through direct
evolutionary states.
- One of the exponents of progressivism philosophy is Kikpatrick W. Heard
(1871-1925).

Teacher
- Progressivists argue that teachers must properly attend every stage of the
learning child.

Teaching method
- The central learning style is that which takes place through
experimentation.
- This requires teacher to emphasize on the “whole personality” of the child
when teaching.
Curriculum
- Based on this belief, the curriculum should be based on the experiences of
daily actual living in various situations.
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 - It is emphasized that the curriculum be made up of the total sum of the
child’s experiences.
Essentialism
Essentialism is one of the conservative philosophical stances rooted in both realism
and idealism.
- It has a belief that “reality is a phenomenon that surrounds a person.”
Curriculum
- This philosophy focusses of teaching of essential skills, academic
subjects, mastery of concepts and principles of subject matter.
- It encourages the teacher to teach students knowledge of a certain society
or community through core curricula.
- For the existentialists, the source of curriculum content should not be
prescribed by experts but rather it should emanate from student’s needs
or interests.
- Existentialists emphasize that the curriculum content should emanate
from learners’ economic, political, social, cultural environment/context.
- Existentialists put more emphasis on humanistic studies such as history,
geography, and political science, to mention few, but they are less
interested in natural science subjects.
Teaching methods
- The essentialist educators believe that students should be taught basing
on some established basic (essential) principles.
- As such they urge teachers to go back to basics which are essential for
life.
- As such, teachers may apply its proposals for teaching students or
learners the “essentials” in their environment.
Student
- The essentialists’ regard a student as a person who is capable of getting
relevant academic knowledge of patriotism, and character development
through traditional or basic approaches.
- So, the teacher is expected to cultivate the basic values to students.

- This implies that students should be the ones who should choose their
curriculum or curricula.
Perrenialism

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Perrenialism is a parallel philosophy to idealism.
- This is because the two polarities (divisions) share some beliefs.
- For instance,
o While idealism which believes in ideas,
o Perrenialism believes on wisdom and reasoning which also are
forms of ideas.
- The two philosophies are equally conservative (don’t want to change) in
their actions.
Teacher
- It is believed by perrenialists that teachers should teach things which
people perceive to having unending importance in life to all people.
Curriculum
- The common characteristics of a perennialist curriculum are a subject
centered lesson, organized body of knowledge, and a focus on
developing the thinking skills of students.
- It holds that topics like cultural beliefs, good judgment, justice, and
wisdom should be included in curricula.
- It emphasizes the principles of education rather than the facts of
education.
Teaching methods
- The central ideas of this philosophy on methos of teaching is that learners
may learn with minimal assistance of teacher.
- This means that learning can take place in letting students solve problems
if they are left to discover thing for themselves.
- Perennialists believe that when students study these works and ideas,
they will appreciate learning.
- The goal of a perennialist in teaching is to teach students to think
rationally and develop minds that can think critically.
- A perennialist classroom should aims to be a closely organized and well-
disciplined environment, which develops in students a lifelong quest for
the truth.
- The teaching methods are based on lecture, question, and answer and
other instructional methods.
- Perrenialists focus primarily on teaching through the following methods;
 Reasoning,
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  Wisdom, and
 Liberal arts rather than facts and vocational training.

Constructivism
Constructivism is the philosophy which is concerned with “what a learner can do
without help and what s/he can do with help”.
- Constructivists’ claims may well be understood through the works of
 Lev Vygostsky (1896-1934)
 Jean Piaget
- Vygostsky’s “Zonal of Proximal Development” (ZPD)concept can
clearly elaborate constructivism philosophical ideas on teaching.
- ZPD demonstrate the difference of what the learner can do without help
of the teachers and what s/he can do with help of the teachers.
- This difference or boundary is termed as “Zonal of Proximal
Development (ZPD).
- The ZPD view requires teachers to understand that children as learners
are capable of developing knowledge for themselves through reasoning.
- As such, what educators should do is to;
o Provide guidance,
o Offer collaboration,
o Give little guidance,
o less telling,
o Teach without punishment,
o Teach by giving chance to learners to discover, termed as
“scaffolding children learning.”
- This philosophy has shifted paradigm of teaching from less
participatory/involving to methods of teaching and learning to more
involving participatory methods in most schools of East Africa and other
developing countries.

Reconstructionism
Reconstructionism is one of the philosophies rooted in the critical pedagogy.

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- Critical pedagogy is founded by various philosophies such as:
o Karl Marx’s theory of “negation of the negation” and
o Paul Freire.
Teaching methods
- The movement calls for the teaching process to empower students to
develop consciousness (awareness/realization).
- That is, students to develop ability to relate theory to practice.
- They emphasize that teaching process should avoids be an act of
“banking” instead it should be interactive which leads a student to be an
active learner.
- Reconstructionism suggests the use of methods which are subjective in
which the students can largely learn by actions and by being involved.
- Such teaching methods include;
o Role plays,
o Simulations,
o Presentation, and
o Strategies which create awareness of problems and openness to
seek solutions
Curriculum
- This philosophy assists teachers to identify major problematic areas of
controversy, conflict, and inconsistency in subject areas such as:
o Economics,
o Sociology,
o Political science,
o Psychology and
o Anthropology.
-
Teachers
- Re-constructivists believe that the teacher ha to be capabe to guide
students to the liberating knowledge.
Learner
- Re-constructivists believe that students become conscious of the
situations, and of the problems surrounding them.

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 - Consequently, such students are awakened by evaluating critically the
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threat of problems confronting
them.
Feminism
Another contemporary philosophy that you need to be acquainted with is
feminism.
- Feminism is the movement which emanates from awareness of women
that they are being oppressed by males.
- It aims at redefining the position of a woman in the society by
establishing, defending equal rights economically, politically and
socially.
- The movement calls for educationists to reconsider “gender equality” that
is equal distribution of
o Wealth,
o Tasks,
o Responsibilities and
o Other opportunities.
- For them gender refers to both sexes of male and female in struggling for
equal balanced sexism and gender roles.
- The movement emphasizes that equality and equity can be achieved in
society because stereotypes about women are socially constructed.
Teaching methods
- Feminist prefers and advocate teaching method of research applications
in search for the position of women in the society.
- As the movement it emphasis the teaching that advocate the placed
women in education, and the relationship of feminism and
professionalism.
Curriculum
- Feminists emphasize on issue that the education system should work as
an agent of secondary socialization, in which teaches treat all girls and
boys equal.
o Teaching should not act as gender scripts of contemporary
patriarchy in sense that girls and boys are learning values that
prevents social change of universal norms

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 o Teaching should not be an agent of secondary socialization that
helps to enforce patriarchy.
o They want to generalize their ideas about males and females to
the whole of society helps to enforce patriarchy.
o For them patriarchy is a system of society or government in
which men hold the power and women are largely excluded from
it.

6. How the ideas of Paul Freire on Liberalism and Critical Pedagogy influence
Teaching in third world countries.
Introduction
One of the purposes of education is to liberate the society in terms of liberation
(release/freedom).
- The liberating education should empower students to come out of their
isolate or envelopes to free themselves from shackles of;
o Ignorance,
o Poverty,
o Fear,
o Lack of confidence, and
o Diseases.
- Proponents of critical pedagogy include:
o Che-Guevara (1928-1967),
o Karl Marx and
o Fredrick Angels.
Main body
This pedagogy emanates from Freire’s observation of the oppressed farmers in
Brazil.
- The educator sought ways to liberate them from the colonial rote learning,
which could not emancipate Brazilians from the colonial exploitation,
oppression and enslavement.
- Freire believed that education is “a political act.”
o The teacher should urge students and teachers to be aware of
politics that surround education.
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 o Critical philosophy of Freire opposes teachers who cultivate the
“banking” concept of education in which learners are passive
and unable to contribute anything.
o Such teachers treat learners as empty receptors or vessels to be
spoon-fed by teachers.
o When teaching and learning is regarded so, learners remain
receiving objects.
o Freire is compared with John Dewey who views education as a
“mechanism for social change and social reconstruction”.
- Freire too was critical of teachers who taught students the culture of
silence.
o This culture is attacked critically because it prepares graduates
for enslavement and oppression instead of emancipation.
o Instead, students and teachers should see each other as equals in
the process of learning.
o Teachers may learn from students likewise students from
teachers.
o Freire encouraged teachers to assist students to develop the
sense of critical consciousness so as to realize that the culture of
silence is cultivated for oppression.
o The culture of silence eliminates paths of thought that lead to
language of critique.
o Emancipation education helps the learner to solve the problems
they are facing.
o The liberal educators in our contemporary time known as Paul
Freire (1921-1997), a Brazilian, who is regarded as father of
Emancipatory critical Pedagogy is regarded as the advocator of
liberal or emancipation education.
o He advocated the teaching pedagogy that will help its
beneficiaries to emancipate from their bondages.
Conclusion

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6. How A Teacher, a learner and teaching methods are regarded as an Agent in
Changing Realities.
7. Explain briefly four ways in which a teacher likewise a learner may act as
agent of paradigm shift in changing realities facing teaching and learning
environment at your specific school.
Introduction
According to pragmatism, reality is not static.
- It always changing
- It shifting to make it relevant to current needs.
- It has its agents that foster its dynamic.
- Teachers, students and the methods of teaching are one of the agents of
paradigm shift in changing realities.
Main body
- When the teachers and learner realize that there is a need of start using new and
advanced education technology when the existing one found not able/useful to
continue standing and become absolute in teaching and learning environment.
- When both the teacher and the learner realize that the subject matter to be taught
need strong engagement of a new teaching method, strategies and techniques for
the effective and successful teaching and learning.
- When the teacher or learner realizes that there is a need of having self
organization in managing teaching or learning environment.
- When the role of teacher changes from being the source of knowledge in the
classroom into becoming responsible in coaching the learners to understand how
to learn for him/her self.
A teacher
Philosophies inform teachers about their place in the teaching and learning
processes?
- Firstly, teachers’ task is to know your pupils by nature and needs which are
always changing.
- Secondly, a teacher is supposed to have mastery of subject contents and the
methods which also are not static.

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 - So, the teaching process will be along these intentions.
The Learner
This is about how philosophies inform teachers about the place of a
learner/pupil or a student in teaching.
- What is the place of a teacher in teaching?
- How should the relationship between teachers and students be?
- When does the learning occur?
- These are always in dynamic.
Teaching Methods
This is about how do philosophies inform teachers about appropriate choice
of teaching methods, strategies, and techniques?
- Teachers should understand philosophical theories that underlie the
teaching and learning process before using any methods.
- Teachers too might raise the following questions:
o What do philosophies say about teaching methods?
o The methods, strategies, and techniques are always advancing with
time.
Conclusion

8. Compare and contrast between the emphasis’s views of for “idealists” and
“naturalists” about the following controversial/debatable issues of
education.
i. The need for a teacher
ii. The place of a learner
iii. Teaching method
iv.The need for books
v. The conducive environment for learning
i. Describe who are Idealists
ii. Describe who are Naturalists
iii.

Idealists and Education Issues Idealists and naturalists

Realists DIFFERENCES
SIMILARITIES
Both support Need for They differ on the means to acquire
education for education knowledge, skills and attitude in
human beings to eradicating ignorance, diseases and
eradicate poverty.
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ignorance, diseases
and poverty.
Both have teaching Teaching While idealists emphasize
methods methods intellectualism like lecture methods,
guest speaker and libraries
(rationalism, authoritative), naturalists
emphasize learning by observation of
mother nature by visiting and seeing
things in the natural environment.
Both need Conducive While idealists put emphasis on
environment Teaching conducive learning environment for
environment the use of diagram and imaginations,
naturalists put little or no emphasis on
having conducive learning
environment and expose a learner to
the natural environment.
Both support the The need for While idealists view a teacher as
need for the Teachers authority needed in the class,
teacher naturalists object/oppose of the human
teacher as weak, instead they propose
environment as a natural teacher.
Both need a The place of While idealists see the learner as
learner learner subordinate of the teacher to be
indoctrinated, naturalists oppose the
indoctrination and subordination of a
learner and propose exploration which
makes a learner as a natural client
within the environment.
Only idealists need Need for Books While idealists emphasize books,
books naturalists discourage books as way of
acquiring knowledge.

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9. Using “perspectives of viewing the phenomena/reality” by pragmatists and
existentialists assess the “strength and weakness of the proposals” on what
is the best on the following issues in education.
i. The need for a teacher
ii. The place of a learner
iii. Teaching method
iv. The need for books
v. The conducive environment for learning

i) Describe who are pragmatists

ii) Describe who are existentialist
Pragmatists and existentialists Education Pragmatists and
STRENGHTS Issues existentialists
WEAKNESS

- Pragmatists propose search Need for - Both neglect attitude

for knowledge and skills education regard it as submissiveness
- Existentialists propose search to a learner
for knowledge and skills
practically through problem
solving
- Pragmatists propose scientific Teaching - Pragmatists discourage use
experiment-based methods methods of lectures, guest speakers,
and problem solving and role play methods
- Existentialists propose solving despite their advantages.
only current existing - Existentialists neglect the
tragedies/problems to give past and future events
working solutions because for them they are
not real.
- Pragmatists emphasize Conducive Both trusts too much
laboratory and workshops for T/L with experiments but
practical skills environment neglecting reasoning
- Existentialists believe that the nature of human being
existing environment is the
best for learning
- Pragmatists encourage The need - Pragmatists discourage
participation/learner for Teachers the teacher as a center

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 centered of learning
- Existentialists discourage - Existentialists object
the authority of the teaching, instructing
teacher and encouraging
facilitating teachers to
solve the existing
problem
- Both support learner as The place of - Both over trusting
center of learning learner students
- Both discourage bookish Need for - Both reject knowledge
learning and encourage Books as beliefs and
empirical, rationalization which
experimentation or are bookish learning.
scientific Dominated by natural
scientific methods,
ignoring social science
methods.

10. Given ancient philosophers; Plato, Socrates and Aristotle, state their
“schools of thoughts (isms)” in which they belong, while giving one
proposed claim for each philosopher about education and teaching.

i. Plato – Being an idealist, he believed knowledge to constitute three

major features of: Nature of knowledge (beliefs, rationalization and
evidence). Teaching as provision of wisdom by serious
Education should be provided according to one’s understanding (slow
learners iron boys, moderate learners, silver boys and intellectual
learners, golden boys).
ii. Socrates – Being an idealist, he viewed teaching as examined
arguments, myotic – Socratic Method by interviewing and probing a
learner. Education: he regarded education as the source of peace, good
character and examined life.
iii. Aristotle – Being realist, he viewed education as training of human’s
brain to reasons critically and logically. He viewed teaching as search
for concrete facts given by analysis of concepts, reasoning and moving
around (Peripatetic) to observe real experience.

11. Paul Frere is one of the critical thinkers in philosophy of education. In what
ways can you compare and contrast JK Nyerere’s philosophy of education
for self reliance with Paul Frere’s philosophy of liberation vs. oppression.

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 - Meaning of philosophy of education for self reliance by JK Nyerere
- Meaning of philosophy of liberation vs. oppression by Paul Frere
- Comparison
SIMILARITIES
JK Nyerere Issues Paul Frere
- Criticized Colonial - Criticized colonial
colonial education education which
education for cultivated culture
propagated of silence not
racial liberating
discrimination, Brazilians.
inequalities
among - Criticized colonial
Africans. education
curriculum not
- Colonial making people
education does conscious of their
not solve rights.
people’s
problems
- colonial
curriculum
propagated
colonial values
DIFFERENCES
- Designed self -Designed
reliance emancipation
philosophy as critical pedagogy
liberation for Brazilians
philosophy for
Tanzanians

12. Make a reference to your teaching subject. Explain how the following
“philosophies”; realism, idealism and naturalism propose the best
“teaching methods” for “effective teaching” in your subject.
- Description of philosophies – as philosophers’ answers to four
fundamental question (isms)
- Description of philosophies;
i. Idealism a philosophy whose point of departure is ideas.
ii. Realism a philosophy whose point of departure is what is concrete
and observable.
iii. Naturalism is a philosophy whose point of departure is Mother
Nature.
- Description of effective teaching –
- Proposed teaching methods
i. Idealism; for idealist the best teaching methods are lecturing, guest
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 speaker and role play (less participatory)
ii. Realism; for realists the best teaching methods are experimentation,
laboratory, workshops, observation and empiricism of five senses
and problem solving.
Naturalism – for naturalists the best teaching methods are exploration of the nature.

13. Compare and contrast between Nyerere philosophy of education proposal

for relevant education and Aggrey’s views on the same.
Answer;
I. Comparison
- Both emphasized that school curriculum should reflect societal needs.
- Both agree that education should aim at producing people who were ready to
serve the nation.
- Both talked about adult education as means of fighting immediate problems
of diseases, ignorance and poverty.
- Both linked education and development by emphasizing that education and
development form a unity through a whole range of educational programs
such as reading and writing, which should be designed to improve the
agricultural output and raising health care standards.
II. Contrast
- While Nyerere’s philosophy of education proposed self reliance which
excludes entirely western elements that to him was theory based and
instead suggested on African traditional education elements towards
actualization of development, Aggrey’s philosophical view of education
looked at political credo of modernity by integrating good behaviors from
western culture with African cultural education practices. mother nature,
observing, study tour, gallery works, picnics,

14. Describe merits and demerits of realists’ philosophy on provision of

knowledge to a learner.
Merits
- It put forward that what is real is the concrete thing such as a stone, or a
house, because ideas are not seen.
- It urges the students should be taught by practical examples about realities
surrounding them.
- It believes that students should be assisted by teachers to give their opinions.
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 - It suggests that teaching should involve students through concrete
observations to discover truth or solve their problems.
Demerits
- It does not believe in imagination and sentiments
- It emphasizes in scientific subject and neglect art and literature
- It does not have any importance to ideas and values
- It fails to answer illusions and faulty knowledge.
15. Teaching activity is primarily done by the teacher in cooperation with the
learner. Clarify this purpose with adequate evidenced examples.
- The teacher understands and considers needs of the leaner before, during and
after teaching activity.
- The teacher provide assignment to the learner and use learners’ response to
measure what, how and when the learner needs to be taught in attaining the
objectives of teaching.
- The teacher becomes the facilitator in teaching activity and the learner takes
more responsibility for his/her own learning.
- The teachers promote learners’ autonomy in the classroom by allowing the
leaner to exercise his/her independent/freedom in using own experiences the
teaching activity.
- The teachers let the learner to take more responsibility in creating own
education goals and assessment means during the teaching activity.
16. Dr. Aggrey proposed the education curriculum to emphasize rural health
in developing countries like Africa. Argue with four reasons that mad this
philosopher to propose so.
- Education system did not reflect on the immediate problems affecting
communities in developing countries.
- Content of most books on rural life in communities of developing countries
were irrelevant and not applicable to the situation in which people were living.
- To strike a balance between non-formal education and formal education as
crucial for developing societies.
- Informal education was as good as formal education and for this matter both
of them have to be valued in developing societies to improve their daily life.
-
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