Transistors are semiconductor devices used to amplify or switch electronic signals and

electrical power. They are fundamental building blocks in modern electronic devices.
Understanding how transistors work involves understanding three primary types: bipolar
junction transistors (BJTs), field-effect transistors (FETs), and specifically the most common
FET, the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET).

Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

BJTs have three regions: the emitter, the base, and the collector. They come in two types:
NPN and PNP.

 NPN Transistor:
o Construction: Consists of two n-type semiconductors separated by a thin layer of p-
type semiconductor.
o Operation:
 When a small current flows into the base (the p-type layer) from the emitter
(one of the n-type layers), it allows a larger current to flow from the
collector (the other n-type layer) to the emitter.
 The base-emitter junction is forward-biased, meaning the p-type base is
more positive than the n-type emitter.
 The base-collector junction is reverse-biased, meaning the p-type base is
more negative than the n-type collector.
 The small base current controls the larger collector-emitter current.
 PNP Transistor:
o Construction: Consists of two p-type semiconductors separated by a thin layer of n-
type semiconductor.
o Operation:
 When a small current flows out of the base (the n-type layer) to the emitter
(one of the p-type layers), it allows a larger current to flow from the emitter
to the collector (the other p-type layer).
 The base-emitter junction is forward-biased, and the base-collector junction
is reverse-biased.
 The small base current controls the larger emitter-collector current.

Field-Effect Transistors (FETs)

FETs have three terminals: the source, the gate, and the drain. They come in two main types:
Junction FETs (JFETs) and Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor FETs (MOSFETs).

MOSFETs

MOSFETs are the most common type of FETs, widely used in digital and analog circuits.
They come in two types: N-channel and P-channel.

 N-channel MOSFET:
o Construction: Has a channel of n-type material between the source and drain, with a
gate terminal separated by a thin insulating layer of silicon dioxide (SiO₂).
o Operation:
  When a positive voltage is applied to the gate relative to the source, it
creates an electric field that attracts electrons into the channel, creating a
conductive path from the source to the drain.
 The voltage applied to the gate controls the current flow between the
source and drain.
 P-channel MOSFET:
o Construction: Has a channel of p-type material between the source and drain, with a
gate terminal separated by an insulating layer of SiO₂.
o Operation:
 When a negative voltage is applied to the gate relative to the source, it
creates an electric field that attracts holes into the channel, creating a
conductive path from the source to the drain.
 The voltage applied to the gate controls the current flow between the
source and drain.

Basic Operation Principles

1. Amplification:
o In BJTs, a small input current at the base can control a larger output current from
the collector to the emitter.
o In FETs, a small voltage applied to the gate controls the current flow from the source
to the drain.
2. Switching:
o Transistors can turn on or off a circuit by controlling the current flow. For BJTs, the
current flow is controlled by the base current. For MOSFETs, the current flow is
controlled by the gate voltage.

Key Points

 Semiconductors: Materials with conductivity between conductors and insulators, used in

transistors.
 Doping: Adding impurities to semiconductors to change their electrical properties.
 Depletion Region: Area in a semiconductor where mobile charge carriers are absent.
 Forward/Reverse Bias: Applying voltage to a junction to control current flow direction and
magnitude.

Understanding transistors involves recognizing their role in controlling electrical signals,

either by amplifying them or by acting as switches in circuits.