*

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* Creative work undertaken systematically to increase the
stock of knowledge (of humanity, culture and society), and
the use of this knowledge to devise new applications (OECD)

*
* activity classified as research is characterised
by originality
* investigation is a primary aim
* results are sufficiently general for humanity's
stock of knowledge (theoretical and/or
practical) to be recognisably increased
* includes empirical and non-empirical work

*
 The classical thesis structure

INTRODUCTION What I want to do

LITERATURE What others say about it

DESIGN My plan for doing it

RESULTS What happened when I did it

DISCUSSION What this means

CONCLUSIONS What I found out

 Literature

• Describes the past and current state, organises, and

documents need (Cresswell, 2000)

• Follows on from and is determined by the objectives and

relates to significance

• Prepares for later chapters (e.g., Design, Discussion)

• Can follow the design chapter - be a part of the design

• Is the thesis that sets up the antithesis and prepares for the
new synthesis
 Focus of Literature

• Learning what is known and unknown

• Learning how field of knowledge was developed (history)

• Showing you understand your field

• Confirming your own research is worthwhile

• Explaining how knowledge is developed over time

• Justifying your research

• Identifying how you will make a contribution

• What do you believe?
- Is knowledge invented?
Is knowledge discovered?
- Can I write something that is understandable and
independent of me?
Is this impossible? Do I have to share who I am?

• Why are you doing research?

- A job?
Something more? What is it?
Why do you want to write it all down?
*“Refers to the progress of scientific practice
based on people’s philosophies and
assumptions about the world and the nature
of knowledge”

*Paradigms offer a framework comprising an

accepted set of theories, methods, and ways
of defining data
*Paradigm
*Ontology
*Epistemology
*Methodology
*
* The nature of reality: what is its form and
nature?
• Ontology –the nature and structure of the world

* The study of the nature of existence, the

science of being

*
* The nature of knowledge claims: what counts
as valid knowledge? What is the relationship
between the knower and the known?
• Epistemology - the nature of human knowledge

*
* How we inquire into the world to build
knowledge about the world: how does the
inquirer go about finding knowledge?

• Methodology – the principles and procedures of

inquiry

*
 Positivism Phenomenology
Reality is objective and Reality is subjective
Ontology: what is the singular, apart from the and multiple as seen
nature of reality? researcher by the participants
Epistemology:
Researcher is independent Researcher interacts
What is valid
from that being researched with that being researched
knowledge?

*The Philosophical
Axiology:
Value free and un-biased Value-laden and biased
Role of values
• Cross-sectional studies • Action Research
RESEARCH
STRATEGY
• Experimental studies
• Longitudinal studiesPosition….
• Case Studies
• Ethnography
• Surveys • Grounded Theory
• Etc... • Hermeneutics, etc...
 *Features of research
Positivistic paradigm
Tends to produce quantitative data
Uses large samples
Concerned with hypothesis testing
Data is highly specific and precise
The location is artificial
Reliability is high
Validity is low
Generalises from sample to
population
paradigms
Phenomenological paradigm
Tends to produce qualitative data
Uses small samples
Concerned with generating theories
Data is rich and subjective
The location is natural
Reliability is low
Validity is high
Generalises from one setting to
another
 *The ‘scientific’ method
*A generally accepted set of procedures for developing
and testing theories

*An idealised model to arrive at “the truth” through:

*Objective observation
*Measurement
*Careful and accurate analysis of data
*Minimising pre-conceptions about how the world works

*What paradigm are we in here?

Maylor and Blackmon (2005)
 *The Positivistic approach
Define your research topic
Literature review
Define your research question(s)
i.e. hypothesis

Deductive Design data collection

Pilot study
Design data analysis

Collect data

Analyse data

Interpret results

Report your findings

Adapted from Maylor and Blackmon (2005)

 *
• Ontological
–Existence of objective, absolute truths
–Focus on operational definitions and rational explanations
• Epistemological
–Researcher (knower) and object of study (known) independent –
focus on objectivity
–Assumption that inquiry can approximate objectivity (value-free);
disagreements between observers due to errors and/or observer
biases
• Methodological
–Replicability as a means for testing truth
–Focus on generalization
–Criteria – notions of internal/external validity
*The Phenomenological approach
*A generally accepted set of procedures for collecting
information about the world

*An idealised model to arrive at “the data” through:

* Subjective observation
* Being led by the data (ie. induction)
* Trying to overcome biases about the situation
* Avoiding conceptual frameworks or instruments that
might influence what is observed

Maylor and Blackmon (2005)

*The Phenomenological approach
Define your research topic
Literature review
Define your research question(s)

Design data collection

Inductive

Collect data

Analyse data Literature review

Interpret data

Research question answered?

Report your findings

Adapted from Maylor and Blackmon (2005)

 *
• Ontological
–Reality is local and specific
–Constructions cannot be absolutely true or correct (but can be less
sophisticated/informed)
–Reality actively constructed rather than discovered
• Epistemological
–Researcher and object of study inherently dependent
–Inquiry inherently value-bound
–Multiple interpretations can be equally valid
• Methodological
–Focus on induction
–Relative lack of emphasis on generality – use purposive samples
–Criteria – trustworthiness, credibility, transferability, confirmability
 *Comparing approaches
Characteristic Positivism Phenomenology
What? Why?
Questions that can be answered How much? How?

Direct observation,
Survey, Interviews,
Associated methods Experiment Participant observation

Data type Predominantly numbers Predominantly words

Finding Measure Meaning

Adapted from Maylor and Blackmon (2005)

 *Why does the approach matter?

Whether you take a scientific (positivistic) or

phenomenological approach will influence:

* What research questions you ask

* What methods you use to collect your data
* What type of data you collect
* What techniques you use to analyse your data

Maylor and Blackmon (2005)

The research ‘onion’

Source: © Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2006

 *

REALIZING CONDUCTING INTERVIEWS

THAT SOMETHING IS GOING WRONG AND COMPLETING A LITERATURE SURVEY
OR SHOULD BE IMPROVED

DEFINING
PROBLEM

THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
Variables clearly identified
and labeled
* A theoretical framework represents your
beliefs on how certain phenomena (or variables
or concepts) are related to each other (a
model) and an explanation on why you believe
that these variables are associated to each
other (a theory).

*
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 *

The theoretical framework plays an important role

in guiding the entire process of the research study
*Theories are constructed in order to explain,
predict and master phenomena (e.g. relationships,
events, or the behavior). In many instances we are
constructing models of reality.
*A theory makes generalizations about observations
and consists of an interrelated, coherent set of
ideas and models. 27
 *

If the framework is logically sound and substantiated

by previous research studies, there is a strong
possibility that the predictions or hypotheses evolving
from that framework will be supported

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 *How to Develop a Theoretical
Framework

1. Select concepts

a concept is an image or symbolic representation of an abstract idea.

e.g. health, pain, intelligence …

2. Identify the interrelationships among concepts

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 *How to Develop a Theoretical
Framework

3.Formulating definitions: to develop a theoretical

framework that can generate and test hypotheses, concepts must be
clearly defined
A. Conceptual definition … conveys the general meaning of the concept
B. Operational definition … adds another dimension to the conceptual
definition by delineating the procedures or operations required to
measure the concept
Some concepts are easily defined in operational terms, e.g. pulse,
other concepts are more difficult to define operationally, e.g. coping

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 *How to Develop a Theoretical
Framework
4. Formulating the theoretical rationale
* Through the literature review, an investigator
becomes aware of or confirms identified
theoretical connections between variables
* In evaluating the formulation of the theoretical
rationale, the internal structures, such as
concepts and their definitions, should have
clarity and continuity, and the approach to
understanding phenomena, whether inductive
or deductive, should be logical
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 A theoretical framework is
analogous to the frame of the
house.
Just as the foundation supports a
house, a theoretical framework
provides a rationale for predictions
about the relationships among
variables of a research study
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 * Critiquing the theoretical
framework
1. Is the theoretical framework clearly
identified?
2. Is the theoretical framework consistent with
what is being studied?
3. Are the concepts clearly and operationally
defined? Do they reflect the area of
investigation?
4. Was sufficient literature reviewed to support
the proposed relationships?
5. Is the theoretical basis for hypothesis
formulation clearly articulated? Is it logical?
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 *

6. Are the relationships among propositions clearly

defined?
7. If the theory is borrowed from a discipline other
than subject domain, are the data related
specifically to subject domain?
8. Does the instrument used to measure the
variables, consistent with the theoretical
framework?
9. Are the study findings related to the theoretical
rationale?
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 *
A variable is anything that can take on differing or
varying values. The values can differ at various times for
the same object or person, or at the same time for
different objects or persons.
*Type of variables:
*The dependent variable.
*The independent variable (also known as the
predictor variable)
*The moderating variables.
*The intervening variables.
Variables can be discrete or continuous

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* Having examined the different kinds of
variables that could operate in a situation and
how the relationships among these can be
established, it is now possible to see how we
can develop the conceptual model or the
theoretical framework for our research.

*
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1. The variables considered relevant to the
study should be clearly defined.
2. A conceptual model that describes the
relationships between the variables in the
model should be given.
3. A clear explanation of why we expect these
relationships to exist.

*
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* The literature survey provides a solid
foundation for developing the theoretical
framework.
* The literature survey identifies the variables
that might be important, as determined by
previous research findings.

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*The theoretical framework elaborates
the relationships among the variables,
explains the theory underlying these
relations, and describes the nature and
direction of the relationships.
*The theoretical framework provides
the logical base for developing testable
hypotheses.

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Once we have identified the important variables in
a situation and established the relationships among
them through logical reasoning in the theoretical
framework, we are in a position to test whether
the relationships hold true. By testing these
relationships scientifically through appropriate
statistical analysis, or through negative case
analysis in qualitative research. Formulating such
testable statements is called hypotheses
development.

*
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* Definition of Hypotheses: Is a logical
relationship between two or more variables
expressed in the form of a testable statement.

*
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