Cell Memb Transport p2

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CIE AS Biology Your notes
4.2 Movement into & out of Cells

Contents
4.2.1 Diffusion
4.2.2 Osmosis
4.2.3 Active Transport
4.2.4 Endocytosis & Exocytosis
4.2.5 Investigating Transport Processes in Plants
4.2.6 Investigating Diffusion
4.2.7 Surface Area to Volume Ratios
4.2.8 Investigating Surface Area
4.2.9 Estimating Water Potential in Plants
4.2.10 Osmosis in Plant Cells
4.2.11 Osmosis in Animals
4.2.12 Comparing Osmosis in Plants & Animals
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4.2.1 Diffusion
Your notes
Diffusion & Facilitated Diffusion
Diffusion is a type of transportation that occurs across the cell membrane
It can be defined as:
The net movement, as a result of the random motion of its molecules or ions, of a substance from a
region of its higher concentration to a region of its lower concentration.
The molecules or ions move down a concentration gradient
The random movement is caused by the natural kinetic energy of the molecules or ions
Diffusion across the cell membrane

As a result of diffusion, molecules or ions tend to reach an equilibrium situation (given sufficient time),
where they are evenly spread within a given volume of space
The rate at which a substance diffuses across a membrane depends on several factors
Diffusion Factors Table
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Your notes
Facilitated diffusion
Certain substances cannot diffuse through the phospholipid bilayer of cell membranes. These include:
Large polar molecules such as glucose and amino acids
Ions such as sodium ions (Na+) and chloride ions (Cl-)
These substances can only cross the phospholipid bilayer with the help of certain proteins
This form of diffusion is known as facilitated diffusion
There are two types of proteins that enable facilitated diffusion:
Channel proteins
Carrier proteins
They are highly specific (they only allow one type of molecule or ion to pass through)
Channel proteins
Channel proteins are water-filled pores
They allow charged substances (eg. ions) to diffuse through the cell membrane
The diffusion of these ions does not occur freely, most channel proteins are ‘gated’, meaning that part
of the channel protein on the inside surface of the membrane can move in order to close or open the
pore
This allows the channel protein to control the exchange of ions
A channel protein (open and closed)

Carrier proteins
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Unlike channel proteins which have a fixed shape, carrier proteins can switch between two shapes
This causes the binding site of the carrier protein to be open to one side of the membrane first, and
then open to the other side of the membrane when the carrier protein switches shape Your notes
The direction of movement of molecules diffusing across the membrane depends on their relative
concentration on each side of the membrane
Net diffusion of molecules or ions into or out of a cell will occur down a concentration gradient (from
an area containing many of that specific molecule to an area containing less of that molecule)
A carrier protein changing shape during facilitated diffusion
Exam Tip
Remember – the movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration is diffusion. If
this movement requires the aid of a protein (for example because the molecule is charged and cannot
pass directly through the phospholipid bilayer) this is facilitated diffusion.
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4.2.2 Osmosis
Your notes
The Process of Osmosis
All cells are surrounded by a cell membrane which is partially permeable
Water can move in and out of cells by osmosis
Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules from a dilute solution (high concentration of water) to a
more concentrated solution (low concentration of water) across a partially permeable membrane
In doing this, water is moving down its concentration gradient
The cell membrane is partially permeable which means it allows small molecules (like water) through but
not larger molecules (like solute molecules)
Osmosis and the partially permeable membrane

Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential (dilute
solution) to a region of lower water potential (concentrated solution), through a partially permeable
membrane
Water potential describes the tendency of water to move out of a solution. This term is used to avoid
confusion between water concentration and concentration of a solution
A dilute solution has a high water potential (the right-hand side of the diagram below) and a
concentrated solution has a low water potential (the left-hand side of the diagram below)
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Your notes
How osmosis works

The water potential of pure water (without any solutes) at atmospheric pressure is 0kPa, therefore any
solution that has solutes will have a water potential lower than 0kPa (it will be a negative value)
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Exam Tip
Your notes
Water can pass through the phospholipid bilayer because water molecules are small molecules that
can pass between phospholipids in the cell membrane. Although water molecules are polar, they can
still pass through the bilayer because of their small size.When interpreting questions on water
potential, remember – the more negative the water potential, the lower the water potential (the
further it is away from pure water which has a water potential of 0 kPa).
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4.2.3 Active Transport

Your notes
The Process of Active Transport
Active transport is the movement of molecules and ions through a cell membrane from a region of
lower concentration to a region of higher concentration using energy from respiration
Active transport requires carrier proteins (each carrier protein being specific for a particular type of
molecule or ion)
Although facilitated diffusion also uses carrier protein, active transport is different as it requires energy
The energy is required to make the carrier protein change shape, allowing it to transfer the molecules
or ions across the cell membrane
The energy required is provided by ATP (adenosine triphosphate) produced during respiration
A carrier protein changing shape during active transport

Active transport is important in:
Reabsorption of useful molecules and ions into the blood after filtration into the kidney tubules
Absorption of some products of digestion from the digestive tract
Loading sugar from the photosynthesising cells of leaves into the phloem tissue for transport
around the plant
Loading inorganic ions from the soil into root hairs
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Exam Tip
Your notes
Be careful not to get carrier proteins and channel proteins confused when answering questions on
active transport. Active transport requires carrier proteins (transmembrane transport proteins that
undergo conformational change) not channel proteins.
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4.2.4 Endocytosis & Exocytosis

Your notes
Endocytosis & Exocytosis
The processes of diffusion, osmosis and active transport are responsible for the transport of individual
molecules or ions across cell membranes
However, the bulk transport of larger quantities of materials into or out of cells is also possible
Examples of these larger quantities of materials that might need to cross the membrane include:
Large molecules such as proteins or polysaccharides
Parts of cells
Whole cells eg. bacteria
Bulk transport into cells = endocytosis
Bulk transport out of cells = exocytosis
These two processes require energy and are therefore forms of active transport
Endocytosis
Endocytosis is the process by which the cell surface membrane engulfs material, forming a small sac
(or ‘endocytic vacuole’) around it
There are two forms of endocytosis:
Phagocytosis:
This is the bulk intake of solid material by a cell
Cells that specialise in this process are called phagocytes
The vacuoles formed are called phagocytic vacuoles
An example is the engulfing of bacteria by phagocytic white blood cells
Pinocytosis:
This is the bulk intake of liquids
If the vacuole (or vesicle) that is formed is extremely small then the process is called
micropinocytosis
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Your notes
The process of phagocytosis of a bacterium by a phagocyte (white blood cell)

Exocytosis
Exocytosis is the process by which materials are removed from, or transported out of, cells (the
reverse of endocytosis)
The substances to be released (such as enzymes, hormones or cell wall building materials) are
packaged into secretory vesicles formed from the Golgi body
These vesicles then travel to the cell surface membrane
Here they fuse with the cell membrane and release their contents outside of the cell
An example is the secretion of digestive enzymes from pancreatic cells
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Your notes
The process of exocytosis
Exam Tip
Remember – active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis all require energy. This energy is provided
by ATP produced during respiration.To get the mark in the exam you have to specifically state
'exocytosis' for bulk transport out of the cell and 'endocytosis' (or even better: phagocytosis,
pinocytosis, micropinocytosis, macropinocytosis) for bulk transport into the cell. Simply stating 'bulk
transport' is not specific enough, the examiner will want to know what type of bulk transport and for
this you need to state the scientific name!
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4.2.5 Investigating Transport Processes in Plants

Your notes
Investigating Diffusion & Osmosis: Plant Tissue
Investigating diffusion
The permeability of cell membranes can be affected by environmental factors such as chemicals or
temperature
This can be investigated using beetroot:
Pieces of beetroot (obtained using a cork borer) are placed into water at different temperatures
or into different alcohol concentrations
Increases in cell membrane permeability result in the red pigment (normally contained within the
large central vacuole) leaking out of the beetroot cells by diffusion
Qualitative or quantitative measurements of the changes in the colour of the surrounding solution
can be taken eg. using a colorimeter or a set of colour standards
The red pigment leaks out via diffusion from regions of high concentration in the large central
vacuoles of the beetroot cells to a region of low concentration in the solution outside the beetroot
pieces
Diffusion would not normally occur as it is prevented by the partially permeable nature of the plant cell
membranes
In this case, however, high enough temperatures or alcohol concentrations can damage the cell
membrane and disrupt its structure, allowing the pigment to diffuse out
Investigating osmosis
Evidence of osmosis occurring in plant cells can be shown when plant cells undergo plasmolysis:
If a plant cell is placed in a solution with a lower water potential than the plant cell (such as a
concentrated sucrose solution), water will leave the plant cell through it partially permeable cell
surface membrane by osmosis
As water leaves the vacuole of the plant cell, the volume of the plant cell decreases
The protoplast (living part of the cell inside the cell wall) gradually shrinks and no longer exerts
pressure on the cell wall
As the protoplast continues to shrink, it begins to pull away from the cell wall
This process is known as plasmolysis – the plant cell is plasmolysed
This process can be observed using epidermal strips (sections of the very thin outer layer of tissue in
plants)
Plants with coloured sap (such as red onion bulbs, rhubarb petioles and red cabbage) make
observations easier
The epidermal strips are placed in a range of molarities of sucrose solution or sodium chloride
solutions
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The strips are then viewed under a light microscope

Plasmolysis may take several minutes to occur
Your notes
Light micrograph of normal red onion cells alongside those that have plasmolysed (artistic impression)
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4.2.6 Investigating Diffusion

Your notes
Investigating Diffusion
Investigating diffusion using Visking tubing
Visking tubing (sometimes referred to as dialysis tubing) is a non-living partially permeable membrane
made from cellulose
Pores in this membrane are small enough to prevent the passage of large molecules (such as starch
and sucrose) but allow smaller molecules (such as glucose) to pass through by diffusion
This can be demonstrated by:
Filling a section of Visking tubing with a mixture of starch and glucose solutions
Suspending the tubing in a boiling tube of water for a set period time
Testing the water outside of the visking tubing at regular intervals for the presence of starch and
glucose to monitor whether diffusion of either substance out of the tubing has occurred
The results should indicate that glucose, but not starch, diffuses out of the tubing
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Your notes
An example of how to set up an experiment to investigate diffusion

This can be investigated more quantitatively by:
Estimating the concentration of glucose that has diffused into the water surrounding the Visking
tubing at each time interval (separate boiling tubes are set up for each time interval) using the
semi-quantitative Benedict’s test
Comparisons between the time intervals can be made with a set of colour standards (known
glucose concentrations) or a colorimeter to give a more quantitative set of results
A graph could be drawn showing how the rate of diffusion changes with the concentration
gradient between the inside and outside of the tubing
Using agar to investigate the effect of changing surface area to volume ratio on diffusion
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The effect of size (Surface Area to Volume ratio) on diffusion can be investigated by timing the diffusion
of ions through different sized cubes of agar
Coloured agar is cut into cubes of the required dimensions (eg. 0.5cm x 0.5cm x 0.5cm, 1cm x 1cm x Your notes
1cm and 2cm x 2cm x 2cm)
Purple agar can be created if it is made up with very dilute sodium hydroxide solution and Universal
Indicator
Alternatively, the agar can be made up with Universal Indicator only
The cubes are then placed into boiling tubes containing a diffusion solution (such as dilute hydrochloric
acid)
The acid should have a higher molarity than the sodium hydroxide so that its diffusion can be
monitored by a change in colour of the indicator in the agar blocks
Measurements can be taken of either:
The time taken for the acid to completely change the colour of the indicator in the agar blocks
The distance travelled into the block by the acid (shown by the change in colour of the indicator) in
a given time period (eg. 5 minutes)
These times can be converted to rates (1 ÷ time taken)
A graph could be drawn showing how the rate of diffusion (rate of colour change) changes with the
surface area : volume ratio of the agar cubes
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An example of how to set up an experiment to investigate the effect of changing surface area to volume
ratio on diffusion
Your notes
Exam Tip
When an agar cube (or for example a biological cell or organism) increases in size, the volume increases
faster than the surface area, because the volume is cubed whereas the surface area is squared. When
an agar cube (or biological cell / organism) has more volume but proportionately less surface area,
diffusion takes longer and is less effective. In more precise scientific terms, the greater the surface
area to volume ratio, the faster the rate of diffusion!
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4.2.7 Surface Area to Volume Ratios

Your notes
Principles of SA:V
Surface area and volume are both very important factors in the exchange of materials in organisms
The surface area refers to the total area of the organism that is exposed to the external environment
The volume refers to the total internal volume of the organism (total amount of space inside the
organism)
As the surface area and volume of an organism increase (and therefore the overall ‘size’ of the organism
increases), the surface area : volume ratio decreases
This is because volume increases much more rapidly than surface area as size increases
As size increases, the surface area : volume ratio decreases
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Your notes
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The surface area:volume ratio calculation differs for different shapes (these shapes can reflect different
cells or organisms)
Your notes
Exam Tip
You are expected to be able to calculate the SA:V ratio for a cube, cuboid or cylinder and explain how
the increasing size of an organism affects the SA:V ratio.
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4.2.8 Investigating Surface Area

Your notes
Investigating SA with Agar
The effect of changing surface area to volume ratio on diffusion can be investigated by timing the
diffusion of ions through cubes of agar of different sizes
Method
Coloured agar is made up and cut into cubes of the required dimensions (eg. 0.5cm x 0.5cm x 0.5cm,
1cm x 1cm x 1cm and 2cm x 2cm x 2cm)
Purple agar can be created if it is made up with very dilute sodium hydroxide solution and Universal
Indicator
Alternatively, the agar can be made up with Universal Indicator only
The surface area, volume and surface area to volume ratio of these cubes is calculated and recorded
The cubes are then placed into boiling tubes containing a diffusion solution (such as dilute hydrochloric
acid)
The same volume of dilute hydrochloric acid should be carefully measured out into each boiling
tube
The acid should have higher molarity than the sodium hydroxide so that its diffusion can be
monitored by a change in colour of the indicator in the agar blocks
Measurements can be taken of either:
The time taken for the acid to completely change the colour of the indicator in the agar blocks
The distance travelled into the block by the acid (shown by the change in colour of the indicator) in
a given time (eg. 5 minutes)
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Your notes
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The steps used to investigate the effect of changing the surface area to volume ratio on diffusion
Analysis
If the time taken for the acid to completely change the colour of the indicator in the agar blocks is
recorded, these times can be converted to rates
A graph could be drawn showing how the rate of diffusion (rate of colour change) changes with the
surface area : volume ratio of the agar cubes
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Your notes
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Your notes
To analyse the results of the investigation, calculate the rates of diffusion before drawing a graph for
rate of diffusion against surface area : volume ratio
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4.2.9 Estimating Water Potential in Plants

Your notes
Estimating Water Potential in Plant Tissue
It is possible to investigate the effects of immersing plant tissue in solutions of different water
potentials and then use the results to estimate the water potential of the plant tissue itself
The most common osmosis practical of this kind involves cutting cylinders of potato and placing them
into solutions with a range of different water potentials (usually sucrose solutions of increasing
concentration – at least 5 different concentrations are usually required)
Method
The required number of potato cylinders are cut (one for each of the solutions you are testing – or more
than one per solution if you require repeats)
They are all cut to the same length and, once blotted dry to remove any excess moisture, their initial
mass is measured and recorded before placing into the solutions
They are left in the solutions for a set amount of time (eg. 30 minutes), usually in a water bath (set at
around 30o)
They are then removed and dried to remove excess liquid
The final length and mass of each potato cylinder is then measured and recorded
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Your notes
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You will need to use apparatus appropriately to measure out the volumes of your solutions and record
your measurements
Analysis
The percentage change in mass for each potato cylinder is calculated
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If there is a potato cylinder that has neither increased nor decreased in mass, it means there was no
overall net movement of water into or out of the potato cells
This is because the solution that this particular potato cylinder was in had the same water potential as Your notes
the solution found in the cytoplasm of the potato cells, so there was no concentration gradient and
therefore no net movement of water into or out of the potato cells
The concentration of sucrose inside the potato cylinders can be found if a graph is drawn showing how
the percentage change in mass changes with the concentration of sucrose solution – the point at
which the line of best fit crosses the x-axis is the concentration of sucrose inside the potato
cylinders
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Your notes
A positive percentage change in mass indicates that the potato has gained water by osmosis (net
movement of water from the solution into the potato) meaning the solution had a higher water potential
than the potato. A negative percentage change suggests the opposite
A positive percentage change in mass indicates that the potato has gained water by osmosis (net
movement of water from the solution into the potato) meaning the solution had a higher water
potential than the potato
This would make the potato cells turgid, as the water exerts turgor pressure (or hydrostatic
pressure) on the cell walls – the potatoes will feel hard
A negative percentage change suggests the opposite, that is, the solution had a lower water potential
than the potato
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The potato cylinder in the strongest sucrose concentration will have decreased in mass the most
as there is the greatest concentration gradient in this tube between the potato cells (higher water
potential) and the sucrose solution (lower water potential) Your notes
This means more water molecules will move out of the potato cells by osmosis, making them
flaccid and decreasing the mass of the potato cylinder – the potato cylinders will feel floppy
If looked at underneath the microscope, cells from this potato cylinder might be plasmolysed,
meaning the cell membrane has pulled away from the cell wall
Exam Tip
Questions involving osmosis experiments are common and you should be able to use your knowledge
of osmosis to explain the results obtained. If describing or analysing an experiment remember to
include mention of variables that need to be controlled and mention repeats, as this helps determine
the reliability of the results obtained.Don’t worry if it is an experiment you haven’t done – simply figure
out where the higher concentration of water molecules is – this is the solution with the higher water
potential – and explain which way the molecules move due to the differences in water potential.
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4.2.10 Osmosis in Plant Cells

Your notes
Osmosis: Plant Cells
membrane
If a plant cell is placed in pure water or a dilute solution, water will enter the plant cell through its
partially permeable cell surface membrane by osmosis, as the pure water or dilute solution has a higher
water potential than the plant cell
As water enters the vacuole of the plant cell, the volume of the plant cell increases
The expanding protoplast (living part of the cell inside the cell wall) pushes against the cell wall and
pressure builds up inside the cell – the inelastic cell wall prevents the cell from bursting
The pressure created by the cell wall also stops too much water entering and this also helps to prevent
the cell from bursting
When a plant cell is fully inflated with water and has become rigid and firm, it is described as fully turgid
This turgidity is important for plants as the effect of all the cells in a plant being firm is to provide
support and strength for the plant – making the plant stand upright with its leaves held out to catch
sunlight
If plants do not receive enough water the cells cannot remain rigid and firm (turgid) and the plant wilts
Osmosis of water into a plant cell
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If a plant cell is placed in a solution with a lower water potential than the plant cell (such as a
concentrated sucrose solution), water will leave the plant cell through its partially permeable cell
surface membrane by osmosis Your notes
As water leaves the vacuole of the plant cell, the volume of the plant cell decreases
The protoplast gradually shrinks and no longer exerts pressure on the cell wall
As the protoplast continues to shrink, it begins to pull away from the cell wall
This process is known as plasmolysis – the plant cell is plasmolysed
Plasmolysis of a plant cell that has been placed in a solution with a lower water potential than the cell
itself
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Exam Tip Your notes

Remember – plant cell membranes are composed of a phospholipid bilayer and are partially
permeable (only certain molecules can cross), whereas plant cell walls are made of cellulose and are
freely permeable. Thus, in a plasmolysed cell, the external solution will be exerting pressure on the
protoplast, that is, there is not an empty space between the cell wall and protoplast.Pure water has a
water potential of 0 kPa, so all other solutions will have negative water potentials.
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4.2.11 Osmosis in Animals

Your notes
Osmosis: Animal Cells
membrane
Like plant cells, animal cells can also lose and gain water as a result of osmosis
As animal cells do not have a supporting cell wall (unlike plant cells), the results of this loss or gain of
water on the cell are more severe
For example, if an animal cell is placed in a solution with a lower water potential than the cell (such as a
concentrated sucrose solution), water will leave the cell through its partially permeable cell surface
membrane by osmosis and the cell will shrink and shrivel up
This occurs when the cell is in a hypertonic environment (the solution outside of the cell has a higher
solute concentration than the inside of the cell)
Conversely, if an animal cell is placed in pure water or a dilute solution, water will enter the cell through
its partially permeable cell surface membrane by osmosis, as the pure water or dilute solution has a
higher water potential. The cell will continue to gain water by osmosis until the cell membrane is
stretched too far and the cell bursts (cytolysis), as it has no cell wall to withstand the increased
pressure created
This occurs when the cell is in a hypotonic environment (the solution outside of the cell has a lower
solute concentration than the inside of the cell)
This is why a constant water potential must be maintained inside the bodies of animals
If an animal cell is in an isotonic environment (the solution outside of the cell has the same solute
concentration as the inside of the cell), the movement of water molecules into and out of the cell
occurs at the same rate (no net movement of water) and there is no change to the cells
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Your notes
Effect of osmosis on animal cells
Exam Tip
Be careful with your scientific terminology – animal cells do not plasmolyse because they do not have
a cell wall. In a solution with a lower water potential than the cell itself, animal cells will shrink.
Plasmolysis only occurs in plant cells.
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4.2.12 Comparing Osmosis in Plants & Animals

Your notes
Osmosis in Cells: Comparison
Comparing & Contrasting the Movement of Water by Osmosis in Plant & Animal Cells Table
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Your notes
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Cell Memb Transport p2

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CIE AS Biology Your notes

4.2 Movement into & out of Cells

Diffusion across the cell membrane

A channel protein (open and closed)

A carrier protein changing shape during facilitated diffusion

Osmosis and the partially permeable membrane

How osmosis works

4.2.3 Active Transport

A carrier protein changing shape during active transport

4.2.4 Endocytosis & Exocytosis

The process of phagocytosis of a bacterium by a phagocyte (white blood cell)

The process of exocytosis

4.2.5 Investigating Transport Processes in Plants

The strips are then viewed under a light microscope

4.2.6 Investigating Diffusion

An example of how to set up an experiment to investigate diffusion

4.2.7 Surface Area to Volume Ratios

As size increases, the surface area : volume ratio decreases

4.2.8 Investigating Surface Area

4.2.9 Estimating Water Potential in Plants

4.2.10 Osmosis in Plant Cells

Osmosis of water into a plant cell

Exam Tip Your notes

4.2.11 Osmosis in Animals

Effect of osmosis on animal cells

4.2.12 Comparing Osmosis in Plants & Animals

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