Chapter 2

THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Review of Related Literature and Studies

This chapter presents a review of the relevant literature and studies that have been conducted on
the topic of student attrition and dropout rates in higher education. The purpose of this review is to
provide a theoretical and empirical background for the research problem, identify the gaps and limitations
in the existing knowledge, and justify the significance and contribution of the study.
The review is organized into four sections. The first section discusses the definitions and
concepts of student attrition and dropout, as well as the factors that influence them. The second section
examines the various theories and models that have been proposed to explain the phenomenon of student
dropout and retention. The third section reviews the empirical studies that have investigated the causes
and consequences of student attrition and dropout in different contexts and settings. The fourth section
summarizes the main findings and implications of the literature review and identifies the research
questions and hypotheses for the study.

Empirical Studies on Student Attrition and Dropout

Numerous empirical studies have been conducted to test and apply the theories and models of student
attrition and dropout in different contexts and settings. These studies have used various methods and
techniques, such as surveys and interviews, experiments and observations, and quantitative and
qualitative analyses, to collect and analyze data on student attrition and dropout. The following are some
examples of empirical studies that have investigated the causes and consequences of student attrition and
dropout in different countries and institutions.
LOCAL STUDIES AND LITERATURE
Sarao (2023) examined the dropout rate in universities and colleges in the Philippines, which was
estimated at 35.15% in the school year 2023 to 2024. The dropout rate is a critical issue in the
Philippines, and it is influenced by various factors such as psychological symptoms, access to care, cost,
spatial clustering, behavioral trends, educational access, and macroeconomic variables (Mitchell et al.,
2023). found that the average dropout rate across studies related to psychological symptom severity was
41.5% (Bugatti et al., 2023). highlighted that dropout rates significantly differ across settings and study
designs, with naturalistic clinical settings producing a substantially higher dropout rate of 26%
(Venkatesan & Mappillairaju, 2023). emphasized that districts with high repetition rates and low
promotion rates may impact dropout rates (Faisal et al., 2023). indicated that inadequate schooling,
particularly in rural regions, is the biggest barrier to educational access, leading to higher dropout rates
(Pasion et al., 2023). explored the effect of rising crude oil prices in the Philippines on the U.S. dollar
exchange rate, which could potentially impact dropout rates (Permatasari & Artha, 2023). found that
classroom size was a significant predictor of high school dropout rates, with larger class sizes associated
with higher dropout rates.
These findings suggest that the dropout rate in the Philippines is influenced by a multitude of factors,
including psychological symptoms, access to care, spatial clustering, behavioral trends, educational
access, and macroeconomic variables. Understanding these factors is crucial for developing effective
policies and interventions to address the high dropout rates in the Philippines. In addition, He reported
that the main causes of dropout were the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, the increasing cost of living,
and the lack of financial assistance. He recommended that the Commission on Higher Education should
implement policies and programs to support and retain students .

Additionally, a recent study revealed an increasing number of dropped-out students in physical education
classes in one of the leading State Universities in the Philippines ("Gen Z’s fitness concepts and ways to
be fit: Insights to strengthen students’ learning experiences in tertiary physical education", 2022). The
Universal Access to Quality Tertiary Education Act in the Philippines provides college students with free
tuition and other fees in state universities and local universities, aiming to address the issue of student
dropout (Patacsil, 2020).

The attrition and drop-out rates of students in the Philippines have been a subject of extensive research.
Studies have explored various factors influencing student attrition and drop-out rates, including personal,
family, and school-related factors. Additionally, the influence of curriculum design on students' dropout
rates has been investigated, indicating its significant impact. Furthermore, the use of learning
technologies and machine learning techniques has been explored to predict and minimize student drop-out
rates. The impact of social isolation on doctoral attrition has also been studied, emphasizing the need to
address this issue to minimize drop-out rates (Fortin et al., 2006). Moreover, the complexities of distance
education student attrition have been unraveled, highlighting the higher attrition rates among distance
education students compared to campus-based counterparts (Vergel et al., 2018). Additionally, the
influence of teacher-student relationships on student attrition has been emphasized, with negative
relationships being a strong predictor of drop-out. Furthermore, the gender issues related to graduate
student attrition in specific departments have been uncovered, indicating significantly larger attrition rates
for women students in certain fields (Lassesen et al., 2022). These studies collectively underscore the
multifaceted nature of student attrition and drop-out rates, influenced by a wide range of factors including
academic, social, and institutional aspects.

FOREIGN STUDIES AND LITERATURE

The attrition rate in tertiary education is a significant concern globally, including in the Philippines.
International research has shown that government policy, institutional culture, and learner characteristics
influence the attrition rate of first-year tertiary education students (Whitehead, 2012). Machine learning
techniques have been employed to predict learner drop-out rates in higher educational institutions,
highlighting the global challenge of retaining students until graduation (Dake & Buabeng-Andoh, 2022).
High attrition rates among university students have been identified as an undesirable factor in the
marketing mix used by tertiary institutions to attract students (Lobo, 2012). Furthermore, the increasing
trend of student attrition in tertiary settings has prompted universities to consider a range of responses to
address this issue (Harrington & Mellors, 2021). Understanding university student attrition through
identity theory has been explored as a theoretical framework to address attrition for students in transition
(Whannell & Whannell, 2015).

Venkatesan, R. and Mappillairaju, B. (2023). Detection of hotspots of school dropouts in india: a spatial
clustering approach. Plos One, 18(1), e0280034. Nurmalitasari et al. (2023) explored the factors
influencing dropout students in higher education in Indonesia, using a mixed-methods approach. They
identified personal economic factors, academic satisfaction, academic performance, and family
economics as the most influential variables. They concluded that dropout students had low motivation,
low achievement, and low support from their families and institutions . David et al. (2024) developed a
predictive model to identify college students with high dropout rates in the United States, using machine
learning techniques. They used historical data on first-semester students to train and test their
model. They showed that their model could predict “at-risk” students with a sensitivity of 61.97%, which
could enable early intervention and reduce student attrition. Lee and Kim (2022) investigated the
dropout in higher education and determinant factors in South Korea, using a panel data analysis. They
found that the dropout rate was higher for female students, older students, low-income students, and
students in humanities and social sciences. They also found that the dropout rate was negatively
correlated with the quality of education, the employment rate, and the tuition fee .

Theories and Models of Student Attrition and Dropout

Several theories and models have been developed to explain and predict the phenomenon of student
attrition and dropout in higher education. These theories and models can be classified into three main
categories: psychological, sociological, and economic.
Economic theories and models focus on the financial factors that affect the student’s opportunity and
affordability of education. They assume that student attrition and dropout are the result of the student’s
rational calculation and optimization, based on their expected costs and benefits, returns and risks, and
constraints and incentives of their educational investment. Some of the prominent economic theories and
models are:
 Cost-benefit analysis: This analysis suggests that the student’s decision to persist or drop out is
influenced by their cost-benefit comparison and evaluation, which is affected by their direct and
indirect costs, present and future benefits, and discount and interest rates of their education.
 Demand and supply model: This model propose that the student’s decision to persist or drop out
is influenced by their demand and supply of education, which is affected by their preferences and
tastes, prices and incomes, and subsidies and scholarships of their education.
 Human capital theory: This theory posits that the student’s decision to persist or drop out is
influenced by their human capital accumulation and utilization, which is affected by their ability
and productivity, earnings and income, and education and training.
Psychological theories and models focus on the individual factors that affect the student’s motivation,
attitude, and behavior toward education. They assume that student attrition and dropout are the result of
the student’s personal choice and preference, based on their perceived costs and benefits, expectations
and outcomes, and satisfaction and dissatisfaction with their educational experience. Some of the
prominent psychological theories and models are:
 Attribution theory: This theory suggests that the student’s attribution of the causes and
consequences of their academic success and failure affects their self-efficacy and self-esteem,
which in turn affect their persistence or dropout behavior.
 Expectancy-value theory: This theory posits that the student’s decision to persist or drop out is
influenced by their expectancy of success and the value they attach to their educational goals .
  Goal-setting theory: This theory proposes that the student’s persistence or dropout is determined
by the type, level, and specificity of the goals they set for themselves and the feedback they
receive on their progress and achievement.
Sociological theories and models emphasize the social factors that affect the student’s integration,
involvement, and interaction with the institution and its members. They assume that student attrition and
dropout are the result of the student’s social adjustment and adaptation, based on their sense of fit and
compatibility, identification and affiliation, and participation and contribution to the institutional
community. Some of the prominent sociological theories and models are:
 Astin’s theory of student involvement: This theory contends that the student’s persistence or
dropout is influenced by their involvement in the academic and extracurricular activities of the
institution, which is affected by their input characteristics, environmental factors, and output
measures.
 Bean’s model of student attrition: This model asserts that the student’s persistence or dropout is
influenced by their intention to stay or leave the institution, which is affected by their background
variables, attitudinal and behavioral variables, and organizational variables.
 Tinto’s model of student integration: This model argues that the student’s persistence or dropout
is influenced by their academic and social integration into the institution, which is affected by
their pre-entry characteristics, initial goals and commitments, and institutional experiences and
outcomes .

Definition and Concept of Student Attrition and Dropout

Student attrition and dropout are terms that are often used interchangeably in the literature, but they have
different meanings and implications. According to Tinto , attrition refers to the process of student
departure from an institution, while dropout refers to the outcome of student departure. Attrition can be
voluntary or involuntary, depending on whether the student leaves the institution by choice or by force.
Dropout, on the other hand, implies a permanent cessation of enrollment and a failure to complete a
degree or program.
Student attrition and dropout are complex and multifaceted phenomena that are influenced by a variety of
factors at the individual, institutional, and societal levels. Some of the common factors that have been
identified in the literature are:
 Academic factors: These include the student’s academic performance and achievement,
academic integration and engagement, academic support and feedback, academic expectations
and standards, academic goals and plans, and academic satisfaction and commitment .
 Environmental factors: These include the external factors that affect the student’s decision and
ability to stay or leave the institution, such as family and peer pressure, financial and employment
opportunities, geographic and mobility constraints, and political and economic conditions.
 Institutional factors: These include the institution’s mission and vision, policies and practices,
culture and climate, resources and facilities, programs and services, and reputation and image.
 Personal factors: These include the student’s demographic characteristics (such as age, gender,
ethnicity, socioeconomic status, etc.), academic background and preparation, motivation and
 aspiration, personality and learning style, health and well-being, and personal problems and
challenges .
 Social factors: These include the student’s social integration and involvement, social support and
network, social norms and values, social skills and competencies, social identity and belonging,
and social satisfaction and loyalty .

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