Those Fascinating Numbers

http://dx.doi.org/10.1090/mbk/064

Those Fascinating Numbers

Jean-Marie De Koninck
Translated by Jean-Marie De Koninck

Providence, Rhode Island

 This work was originally published in French by Ellipses under the title: Ces nombres
qui nous fascinent,
2008
c Édition Marketing S.A. The present translation was created
under license for the American Mathematical Society and is published by permission.
Translated by Jean-Marie De Koninck.
Cover image by Jean-Sébastien Bérubé.

2000 Mathematics Subject Classification. Primary 11–00, 11A05, 11A25, 11A41, 11A51,
11K65, 11N05, 11N25, 11N37, 11N56.

For additional information and updates on this book, visit

www.ams.org/bookpages/mbk-64

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Koninck, J.-M. de, 1948-
[Ces nombres qui nous fascinent. English]
Those fascinating numbers / Jean-Marie De Koninck ; translated by Jean-Marie De Koninck.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8218-4807-4 (alk. paper)
1. Number theory. I. Title.
QA241.K686 2009
512.7–dc22
2009012806

Copying and reprinting. Individual readers of this publication, and nonprofit libraries
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The American Mathematical Society retains all rights
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 14 13 12 11 10 09
To my mother who showed me the way
 Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ix

Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

The main functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

Frequently used theorems and conjectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

Those fascinating numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Appendix: The prime numbers < 10 000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425

vii
 Preface

One day, in 1918, G.H. Hardy, the great English mathematician, took what he
thought was an ordinary cab ride to go visit his young protégé at the hospital, the
Indian mathematician S. Ramanujan. To break the ice, Hardy mentioned that the
number 1729 on his taxicab was a rather dull number. Ramanujan immediately
replied that, on the contrary, it was a very fascinating number since it was the
smallest positive integer which could be written as the sum of two cubes in two
distinct ways: 1729 = 123 + 13 = 103 + 93 . This anecdote certainly shows the genius
of Ramanujan, but it also stirs our imagination. In some sense, it challenges us to
find the remarkable characteristics of other numbers.

This is precisely the task we undertake in this project. The reader will find here
“famous” numbers such as 1729, Mersenne prime numbers (those prime numbers
of the form 2p − 1, where p is itself a prime number) and perfect numbers (those
numbers equal to the sum of their proper divisors); also “less famous” numbers, but
no less fascinating, such as the following ones:

• 37, the median value of the second prime factor of an integer; thus, the prob-
ability that the second prime factor of an integer chosen at random is smaller
than 37 is approximately 12 ;

• 277, the smallest prime number p which allows the sum

1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + + + ... +
2 3 5 7 11 p

(where the sum is running over all the prime numbers ≤ p) to exceed 2;

• 378, the smallest prime number which is not a cube, but which can be written
as the sum of the cubes of its prime factors: indeed, 378 = 2·33 ·7 = 23 +33 +73 ;

• 480, possibly the largest number n such that n(n + 1) . . . (n + 5) has exactly
the same distinct prime factors as (n + 1)(n + 2) . . . (n + 6); indeed,

480 · 481 · . . . · 485 = 28 · 32 · 52 · 7 · 112 · 13 · 23 · 37 · 97 · 241,

481 · 482 · . . . · 486 = 24 · 36 · 5 · 7 · 112 · 13 · 23 · 37 · 97 · 241;

ix
x Preface

• 736, the only three digit number abc such that abc = a+bc ; indeed, 736 = 7+36 ;


• 1 782, possibly the only integer n > 1 for which p= d;
p|n d|n

• 548 834, the only number > 1 which can be written as the sum of the sixth
powers of its digits: indeed, 548 834 = 56 + 46 + 86 + 86 + 36 + 46 ;

• 11 859 210, the smallest number n for which P (n)4 |n and P (n + 1)4 |(n + 1),
where P (n) stands for the largest prime factor of n (here P (n) = 11 and
P (n + 1) = 19); the second smallest known number n satisfying this property
is n = 632 127 050 601 113 666 430 (here P (n) = 2131 and P (n + 1) = 3691);

• 89 460 294, the smallest number n (and the only one known) for which β(n) =
β(n + 1) = β(n + 2), where β(n) stands for the sum of the distinct prime factors
of n;

• 305 635 357, the smallest composite number n for which σ(n + 4) = σ(n) + 4,
where σ(n) stands for the sum of the divisors of n;
√
• 612 220 032, the smallest number n > 1 whose sum of digits is equal to 7 n;

• 3 262 811 042, possibly the only number which can be written as the sum of
the fourth powers of two prime numbers in two distinct ways: 3 262 811 042 =
74 + 2394 = 1574 + 2274 ;
Ω(n)ω(n)
• 3 569 485 920, the number n at which the expression reaches its max-
n
imum value, namely 2.97088. . . , where ω(n) stands for the number of distinct
prime factors of n and Ω(n) stands for the number of prime factors of n counting
their multiplicity.

Various numbers also raise interesting issues. For instance, does there exist a
number which is not the square of a prime number but which can be written as the
sum of the squares of its prime factors ? Given an arbitrary integer k ≥ 2, does
there exist a number n such that P (n)k |n and P (n + 1)k |(n + 1) ? For each integer
k ≥ 2 which is not a multiple of 3, can one always find a prime number whose sum
of digits is equal to k ? These are some of the numerous open problems stated in
this book, each of them standing for an enigma that will certainly feed the curiosity
of the reader. Actually my hope for this book is to encourage many to explore more
thoroughly some of the questions raised all along this book.

There are currently several books whose main purpose is to exhibit interesting
properties of numbers. This book is along the lines of these works but offers more
features. For instance, one will find – mainly in the footnotes – short proofs of key
results as well as statements of many new open problems.

Finally, I would like to acknowledge all those who contributed to this manus-
cript. With their precious input, suggestions and ideas, this project was expansive
but enjoyable. Thanks to Jean-Lou De Carufel, Charles Cassidy, Zita De Kon-
inck, Éric Doddridge, Nicolas Doyon, Éric Drolet, David Grégoire, Bernard Hodgson,
 Preface xi

Imre Kátai, Patrick Letendre, Claude Levesque, Florian Luca, Michael Murphy, Erik
Pronovost and Jérôme Soucy.

This edition is a translation of my French book Ces nombres qui nous fascinent
published by Ellipses in 2008.

Anyone enjoying this book is welcome to send me suggestions and ideas which
could improve and enlighten this project.

Jean-Marie De Koninck
Département de mathématiques et de statistique
Université Laval
Québec G1V 0A6
CANADA

jmdk@mat.ulaval.ca
 Notations

• In this book, unless indicated otherwise, by “number” we mean a “positive

integer”.
• The sequence p1 , p2 , p3 , . . . stands for the sequence of prime numbers 2, 3, 5,
. . . Thus pk stands for the kth prime number.
• Unless indicated otherwise, the letters p and q stand for prime numbers.
• By a|b, we mean that a divides b. By a  |b, we mean that a does not divide b.
Given a positive integer k, by pk n, we mean that pk |n but that pk+1  | n.

• When we write f (p), we mean the infinite sum f (2) + f (3) + f (5) + f (7) +
p

. . . + f (p) + . . .. Similarly we write f (p) to indicate that the summation
p≤x
runs over all primes p ≤ x.



• The expressions f (p) and f (p) are analogue to the ones mentioned just
p p≤x
above, except that this time they stand for products and not summations.

• By f (d), we mean that the summation runs on all divisors d of n; by
d|n

f (p), we mean that the summation runs over all prime factors p of n. We
p|n



use the corresponding notations for the products, that is f (d) and f (p).
d|n p|n

• We denote by γ the Euler constant, which is defined by

 N 
1
γ = lim − log N = 0.5772156649 . . . .
N →∞
n=1
n

• Given an integer b ≥ 2 and a number n whose digits in base b are d1 , d2 , . . . , dr ,

we sometimes use the notation n = [d1 , d2 , . . . , dr ]b . If the base is not men-
tioned, it should be understood that we are working in base 10.

xiii
xiv Notations

• The factorization of a number usually appears in the form

n = q1α1 · q2α2 · . . . · qrαr ,
where q1 < q2 < . . . < qr are the r distinct prime numbers dividing n and
where α1 , α2 , . . . , αr are positive integers. For instance, we write
11 560 = 23 · 5 · 172 .
It may happen that the factorization of a large number takes on a particular
form, such as
122 + 1 = 257 · P136 ;
7

in this case, the expression P136 stands for a (known) 136 digit prime number
which there is no need to write at length, since it can be obtained explicitly by
7
simply dividing 122 + 1 by 257. Another possible situation could occur, as for
instance:
122 + 1 = 8253953 · 295278642689 · C258 ;
8

in this case, the expression C258 stands for a composite 258 digit number for
which no non trivial factorization is known.
• In order to compare the size of certain expressions in the neighborhood of infin-
ity, we use various notations, some of which have been introduced by Landau,
namely O(. . .) and o(. . .). Hence, given two functions f and g defined on [a, ∞)
(where a ≥ 0), we write:
(i) f (x) = O(g(x)) if there exist two constants M > 0 and x0 for which
|f (x)| < M g(x) for all x ≥ x0 ; in particular, f (x) = O(1) if f (x) is
a bounded function; moreover, instead of writing f (x) = O(g(x)), we
sometimes write f (x)  g(x); thus we have
x
x = O(x2 ), sin x = O(1), log x = O(x1/10 ), 2x2 +  x2 ;
3

(ii) f (x) = o(g(x)) if, for each ε > 0, there exists a constant x0 = x0 (ε) such
that |f (x)| < εg(x) for all x ≥ x0 ; thus we have
1
= o(1), sin x = o(x), log x = o(x), x4 = o(ex );
x

(iii) f (x) = Ω(g(x)) if there exist two constants M > 0 and x0 such that
|f (x)| > M |g(x)| for all x ≥ x0 ; instead of writing f (x) = Ω(g(x)), we
sometimes write f (x) g(x); thus we have
√ √
x = Ω( x), x = Ω(log x), ex = Ω(x4 ), xex ex ;

f (x)
(iv) f (x) ∼ g(x) to mean that lim = 1; thus, as x → ∞, we have
x→∞ g(x)
1 sin 1/x
∼ 0, ∼ 1, x2 + x ∼ x2 .
x 1/x

(v) f (x) ≈ g(x) to mean that we have both f (x)  g(x) and g(x)  f (x).
 The Main Functions

[x], the largest integer ≤ x


B(n) = αp, the sum of the prime factors of n with multiplicity
pα n

B1 (n) = pα , the sum of the largest prime powers dividing n
pα n

P (n) = max{p : p|n}, the largest prime factor of the number n ≥ 2

p(n) = min{p : p|n}, the smallest prime factor of the number n ≥ 2


β(n) = p, the sum of the distinct prime factors of n
p|n

β∗ (n) = p = β(n) − P (n), the sum of the prime factors of n except for the
p|n
p<P (n)

largest

π(x) = 1, the number of prime numbers ≤ x
p≤x

π(x; k, ) = 1, the number of prime numbers p ≤ x, p ≡  (mod k)
p≤x


p≡ (mod k)
x
dt
Li(x) = , the logarithmic integral
0 log t


γ(n) = p, the product of the prime numbers which divide n
p|n


δ(n) = p, the product of the prime numbers which divide n exactly
pn

φ(n) = 1, called the Euler φ function, which counts the number of numbers
m≤n
(m,n)=1

m ≤ n which are co-prime with n

xv
xvi The Main Functions


σ(n) = d, the sum of the divisors of n
d|n

σ∗ (n) = d, the sum of the unitary divisors of n
d|n, (d,n/d)=1

σk (n) = dk , the sum of the kth powers of the divisors of n
d|n

σI (n) = d, the sum of the odd divisors of n
d|n,d odd

τ (n) = 1, the number of divisors of n
d|n

ω(n) = 1, the number of distinct prime factors of n
p|n

Ω(n) = α, the number of prime factors of n counting their multiplicity
pα n

πk (x) = 1, the number of numbers n ≤ x such that ω(n) = k
n≤x
ω(n)=k

µ(n), the Moebius function defined by

⎧
⎨ 1 if n = 1,
µ(n) = 0 if p2 |n for a certain prime p,
⎩ ω(n)
(−1) otherwise

λ0 (n) = (−1)Ω(n) , the Liouville function

log n
λ(n) = , the index of composition of the number n ≥ 2
log γ(n)
ι(n) = min |n − m|, the index of isolation of the number n ≥ 2, that is the dis-
1≤m=n
P (m)≤P (n)

tance to the nearest integer whose largest prime factor does not exceed that of n

n
1
ξ(n) =
i=1
gcd(i, n)
 Frequently used Theorems and Conjectures

Fermat’s Little Theorem

Let p be a prime number. Given any positive integer a co-prime with p,
then
ap−1 ≡ 1 (mod p).

The Prime Number Theorem

As x → ∞,
π(x) = (1 + o(1))Li(x),
with
x x x x x
Li(x) = + + 2! 3 + . . . + (r − 1)! r + O ,
log x log2 x log x log x log r+1
x
where r is any given fixed integer.

The Chinese Remainder Theorem

Let m1 , m2 , . . . , mr be co-prime integers, and let a1 , a2 , . . . , ar be arbi-
trary integers. Then the system of congruences
⎧
⎪
⎪ n ≡ a1 (mod m1 )
⎪
⎨ n ≡ a2 (mod m2 )
..
⎪
⎪ .
⎪
⎩
n ≡ ar (mod mr )
has a solution given by
r
m
n0 = bi ai ,
i=1
mi
where m = m1 m2 . . . mr and where each bi is the solution of the congru-
ence (m/mi )bi ≡ 1 (mod mi ).

xvii
xviii Frequently used Theorems and Conjectures

Hypothesis H (or Schinzel Hypothesis)

Let  ≥ 1 and f1 (x), . . . , f (x) be irreducible polynomials with integer
coefficients and positive leading coefficient. Assume that there are no
integers > 1 dividing the product f1 (n) . . . f (n) for all positive integers
n. Then there exist infinitely many positive integers m such that all
numbers f1 (m), . . . , f (m) are primes.
This conjecture was first stated in 1958 by A. Schinzel and W. Sierpinski [181].

The abc Conjecture

Let ε > 0. There exists a positive constant M = M (ε) such that, given
any co-prime integers a, b, c verifying the conditions 0 < a < b < c and
a + b = c, we have
⎛ ⎞1+ε


c<M ·⎝ p⎠ .
p|abc

An equivalent statement is the following:

Let ε > 0. There exists a positive constant M = M (ε) such that, given
any co-prime integers a, b, c satisfying a + b = c, we have
⎛ ⎞1+ε


max{|a|, |b|, |c|} < M · ⎝ p⎠ .
p|abc

The abc Conjecture was first stated in 1985 by D.W. Masser and J. Oesterlé.
 Those Fascinating Numbers 413

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Index
(Unless indicated otherwise, the number champion, 77
at the end of each line is the one where colossally abundant, 55 440
the definition can be found in the text.) convenient, 37
Cullen, 141
deficient, 90
196-algorithm, 196 dihedral-perfect, 130
dihedral 3-perfect, 5472
abc Conjecture, page xvii
Erdős-Nicolas, 2016
Bachet Equation, 225 Euclid, 211
Beal Conjecture, 122 Euler, 272
Fermat, 17
Catalan Conjecture, 9 Fibonacci, 55
Chain Giuga, 30
Cunningham, 1 122 659 Goodstein, 3 · 2402 653 211 − 3
p2 + 1, 271 Granville, 126
Chinese Remainder Theorem, page xvii Hamilton, 923
happy, 1880
harmonic, 140
Euler Constant, page xiii Heegner, 163
Euler pseudoprime, 1 905 highly composite, 180
horse, 13
Fermat’s Last Theorem, page 55 ideal, 390
Fermat’s Little Theorem, page xvii insolite, 111
Keith, 197
Height of a prime number, 283 k-composite, 1428
Hypothesis H, page xvii k-hyperperfect, 21
k-perfect, 6
Index of composition, 629 693
k-powerful, 841
Index of isolation, 2737
Lucas, 613
Kaprechar Constant, 495 Lucas-Carmichael, 399
Markoff, 433
Median value, 37 multi-perfect, 140
Mirimanoff Congruence, 1 006 003 narcissistic, 88
Niven, 110
Number non deficient primitive, 945
abundant, 348 palindrome, 26
Amicable, 220 pentagonal, 210
Apéry, 1445 perfect, 6
automorphic, 76 perfect Canada, 125
Bell, 52 Perrin, 271 441
Bernoulli, 30 persistence k, 679
bizarre, 70 Phibonacci, 1 037
Canada perfect, 125 powerful, 23
Carmichael, 561 prime, 2
Catalan, 14 pseudo-perfect, 12

425
426 Jean-Marie De Koninck

Ramanujan, 1 729 Strong pseudoprime, 2047

Ruth-Aaron, 714 Sub-factorial function, 148 349
Sastry, 183 Syracuse Conjecture, 41
self contained, 293
self described, 6 210 001 000 von Sterneck Conjecture, 7 725 038 629
self replicating, 954
Sierpinski, 78 557 Waring Problem, 4
Smith, 22 Wieferich prime pair, 2903
S-perfect, 126
squarefull, 23
square pyramidal, 208 335
star, 121
Stern, 137
sublime, 12
superabundant, 110 880
super-prime, 73 939 133
symmetric, 35853
tetrahedral, 10
triangular, 3
trimorphic, 491
tri-perfect, 120
vampire, 1260
voracious, 1807
unitary hyperperfect, 288
unitary perfect, 6
Wieferich, 16 547 533 489 305
Wilson, 5 971
Woodall, 115

Palindrome (see palindrome number)

Prime
Euler pseudoprime, 1905
Fermat, 17
Fibonacci pseudoprime, 323
irregular, 59
Lucas, 613
Mersenne, 3
regular (see irregular prime)
twin, 35
Wieferich, 1093
Wilson, 5
Wolstenholme, 16 843
Prime Number Theorem, page xvii
Pseudoprime in base a, 91

Riemann Hypothesis, 5041

Riemann Zeta Function, 177

Schinzel Hypothesis (see Hypothesis H)