English and Englishes
cultures, perspectives, and values. It can also help them develop
Universal Grammar vs Linguistic Universal
Noam Chomsky is credited with revolutionizing the linguistics field by
introducing the Chomsky hierarchy, generative grammar and the concept of a
universal grammar, which underlies all human speech and is based in the
innate structure of the mind/brain.
Linguistic Universal - is a pattern that occurs systematically across natural
languages, potentially true for all of them. For example, All languages have
nouns and verbs, or If a language is spoken, it has consonants and vowels.
 2 type of universal
•Statistical – ito Yung rule na may exemption like sa plural magdagdag ng
“s” like cats at Ang exemption ay mag dagdag Ng “ed” like children
•Absolute - ito Yung rule na maa-apply sa lahat Ng language
•Explanation for universals
1. Monogenesis hypothesis – is the theory of human origins which
posits a common descent for all human races.
 Mga language na nangaling sa sinaunang language.
2. Language Contact Hypothesis - ito Yung na influence Ng another
language gaya Ng Filipino na influence ng iba
3. Innateness- rules for language acquisition are innate, meaning all
humans hold an inborn and natural capacity for language. This
language theory argues that this innate feature is activated during
infancy by minimal environmental stimuli.
 ito Yung literal na nakakapag salita Tayo Ng language dahil Yung
body natin ay built for speaking at meron tayong L.A.D
(Language Acquisition Device)
•Universal grammar - is the idea na lahat Ng bata ay kayang matuto ng kahit
Anong language so ibig Sabihin may pagkakagaya at pagkakaiba Ang lahat
Ng language dahil dun binuo ni Noam Chomsky Yung
• principle and parameters
 ito Yung SOV and VSO pattern
 (SUBJECT)(OBJECT)(VERB)
 (VERB)(SUBJECT)(OBJECT)
•Recursion- is the repeated sequential use of a particular type of linguistic
element or grammatical structure. Another way to describe recursion is
linguistic recursion. More simply, recursion has also been described as the
ability to place one component inside another component of the same kind.
 This is sentences within a sentence
STANDARD ENGLISH
 In an English-speaking country, Standard English is the variety of
English that has undergone substantial regularisation and is
associated with formal schooling, language assessment, and
official print publications, such as public service announcements
and newspapers of record
 A standard language is a variety of language that is used by
governments, in the media, in schools and for international
communication.
Multilingualism on Language Learning
 Chomsky's theory of language acquisition argues that human
brain structures naturally allow for the capacity to learn and use
languages. Chomsky believed that rules for language acquisition
are innate (inborn) and strengthen naturally as humans grow and
develop.
 Multilingualism – is the ability to speak, understand, read, and
write more than one language.
 It can be individual or societal, depending on whether a person or
a community uses multiple languages.
 Multilingualism can also be classified into different types, such as
additive or subtractive, balanced or dominant, sequential or
simultaneous, depending on how languages are acquired, used,
and valued.
 Language is a powerful tool for communication, learning, and
cultural expression. It is also a key aspect of human development
and identity. However, in a diverse and multilingual country like
India, language can also pose significant challenges for education.
 Learning multiple languages can expose students to different
intercultural competence, which is the ability to communicate
effectively and appropriately with people from diverse
backgrounds.
Animal Consciousness and Communication
 Animal consciousness, or animal awareness, is the quality or state
of self-awareness within an animal, or of being aware of an
external object or something within itself.
Transmission in Animal Language
HOW DO ANIMALS COMMUNICATE???
ANIMALS COMMUNICATE BY USING SIGNALS AND THERE ARE
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SIGNALS THAT ANIMALS USE IN ORDER TO
COMMUNICATE, WE HAVE:
 VISUAL
 AUDITORY
 TACTILE
 CHEMICAL
Visual Communication Using their sense of sight, they are able to convey
their message to one another. It comes in two forms: badges and displays.
Badges refers to the physical appearance of an animal that hold certain
meaning for their kind. Displays, on the other hand, are the animal behaviors.
EXAMPLE: DOG’S TAIL WAGGING, SNAKE’S INFLATING IT’S HOOD,
FIREFLIES GLOWS TO ATTRACT MATES
Auditory Communication It involves the use of hearing, on which animals
produce sounds that conveys different meanings. The hissing, barking,
purring, and growling are some of the examples of auditory communication.
The sounds that they produce maybe used to ward off threats, attract mates, or
express feelings of pain or happiness.
EXAMPLE: DOG’S BARK, SNAKE’S RATTLE TO WARN PREDATORS,
CAT’S MEOW, BIRD’S CHIRPING, DOLPHINS AND WHALES
(ECHOLOCATION)
Tactile Communication They also use the sense of touch to convey
messages. They use this form of communication to show comfort or fear,
affection, and power.
EXAMPLE: Cat’s Rubbing, Dog’s Licking,
Chemical Communication Some animals also use pheromones or chemical
markings to attract mate, ward off threats, and mark their territories. They do
that by releasing or leaving their own signature scent.
EXAMPLE: Cat’s Scent to mark as territory, Skunks bad smell to keep
predators and threats away, Ants use pheromones to follow each other
HOW DOES ANIMALS TRANSMIT MESSAGE FROM ONE
ANOTHER?
Transmission Process
 The Message
This is where the process of communication begin. The message - an idea or
information, is being formulated.
 The sender encodes the message into a signal
The animal sender converts the message into its distinct signal whether
visually, auditorily, tactilely, or chemically, and emits it towards the receiver.
 The signal travels through the channel of transmission
The signal propagates toward the path. This procedure is being tested by
external barriers, such as background noises and anything that could affect or
degrade the signal.
 The receiver receives the signal and decodes it
The transmitted signal is perceived by the receiver.
 The receiver produces a response if applicable
The feedback of the receiver towards the perceived message, in the form of
another distinct signal.
 Response (Signal) FEEDBACK

Origin of Language
Written and Spoken Language
 The origin of language (spoken and signed, as well as language-
related technological systems such as writing), its relationship with
human evolution, and its consequences have been subjects of
study for centuries.
 Scholars wishing to study the origins of language must draw
inferences from evidence such as the fossil record, archaeological
evidence, contemporary language diversity, studies of language
acquisition, and comparisons between human language and
systems of communication existing among animals (particularly
other primates).
 The language dates back to roughly 150,000 years ago. However,
all the linguistic evidence dates back to around 6000 years ago,
when writing began. Consequently, the major history of language
is discovered through guesses and written evidence that is much
newer than the era that the linguists study.
 The origin of language can be sub-divided according to some
underlying assumptions:
 "Continuity theories" build on the idea that language exhibits so
much complexity that one cannot imagine it simply appearing from
nothing in its final form; therefore it must have evolved from
earlier pre-linguistic systems among humans' primate ancestors.
 "Discontinuity theories" take the opposite approach—that
language, as a unique trait which cannot be compared to anything
found among non-humans, must have appeared fairly suddenly
during the course of human evolution.
 Some theories consider language mostly as an innate faculty—
largely genetically encoded.
 Other theories regard language as a mainly cultural system—
learned through social interaction.
 Where did language come from?
Language started around 150,000 years ago to meet humans’
communicational needs. The origin of language is under debate as evidence
of languages before writing is almost impossible to find.
 What is the origin of all languages?
One theory argues that the origin of all languages was the same, but they
slowly evolved and made thoroughly different entities, just like the animals
did. However, considering the same root for all languages requires more
evidence.
 What was the first language on earth?
The first language on earth might be the origin of all languages or a dead
language that fathered only a few of today’s languages. Since language is
150,000 years old and writing is only 6000, no written evidence of languages
before can answer this question.
 How did language start?
The origin of language was perhaps the need to communicate. Maybe the
initial words were only howls and hoots, but eventually, they evolved to form
a systematic way of communication for humans.
Features of Human Language by Hockett
Halliday's Language Functions
 Michael Halliday
- An Australian lingusitic and as to where langauge acquistion
is concerned, believes that children are motivated to
develop language because it serves certain purposes or
functions for them.
 Language Function
• Generally, language function as a tool of communication. P.W.J.
Nababan (1991:38).
• Furthermore language functions are used also to express the
purpose or aim in speaking by adapting the situation and place.
• It means that language functions have function to deliver some
meaning to the hearer to understand what the speaker’s said.
• Language functions as “the use to which language is put, the
purpose of an utterance rather than the particular grammatical
form an utterance takes”.
• People use language in order to fulfill that purpose. Each purpose
can be known as a language function.
Types of Language Function
• The first four functions help the child to satisfy physical, emotional
and social needs.
• Halliday calls them instrumental, regulatory, interactional, and
personal functions.
• The next three functions are heuristic, imaginative, and
representational.
 Regulatory
• The Regulatory Function of language is language used to influence
the behavior of others. Concerned with
persuading/commanding/requesting other people to do things
you want.
• For example: Could you like to give some money?
 Instrumental
• The Instrumental Function of language is language uses to express
what the peoples need.
• For example, I want to buy a car to make me easy for everything
 Interactional
• The Interactional Function of language is language used to
develop social relationship and ease the process of interaction,
concerned with the phobic dimension of talk.
• For example, I love you and I want to live with you forever.
 PERSONAL
• The Personal Function of language is language used to express the
personal preferences, identity, feelings, emotions, personality,
opinion and reaction of the speaker. Sometimes referred to as the
“Here I am” function announcing oneself to the world.
• For example, Toba Lake is a good place to get refreshing.
 Heuristic
• The Heuristic Function of language is used to learn and explore
the environment. Child uses language to learn, this may be
question and answers, or the kind of running commentary that
frequently accompanies children’s play.
• For example, what the tractor doing?
 Imaginative
• The Imaginative Function of language is language used to explore
the imagination or to create imaginary system or ideas and also to
tell stories, and jokes, telling fairy tales. May also accompany play
as children crate imaginary worlds, or may arise from storytelling.
• For example, a good player can make a successful in this drama.
 Representational
• The Representational Function of language is language used to
exchange information. Concerned with relay or requesting
information.
• For example, Europe Island is a place that makes us to find out our
dream.
Kachru's Concentric Circles (3)
  Braj Kachru was a Professor of Linguistics who coined the term
'World English'.
 'World English' refers to the fact that the English language has
been used as a global means of communication in numerous
dialects worldwide. It also refers to the movement towards an
'international standard' of the English language.
 Kachru constructed a model of the different uses of English
around the world. This model is comprised of three concentric
circles, which he labelled: the inner circle, the outer circle and the
expanding circle.
1) The inner circle
 The inner circle is comprised of those countries who are
considered the 'traditional bases' of English, such as the U.K.,
U.S.A, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland and Anglophone Canada.
English in these countries are classed as a 'first' language. Kachru
labels the inner circle countries as 'norm-providing' - the norms of
the English language are produced there.
2) The outer circle
 The outer circle is comprised of countries where English is not
spoken natively but is still maintained as an important language
for communication (e.g. as an official 'second' language or as the
nation's official language for business and commerce) largely due
to historical reasons.
 These countries include: India, Nigeria, the Philippines,
Bangladesh, Pakistan, Malaysia, Tanzania, Kenya, non-Anglophone
South Africa and Canada. Kachru labels these countries as 'norm-
developing' - the norms produced by the inner circle are further
developed and reproduced in the outer circle.
3) The expanding circle
 The expanding circle includes much of the rest of the world's
population - countries that do not hold historical or governmental
importance towards English, but class it as a foreign language or
lingua franca. Main examples of such countries include: most of
Europe, China, Russia, Japan, Korea, Egypt and Indonesia.
 These countries are 'norm-dependent' - they fully depend on the
norms originally produced by the native speakers of the inner
circle. They generally do not develop or reproduce 'Englishes'.
Macro Skills of English
 LISTENING
This fundamental ability involves listening to and understanding other
people's viewpoints, as well as taking in information and emotional
intelligence from spoken words. But not everyone has to hear in order to
listen. For instance, deaf people can "listen" by using sign language or lip
reading, and they can be excellent listeners in their own unique way. Gaining
an understanding of new subjects and forming meaningful relationships can
be challenging without strong listening abilities. In fact, effective listening is
one of the key elements of a strong relationship; both partners must remain
dedicated to listening to one another.
 SPEAKING
Speech is an essential form of self-expression and a necessary survival skill.
Speech can be used, for instance, to warn of danger or counter threats. One
only needs to attend a political rally and observe the crowd's unisonous
cheering or chanting to understand the extreme power of the spoken word.
Yet again, those who are unable to speak, like the brilliant scientist Steven
Hawking, find other ways to express themselves. Speech is primarily used to
convey ideas to other people.
 READING
Social advancement depends on literacy; without the reading abilities
required for an education, citizens will fall behind. Despite the fact that many
people still struggle with learning disabilities like dyslexia or illiteracy, there
are excellent new approaches for dealing with these problems. The
fundamental skill of knowledge is reading. When a child reads a picture book
with simple words or a blind person reads braille, both are using a powerful
educational tool.
 WRITING
Writing is an additional important tool that is essential for expressing
thoughts, facts, and figures. Although, typing is gradually taking its place in
society as the focus shifts to electronic devices, computer keyboards, and
texting devices, however, writing is still a must and still it has to be taught..
This is despite the fact that cursive writing and printing are still very
important in today's world.
 VIEWING
The fifth and final macro skill which has been added in recent years is
viewing. The ability to perceive, analyze, interpret, and construct meaning
from visual images is essential to improving one's comprehension of written
and nonwritten materials. It refers to perceiving, examining, interpreting, and
constructing meaning from visual images. Especially in recent years when
technology use has exponentially risen, viewing is used more often. As the
learners are exposed to various forms of media, this is the skill that needs to
be taught to them not only to learn how to view but how to be responsible
viewers..
OTTO JESPERON'S LANGUAGE ORIGIN HYPOTHESES
 OTTO JESPERSEN
• Otto Harry Jespersen (born July 16, 1860, Randers, Den.-died April
30, 1943, Roskilde)
• Danish linguist and a foremost authority on English grammar. He
helped to revolutionize language teaching in Europe, contributed
greatly to the advancement of phonetics, linguistic theory, and the
history of English.
5 Classified Theories of Language Origin:
1. Bow-wow Theory
• Language began as imitations of natural sounds -- moo,
choo-choo, crash, clang, buzz, bang, meow. This is
more technically referred to as onomatopoeia or
echoism.
2. Pooh-Pooh Theory
• Language began with interjections, instinctive emotive
cries such as oh! for surprise and ouch! for pain.
3. Ding-Dong Theory
• This theory maintains that speech arose in response to
the essential qualities of objects in the environment.
The original sounds people made were supposedly in
harmony with the world around them.
4. La-La Theory Sing-Song Theory
• La-la theory is the name of one of the speculative
theories about the origins of language. This theory
claims that speech originated in song, play, laughter,
and other aspects of romantic side of life. It also argues
some of our first words were long and musical rather
than short grunts some theories suppose we started
with.
• The sing-song theory. Jesperson suggested that
language comes out of play, laughter, cooing,
courtship, emotional mutterings and the like. He even
suggests that, contrary to other theories, perhaps
some of our first words. were actually long and
musical, rather than the short grunts many assume we
started with.
5. Yo-He-Ho Theory
Language evolved from the grunts, groans, and snorts evoked by
heavy physical labor.