Colorimetry

1. Introduction

2. Basics

3. Light and Surface Colors

4. Color Systems

5. CIE Standard Observer

6. Color Spaces

7. Measuring Instruments and

Measurement Methods

8. Limits of Colorimetry

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 Colorimetry
1. Introduction
When the terms color and color perception
are used, it is important to know that their
assessment is always subjective. People per-
ceive color individually, and you won’t find
two individuals who assess all colors in ex-
actly the same way.
Even the term “color” may have different me-
anings, and, just as its perception and assess-
ment, it is not absolutely clear. Color may be
used in connection with a dyeing substance
which due to its properties tints or “paints”
objects, as, for example, inks, printing inks
and varnishes.
They change the visual appearance of an ob-
ject or an area and, as a result, the color per-
ception of the viewer. In addition, the term
“color” can describe the perceived hue and/
or color shade of an object or an area.
While the variety of the colors is magnificent,
it also makes precise and uniform reproduc-
tion very difficult for the printing industry.
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The very fact that the eyes of every individu-
Trichromacy
al react differently to the spectral characteri- All colors can be mixed
stics of light give an idea why it is so difficult by using Iight sources
to assess color objectively. Color perception of three different colors
differs only slightly from individual to indivi- of variable intensity, so
that any other color can
dual, but in critical cases this may, neverthe- be produced. This is the
less, result in misunderstanding. most important property
of human color percepti-
Let’s take, for instance, turquoise and its vi- on.
sual assessment. This color may cause com-
pletely different perceptions and color sen-
sations. For some, it is more a greenish tone,
while others are absolutely convinced that it
is more a blue shade.
Color sensation and human color perception
are influenced by different factors to a lesser
or greater extent. Besides the type of light in
which color is viewed, the size of the viewing
area and the immediately adjacent colors
will play an important part.
2
 Colorimetry
1. Introduction
Color perception is, in addition, influenced by
the emotional and physical condition of the
viewer. Furthermore, congenital defective vi-
sion (monochromacy or dichromacy) has an
influence on the processing and interpretati-
on of color stimuli.
Summing up, one can say that the following
factors influence the subjective color percep-
tion of an individual and make objective as-
sessments impossible:
• Light source
• Adjacent colors
• Adjacent areas
• Surface characteristics
• Mental condition
• Individual spectral color sensitivity (eye)
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As a result, it must be possible to evaluate
Monochromacy
the subjective color sensation in an objective Organisms with just one
way by means of measuring instruments color receptor (red, green,
and mathematical formulae. This is the star- blue or UV) are mono-
ting point of colorimetry and its approach to chromats. They are una-
the assessment of different colors and their ble to see different colors,
interrelations in quantitative (numerical) but can only perceive dif-
terms. ferent shades of grey.
For a better understanding of the “color vi- Dichromacy
sion” process, it is first of all divided into its Organisms with only two
single components. Of these, the componen- types of cones for the per-
ts light, surface and eye shall be examined in ception of color are called
more detail. dichromats. Persons with
one deficient color recep-
tor are dichromats, too.
3
 Colorimetry
2. Basics – Light
Light as a physical parameter
Light which is visible for the human eye lies
within a specific range of electromagnetic
radiation. This spectrum comprises wave-
lengths from 380 - 780 nm with small diffe-
rences from individual to individual as regards
the minimum and maximum values.
We can see the color of objects and areas
because some parts of the incident rays of
light are reflected and some parts are ab-
sorbed. Objects and areas can absorb or re-
flect only the range of wavelengths of the
radiation contained in the incident light.
Therefore, it is obvious that the spectral
composition of light plays an important
part in the assessment of colors.
The spectral composition of natural light
strongly depends on the time of the day and
year. In the morning and in the evening, sun-
light looks redder. This phenomenon is due
to the fact that the short-wave blue rays are
absorbed more strongly as a result of the lon-
ger distance through the atmosphere of the
earth. As a consequence, the red portion in
the light that finally arrives prevails.
Total spectrum of electromagnetic radiation
Spectrum of visible and invisible light
Spectrum of visible light
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There are also significant differences in the
composition of artificial light sources. The
light produced by an incandescent light bulb
is more reddish. A fluorescent tube, on the
other hand, produces light which is more blu-
ish. The result is that the viewing of a color
under different light sources inevitably leads
to differences in the perception of the same
color tone.
In order to be nevertheless able to measure
and assess color, it is necessary to define a
standardized light source which covers the to-
tal visible spectrum as uniformly as possible.
Color temperature
Different types of light are often defined
by specifying the color temperature. Color
temperature is determined by means of
the so-called black-body radiator (Planck’s
law).
This is an ideal black body that, due to its
characteristics, completely absorbs all light
that hits it. When heated up to a specific
temperature, the body starts to glow and
to give off light. The color of the emitted
light changes with increasing temperature
4
 Colorimetry
2. Basics – Light

from red to blue. Like melted metal, the
color of the body seems to be more and
more blue the hotter it gets.
Color temperature alone is, however, not
sufficient to draw any precise inferences
concerning the spectral composition of a
light source. Besides color temperature, the
emission intensity (intensity of radiation)
needs to be precisely defined in order to
make color matching and measurements
with different devices comparable.
Types of standard illuminants
As mentioned above, color is not a characte-
ristic of an object, but the perception of the
energy emitted or reflected by an object.
This information is converted into the sensa-
tion of color only by the eyes and the brain.
The light source and the environment must,
therefore, be standardized in order to create
reproducible conditions for color vision.
One of these standard illuminants is D50.
It is equivalent to the spectral compositi-
on of daylight with a cloudy sky in Europe.
D stands for Daylight and 50 for the color
temperature of 5000 Kelvin. Besides D50,
there are other types of illuminants standar-
dized by the CIE, e.g. D65 (6500 Kelvin).
D65 is a little bit more bluish than D50 and
is used in industry (automotive, furniture).
Use of the D50 standard illuminant is re-
quired as standard for measurements and
color matching in the graphic arts industry.
The CIE chromaticity diagram
with the Planckian locus (ra-
diation path). The color of
light changes with increasing
colour temperature.

Due to the different spectral properties of

different light sources, the CIE (see page 14)
defined standard illuminants for different
purposes. They shall feature defined spec-
tral distributions of radiation within the vi-
sible magnetic spectrum. The definition of
standard illuminants ensures that measure- Color tem-
ments and viewing are always carried out perature Light source
(in °Kelvin)
under the same conditions.
1800 K Candlelight
300 2800 K Incandescent light bulb
3400 K Halogen lamp
2000 K 4100 K Moonlight
9000 K
200 3000 K 5000 K Average sunlight (D50)
7000 K
4000 K
6000 K
5000 K
6500 K Average daylight (D65)
5000 K 6000 K
7000 K 8300 K Dull, foggy weather
4000 K 9000 K
3000 K
2000 K Sunshine in high mountain
100 15000 K
400 500 600 700 λ (nm)
chains (reflectance by snow)

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 Colorimetry
2. Basics – Surface

When light hits a body, it starts to interact hit the body. With diffuse reflection (re-
The ratio of reflected,
with it. First of all, a few terms and defini- mittance), the striking light rays are scat- transmitted or absorbed
tions for a better understanding. tered. The more specular the reflection, light in relation to the
the shinier and smoother the appearance incident light is called
Emission of the object. degree of reflectance,
transmission or absorpti-
When light is given off by primary light Transmission on. There are no objects
sources, this is called emission. Primary on earth which reflect,
light sources are all objects which emit When light passes through an object, this is transmit or absorb light
light regardless of whether or not light is called transmission. This can, for instance, completely.
directed on them, as, for instance, com- be achieved with white areas on print films
puter displays, lamp bulbs or fluorescent or with optical filters.
tubes.

Transmission

Emission
Absorption
Reflection
When part of the incident light is not re-
When light hits a body and is reflected by flected by the object, this is called absorp-
it, this is called reflection. Reflection may tion. The light is, in a way, “swallowed”. The
be directed (specular) or undirected (dif- more light the object absorbs, the darker it
fused or remitted). With directed reflec- looks.
tion, the angle of incidence equals the an-
gle of reflection. This means that the light
rays are reflected at the same angle as they

Absorption

Reflection (directional)

Reflection (diffuse)

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 Colorimetry
2. Basics – Surface
In contrast to emission which comes from a
body with its own light source, pigment or
surface Colors (see page 9) are always the
result of a combination of absorption and
reflection. Due to this interaction, we see
the body in a specific colour. This interac-
tion may differ and influence color percep-
tion depending on the texture of the body
and its surface.
As a consequence, surface Colors directly
depend on the spectral composition of the
incident light and the molecular compositi-
on of the body and are strongly influenced
by these two factors. In contrast to a light
source that can be changed, the molecu-
lar properties of a surface normally do not
change.
Light comprising all
wavelengths of the
spectrum
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Light emitted by a light source hits the sur-
face of a body. Depending on the atomic
structure of the surface, specific wave-
length ranges are absorbed by the atoms
and converted into energy (heat). The ato-
mic surface structure of a black body, for
instance, is such that it absorbs nearly all
wavelength ranges and therefore releases
a high amount of thermal energy. This also Schematic illustration of ab-
explains the effect that black bodies get sorption and reflection. The
much warmer than white ones when illu- longwave red and the short-
minated. wave blue components of the
spectrum are absorbed by the
Other wavelength ranges are reflected by atoms. As a result, only the
the body depending on the surface struc- green components are re-
ture. They hit the receptors in the eye and flected from the surface. The
thus produce the respective chromatic va- result is a green color effect.
lence in the brain (see next page). Reflection may be directional
or diffuse.
Reflected light which only con-
tains the green portions of the
incident light spectrum.
The energy of the absorbed
wavelengths is converted
into another form of energy
(heat).
7
 Colorimetry
2. Basics – the Eye

Human vision The rods and cones receive the signals

Color perception is the result of the inter-
action between the eye and the brain. It is
necessary to understand how this interac-
tion works.
The reflected light hits the human eye
with its two different kinds of receptors as
a color stimulus.
• The rods – for a distinction between
black and white; they are active in low-
light conditions, e.g. moonshine.
• The cones – for color perception with
sensitivity for the wavelength ranges of
red, green and blue.
For each of the three Colors, there is appro-
ximately the same number of cones in the
human eye.
and convert them into electrical impulses
which are then transported to the brain via
nerve pathways. The brain analyzes the im-
pulses and interprets them. This produces
the color perception (chromatic valence)
only in the brain and not in the eye already.
cones rods
Color perception in the hu-
man brain is always the result
of the interaction between
light and the illuminated
body and/or area. In this con-
nection, a difference is made
between surface colors, i.e.
that portion of light which
is reflected by an object, and
colors produced by primary
light sources , i.e. which are
directly emitted by an object
(e.g. a lamp). Which color
sensation is produced in the
brain is determined by the
wavelength of the emitted or
reflected light.

Light source Chromatic

valence
Assessment of the
incoming color
Emission stimulus and/or
(Light colors) transmitted
electrical signal by
the brain

Reflection
(Surface colors)

Emission Color stimulus

(Light colors)
Receptors
(cones and rods)
Electrical signals
transmitted by the
Light source receptors (cones) to
the brain

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 Colorimetry
3. Light and Surface Colors

Mixing of light colors

Additive color mixing
If light rays emitted by a light source reach
Primary colors (basic colors)
the eye directly and thus cause a homo-
geneous perception of color, this is called
light colors. This way of producing color ef-
fects is called additive color mixing.
Secondary colors (mixture of 2 primary colors)
Additive color mixing is based on the fact
that the spatial and/or temporal resolving
ability of the eye is not strong enough in
order to perceive incoming color sensa-
Tertiary colors (mixture of 3 primary colors)
tions separately. This fact is, for instance,
used on monitors with very small pixels
and rapidly changing colors.

The colors used in additive color mixing as

a basis are similar to the sensitivity of the
cones in the human eye – red, green and
blue. A mixture of all three primary colors
in equal portions produces white, red and
green produce the secondary color yellow,
blue and red produce magenta, and blue
and green produce cyan.
With additive color mixing, the color pro-
duced by mixing two or three primary co-
lors is always lighter than the primary co-
lors it is composed of.
green
yellow
In the real world and with real light sour-
ces, a large number, but not all colors can
be produced by mixing the three primary
colors red, green and blue. It is, e.g., not
possible to produce spectral cyan by mi-
xing red, green and blue. In purely mathe-
matical terms, it is, however, possible to
mix really all colors.
Mixing of surface colors
Surface colors are all color perceptions
which are produced by the removal of
spectral portions of light, i.e. by absorption
or transmission. Therefore, they always re-
quire a light source and a surface on which
the light rays impinge.

When surface colors are mixed (printing

white
inks during printing), this is called subtrac-
cyan
tive color mixing. Like with additive color
mixing, the low resolving ability of the
red magenta human eye is used in order to produce a
mixed color. Otherwise it would, e.g., not
be possible to produce a green color hue in
blue
four-color printing.

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 Colorimetry
3. Light and Surface Colors
yellow
red
black
green
magenta blue
cyan
The primary colors of subtractive color mi-
xing are cyan, magenta and yellow, the se-
condary colors of additive color mixing. In
contrast to additive color mixing, the color
produced by combining two colors in sub-
tractive color mixing is always darker than
the components separately.
When the three primary colors cyan, ma-
genta and yellow are mixed, the result is,
theoretically, black. They can be mixed
Subtractive color mixing
Primary colors (basic colors)
Secondary colors (mixture of 2 primary colors)
Tertiary colors (mixture of 3 primary colors)
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physically (by mixing different colorants)
CMY and CMYK
or by overprinting transparent layers of ink
In color theory, CMYK as
– like in multi-color printing. used in the printing pro-
cess does not exist. In the
In contrast to additive color mixing, during printing process, black (K)
which the spectral portions of light are ad- is added in order to im-
prove the purity of black
ded up, the result of subtractive color mi- in comparison to that
xing is generated by multiplying the spec- achieved by mixing the
tral portions. three colors, and richer
black also yields higher
Autotypical color mixing contrast.
The larger the distance of
If a combination of subtractive and addi-
viewing, the greener the ap-
tive color mixing is used for the production
pearance of the area. The
of colors, this process is called autotypical
smaller the distance, the
color mixing. This is, for instance, the case
better the perception of the
when layers of transparent inks are over-
single components and their
printed and portions of light are removed
color.
from the reflection spectrum of the prin-
ted product with each additional ink layer.
From a greater distance, the eye is, ho-
wever, not capable of perceiving single dots
that are very close to each other separately.
The result is an addition of the reflections
of the individual dots.
Primary Colors of the RGB
system (edged in red) and
secondary Colors (edged in
blue). The same colors are
applicable for the CMY sys-
tem, however, the other way
round, i.e. primary colors are
edged in blue, and the secon-
dary Colors are edged in red.
10
 Colorimetry
3. Light and Surface Colors

Ideal and real colors

To make explanations easier in color the- Cyan ideal

ory, it is assumed that colors are ideal or
pure. This means that each color theoreti-
cally only reflects a clearly limited portion
of the spectrum with uniform intensity,
while the remaining spectral parts are not
reflected.
Cyan real
In reality, the reflection spectra of the in-
dividual colors are neither clearly limited
nor of the same maximum intensity. This 380 nm Wavelength 780 nm
is due to the fact that the properties of the Ideal and real remission curves of the color cyan
pigments and dyes used for the production
of inks are not ideal. It is, in fact, nowadays
more and more difficult to deliver constant Magenta ideal
color quality in printing since there are va-
riations in the composition of the inks (pig-
mentation, i.e. the exact color coordinates
of the color).

This is the consequence of variations in the

basic materials of ink production, often
due to the use of low-quality pigments and Magenta real
dyes because of the higher price pressure
ink manufacturers are faced with.
380 nm Wavelength 780 nm
In addition, the reflection properties of the Ideal and real remission curves of the color magenta
substrate, the spectral composition of the
light source and the sensitivity curves of
the human eye are not ideal. Yellow ideal

Yellow real

380 nm Wavelength 780 nm

Ideal and real remission curves of the color yellow

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 Colorimetry
4. Color Systems

The classification of colors in accordance

Chromaticity change Chromatic colors
with objective criteria requires color sys- (from green to red) Within the meaning of
tems. They shall make it easier to com- color theory, chromatic
municate and describe colors. For the colors stand for the puri-
classification of colors, parameters for the ty of the spectral colors,
i.e. maximum degree of
description of colors must be defined. For
saturation.
this purpose, hue, lightness and saturation
(chromaticity) which correspond approxi-
mately with human color perception are Achromatic colors
Achromatic colors are co-
best suited. 380 nm Wavelength 780 nm
lors with no color effect.

Hue describes which wavelength of the vi-

sible spectrum reaches the eye. It defines
Changes in lightness
whether a color is perceived as red, green (lighter and at the same
or blue. time more chromatic)

The intensity of the light radiation emitted

by a color is called lightness. As a general
rule: The higher the lightness of the color,
the higher the radiation intensity.

380 nm Wavelength 780 nm

Saturation describes how intense (brilliant)
a color appears with constant lightness. It
defines how strongly the appearance of a
color shifts from chromatic towards achro- Changes in
saturation
matic (white, grey and/or black) as a result (more saturated, at
of reflection. As a consequence, saturation the same time
more chromatic)
of a color is highest when the color reflects
light of a single wavelength. On the other
hand, saturation is at its lowest level when
all wavelengths are reflected in the same
way.
380 nm Wavelength 780 nm
Color mixing systems

Color mixing systems are compilations de- Color order systems

fined by the manufacturers at will. As to
perception, they are not equidistant. This
means that the color differences perceived
by the human eye are not reflected in the
color specification of such systems. The
best known color mixing systems are HKS,
RAL and PANTONE.
In contrast to a color mixing system, a co-
lor order system is a compilation of color
samples which are arranged in such a way
that the color difference is perceived as Color fans of the PANTONE
equidistant. This means that the color dif- (top) und HKS (bottom) color
ferences perceived by the viewer are also mixing systems

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 Colorimetry
4. Color Systems

considered in the arrangement of the co- on the CIE standard chromatic valences. Ex-
lors. So, when color differences are percei- amples are: the CIE color space, the CIELAB
ved as larger, the spatial distance between color space and the CIELUV color space.
colors within the color order system is lar-
ger as well. This is so irrespective of the lo-
cation of the colors in the respective order
system.

Color order systems are used to commu-

nicate colors which can be reproduced in
the printing industry. They can be used as
references and as guidance in the selection
of colors. The most well-known color order
systems are the American Munsell System,
the DIN color chart (according to DIN 6164)
as well as the Swedish NCS system.

Color space systems

Color space systems are color order sys-

tems based on valence-metric measure-
ments. They try to make the visual appea-
rance of colors definable and measurable
by means of coordinate systems. Within
the color space systems, each color is at a
specific location which is described and, as
a result, uniquely defined by chromaticity
coordinates. Color space systems are based

Schematic illustration of the

Munsell color system which is
widely used in the USA

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 Colorimetry
5. CIE Standard Observer

CIE standard observer color V by manipulating three separate

As mentioned above, the “perception of co-
lor” is a very subjective process and differs
from individual to individual. Establishing
this at an objective level requires a scien-
tific assessment of the “color perception”
process and models for their description.
Two of the color spaces developed by the
CIE are CIExyz and CIEL*a*b*. These color
spaces describe the total range of colors
which the human eye can perceive. Both
color spaces are based on the standard
chromatic valences established by the CIE
in 1931.
knobs for the primary chromatic valences
red, green and blue. So the experiment de-
termines which portions of red, green and
blue are perceived by the observers under
illumination of a specific wavelength. The
measured values were averaged and are
the mathematical basis of “color percepti-
on”.
The standard chromatic valence system
originally developed by the CIE (CIE 1931)
uses measurement values which were
viewed through a 2° angle. This is approxi-
mately equivalent to a view on a Euro coin
from a viewing distance of 30cm.
CIE (Comission Interna-
tionale de l‘Eclairage or
International Commission
on Illumination)
The CIE is an independent
non-profit organisation. It
is devoted to the coordina-
tion of worldwide coopera-
tion and the exchange of
information on all matters
relating to the science of
light and lighting. Since
1931, it has developed
color spaces and provided
theoretical basic concepts
for colorimetry. The CIE is
recognized by ISO as an
international standardi-
zation body.

These standard chromatic valences were
established by means of a standard obser-
ver defined by the CIE and were derived
mathematically. The basic values of this
mathematical derivation are the result of
a series of experiments carried out with a
group of persons who were faced with the
following scenario:
Accidentally, this also corresponds with the
typical viewing distance to the computer
monitor – computer graphics are nearly
completely based on the 2° observer. At
this field of view, human color perception
is particularly good.
Standard chromatic valences

The “observer“ sees a test color at a speci-
fic wavelength (e.g. a yellow hue) and can
produce (mix) a match of the unknown
In order to provide a standard system in
line with the human eye, the CIE derived
three fictive characteristic values – X (red),
Schematic illustration of the
series of experiments carried
out by the CIE for the deter-
mination of the standard va-
lences

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 Colorimetry
5. CIE Standard Observer

and y coordinates. The coordinates are the

2° and 10°
2° result of the standard spectral values x and The 2° standard obser-
y which were determined by the CIE stan- ver is used as a basis of
10° dard observers. measurements in the
printing industry.
Difference between the size of the field of vision The spectrally pure Colors lie on the cur- The 10° standard obser-
with a viewing angle of 2° and 10°. The area in- ved edge of the chromaticity chart, called ver is used in all other in-
creases from 1cm (2°) to 5.25cm (10°). spectral locus. The straight line at the low- dustries working with co-
er end from blue to red is called purple line. lor (e.g. varnish producers,
Y (green) and Z (blue). All perceivable Colors All perceivable colors are located between chemical industry).
can be reproduced by means of these three the spectral locus and the purple line.
standard chromatic valences. They descri-
be the wavelength ranges which produce a Due to the mathematical principle appli-
colour stimulus in the brain corresponding cable to the chromatic valences, the two
X
with those established by the CIE standard coordinates x and y are sufficient to define x = _________ red
observer. each colour. (X + Y + Z)

The chromatic valences are the mathema-

Y
tical basis for the development and deriva- y = _________ green
tion of device-independent color spaces. In (X + Y + Z)
terms of mathematics: When two of the
three chromatic valences are given, the Y
Z
z = _________
1
third can be calculated, since the sum of all blue
3 valences must always be 1. (X + Y + Z)
520

CIE chromaticity chart

A
Hue
x+y+z=1

The chromaticity chart developed by the 500

CIE is a two-dimensional coordinate sys-

tem. Within this system, all perceivable D50
600

0,333 E
Colors can be described by means of the x 750-750

380-400
0,333 1 X

Bild 8_24

Graphic illustration of the standard valences X, Y

and Z determined by the CIE

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 Colorimetry
6. Color Spaces
While colour systems are used to display
colour samples according to pre-defined
criteria, the colour spaces are needed as
instruments to make all Colors measurable
that can be displayed in a specific process.
Color spaces are three-dimensional repre-
sentations in which every colour is preci-
sely defined by coordinates located within
the color space. Within the color spaces,
the transitions between the different co-
lors are basically progressive (continuous).
The term used for describing the position
of a color exactly defined by the chromatic
values (coordinates) is called chromaticity
coordinates.
Color spaces differ essentially as to the
amount of Colors they comprise, and they
are either device-dependent or device-
independent. There are a lot more device-
dependent color spaces than device-inde-
pendent color spaces, since every device
that is capable of displaying color has its
own color space.
Device-independent color spaces
Color spaces are always device-indepen-
dent if they comprise all colors that the hu-
man eye can perceive and if every color is
clearly defined mathematically. Definition
may be by Cartesian coordinates (CIElab)
or polar coordinates (CIEluv). For an unam-
biguous definition of colors within a color
space, three coordinates are required.
For this, the two-dimensional CIE chroma-
ticity chart with the axes x and y is used
as a basis. The CIExyz color space is created
by expanding it with the third dimension
of the achromatic axis z. Extension by the
third axis z is necessary since the two exi-
©Training Center for Print & Media, 2010, www.printingschool.info – www.printpromotion.de
sting axes x and y only describe hue and
saturation. The achromatic axis and/or
standard colour value z was added in or-
der to define lightness as the third relevant
characteristic of color.
The standard colour value z is determined
using the values from 0 (black) to 100
(white). The locus of the achromatic point
is determined by the type of illuminant
(standard: D50). Saturation increases with
increasing distance from the achromatic
point.
The CIExyz color space is, however, not sui-
ted for the printing industry since it is not
perceived as being equidistant, just like the
CIExy chromaticity diagram.
For a color space to be perceived as equi-
distant, the spaces between two Colors
determined by measurements must also
comply with the optical differences. This
must be guaranteed irrespective of the ar-
rangement of Colors in the colour system.
z
Extension of the CIExy stan-
dard chromaticity diagram
by the third dimension Z. The
achromatic point (red circle)
y
x
is defined by the type of illu-
minant (see Standard types of
illuminants, Page 5).
The fact that the CIExyz color space does
not satisfy the condition of perceived equi-
distance was discovered by William D. L.
MacAdam.
16
 Colorimetry
6. Color Spaces

ted at the end of the negative range. At the

positive end of the b* axis, there is the color
yellow, and at the negative end, there is the
color blue.
The CIEL*a*b* color space is, however, also
a color space which is perceived as being
only nearly equidistant. Distances bet-
ween Colors in very chromatic ranges are
perceived as greater than identical color di-
stances measured close to the achromatic
axis.
CIELAB and CIEL*a*b*
The asterisks in L*a*b* have
a historical meaning – sin-
ce a Lab model had already
existed, the asterisks were
added in the 1976 model
which is perceived as near-
ly equidistant.

The MacAdam ellipses within the CIExy color di-

agram. For the human eye, colors within the el-
lipses are visually indistinguishable.

He discovered that the observer perceives

geometric spaces in the blue range much
more strongly than in the range of green
hues. Consequently, the human eye can
distinguish between different blue hues
much better than between different green
hues. A schematic illustration of this dis-
covery is given in the so-called MacAdam
Schematic illustration of the
ellipses.
CIEL*a*b* color space as to its
shape (top) and color spectrum
CIE L*a*b* color space
(bottom)

In the CIELAB color space, the three para- L white

meters describing a colour are defined by
the axes L*, a* und b*. L* defines the light-
ness of a color, which may be between 0 +b
yellow
and 100. The higher the L* value of a color,
the lighter is the described color. -a
green
+a
red
-b
blue
The values for the a* and b* axes may be
both positive and negative. On the a* axis,
the color red is located at the end of the
positive range, and the color green is loca-
L black

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 Colorimetry
6. Color Spaces

DIN ISO 13655 (the standard for “Spectral

The color difference ena-
measurement and colorimetric computa- ΔE*ab =√(ΔL*)² + (Δa*)² +(Δb*)² bles to define colors ob-
tion for graphic arts images”) requires for jectively and to check
the printing industry that only color coor- them in qualitative terms
dinates be used which are based on the CIE ΔL* =L*1- L*2 in addition to their visual
effect. The larger the color
L*a*b* color space. The standard series ISO Δa*=a*1- a*2 difference, the stronger
12647 also exclusively uses this color space the visual perception.
Δb*=b*1- b*2
for the definition of reference values for
process control in printing.
Determination of the dimensionless parameter
Delta E and the formula used
Besides the CIE L*a*b* color space which is
relevant for the printing industry, there is
also the CIE LCH color space. Like the CIE
L*a*b* color space, it is device-independent
and perceptually nearly equidistant.
Schematic illustration of the
Colour difference Delta E calculation of the color diffe-
rence ∆E*ab
For colorimetry and the efforts to make co-
lor measurable, it is often more important
to determine the distance between two
colors (reference value – actual value) than
to determine the locus of an individual co-
lor within a color space.

Therefore, determination of the colour

difference Delta E (∆E*ab) is the most im-
portance reference value for a description
of colors and their mutual relationship for
all processes involved in the printing in-
dustry. The calculation is done using the
Pythagorean Theorem.

Color difference ΔE Effect

< 0.2 not visible
0.2 - 1.0 very little
1-3 little
3-6 medium
>6 strong

Assessment of determined Delta E values and

their effect on the viewer

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 Colorimetry
6. Color Spaces

Device-dependent color spaces RGB

Every device capable of displaying or out-
putting color has its own color space (co-
lor gamut) which, in most cases, is based
on the RGB or CMY(K) color model. This
results in partly substantial differences
in the display and reproduction of colors
between the individual devices involved in
the production process.
No device-dependent color space covers
all perceivable colors since it always com-
prises fewer colors than device-indepen-
dent color spaces like CIE L*a*b* or CIE LCH.
In addition, RGB color spaces are mostly
much bigger than CMYK color spaces. On
the other hand, this does not mean that
every RGB color space is capable of displa-
ying all colors of a CMYK color space.
The RGB color space is always used when
colors are digitized (scan, digital photogra-
phy) and/ or displayed on a monitor and/
or display, respectively.
Besides the differences between the color
spaces CIEL*a*b*, RGB and CMYK, there are
also substantial differences in the scope
and amount of colors that can be repre-
sented within the color spaces based on
the same color model. The RGB color space
Schematic illustration of dif-
is based on additive color mixing and, as
ferent color spaces and color
a result, the primary Colors red, green and
ranges within the CIExy stan-
blue. Every primary color can describe
dard chromaticity diagram

The scope of the color space is influenced

by the output device (printing machine,
monitor, ….), the inks used as well as the
substrate.

Color gamut
of a slide (RGB)

Color gamut
of a monitor
(RGB)

Color gamut
of offset prin-
ting (CMYK)

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 Colorimetry
6. Color Spaces

256 different tonal grades. With all three
Colors (256) combined, this means that,
theoretically, a range of up to 16.7 million
colors can be represented.
The scope of the colour space, however, al-
ways depends on the device used. In order
to avoid and/or remove this drawback, the
devices must be described by dedicated
color profiles in which a corresponding LAB
value is allocated to specific RGB values.
major visual differences. The creation of
such a color profile is absolutely necessary
for every device involved in the reproduc-
tion process. This is the only way to ensure
reliable assessment and representation of
colors.
In practice, the sRGB color space for digital
media and the ECI-RGB color space for the
print media have proved to produce the
best results.

This enables to convert colour values bet-

ween different RGB color spaces without

Wide Gammut RGB

Adobe RGB

ECI RGB

sRGB (standardRGB)

Schematic illustration of different RGB color spaces and color ranges within the CIExy
standard chromaticity diagram

©Training Center for Print & Media, 2010, www.printingschool.info – www.printpromotion.de 20

 Colorimetry
6. Color Spaces

3D illustration of different
RGB color spaces. There is a
clear difference between the
smaller sRGB color space (bot-
tom) and the larger Adobe
RGB color space (top).
For the calculation and deter-
mination of the color coordi-
nates and the size of all color
spaces, the CIEL*a*b* color
space was taken as a basis.

The miniatures edged in green

clearly show the differences
in the amount of colors that
can be represented (the color
gamut) within different RGB
color spaces.

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 Colorimetry
6. Color Spaces

CMYK fourth printing ink in order to obtain im-

Four-colour printing is based on the theo-
ry of subtractive color mixing. In practice,
color perception of printed products is cre-
ated with an autotypical process, i.e. by a
combination of subtractive and additive
color mixing.
proved shadow details and to be able to
produce rich black.
In addition, the use of black as a fourth
printing ink enables to print black text with
just one color. This increases reliability in
production, since unwanted white gaps
cannot occur, and it enables to save expen-
sive printing inks, to limit ink application
and thus to reduce drying times.

100 % C
100 % K 100 % M
Scanners and Slides Monitor Print
digital cameras 100 % Y
The closer one gets to the final reproduction of
As a general rule it can be said that color
color, the smaller are the color gamuts and color
spaces using the CMYK model as a basis
Schrift: Myriad Pro Semibold

spaces.
can produce a much lower number of co-
Like in the RGB color system, three Colors lors than RGB color spaces.
would, in theory, be sufficient for a pre-
cise and unequivocal definition of all co-
lors which can be represented. 100% of
the three primary Colors C, M and Y would
produce black. In practice, it has, however,
been found that Black (K) is needed as a

Printing with a combination

of C, M, Y without K (black) on
the image at the bottom. The
A
image on top shows combined
printing of all colors (CMYK).

A comparison of Adobe RGB (A) and ISOcoated v2 CMYK (B). Despite the larger gamut, the RGB color
space does not cover all colors which can be printed in the CMYK color space (red circle).

©Training Center for Print & Media, 2010, www.printingschool.info – www.printpromotion.de 22

 Colorimetry
6. Color Spaces
Color space extensions
The CMYK color space and as a result, the
spectrum of producible colors can be ex-
tended by printing more than four Colors.
The PANTONE Hexachrome system, for in-
stance, uses green and orange in addition
to the (finest quality) CMYK inks. This ena-
bles to produce more, richer and brighter
color hues.
©Training Center for Print & Media, 2010, www.printingschool.info – www.printpromotion.de
3D illustration of the ISO Coa-
ted V2 color space for coated
papers
3D illustration of the ISO
Newspaper gamut for news-
paper printing. It can clearly
be seen that the gamut of the
color space in newspaper prin-
ting is much smaller.
This, however, also means that six color se-
parations and special separation software
are needed. Other examples of color space
extensions are seven-color printing (CMY,
RGB, K) and the Eder Multi Color System.
They are all applied in packaging printing
where saturated and pure colors are of cru-
cial importance.
23
 Colorimetry
7. Measuring Instruments and Measurement Methods
The basic principles of an objective mathe-
matical representation of colors were descri-
bed in the previous chapters with reference
to color theory. Now, this theory shall be
applied in practice using Measuring Instru-
ments and Measurement Methods.
The measuring instruments used in prepress
and printing differ with regard to their struc-
ture and functional principles even though
this is often not evident when looking at
their design. The result is that some of them
are only suited to check single specific para-
meters. Other devices have been designed
for a much wider range of applications and
are only restricted by the software used.
So there are different Measuring Instru-
ments and Measurement Methods to check
the parameters which are important for the
process concerned. Depending on the struc-
tural design of the measuring instrument,
the measurement modes may be from
manual to fully automated. A difference is
made between hand-held devices with (see
Techkon Spektrodens) or without (see iOne)
a display as well as automated scanning ta-
bles (see Spectroscan) or systems coupled
to the printing machine (see Image Control).
They are, of course, only examples of the
great variety of different designs and appli-
cation scenarios.
Basically, a difference is made between the
measurements of Colors using spectral or
densitometric values. Nowadays, densito-
metric measurement is mainly used in the
printing shop for the determination of the
ink film thickness on the substrate or the
calibration of monitors by means of a three-
filter color meter (colorimeter).
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Spectral measurements for the determina-
tion of CIE L*a*b* values, on the other hand,
can be used at every production level.
Measurement conditions
For measurements to be repeatable and
comparable, the measurement conditions The Techkon spectral densito-
were defined in an ISO standard, i.e. ISO meter for the measurement
13655 which describes all important para- of density values
meters.
• Measurement geometry: 0/45° or 45/0°
• Standard observer: 2°
• Illuminant: D50 (5000 K)
• Value: L*, a*, b* (CIELab)
• Backing: Matt black or white substrate
• Process control: Color management The iOne spectrophotometer
• Calculation of color deviation: ΔE*ab in for manual measurement of
accordance with CIELab1976 color values
Many of these parameters cannot be in-
fluenced by the user, but are (correctly) set
by the device and software. Often, too litt-
le attention is, however, attached to the
measurement backing and/or it is simply
neglected. In most cases, all measurements
are compared with reference values – which The X-Rite (Gretag) Spectro-
were also produced on a specific measure- lino + SpectroScan x/y table
ment backing. Their hue should always be for automated measurement
the same because otherwise faults will be of color values
measured at places where they do not actu-
ally occur.
This fact is especially important with thin
paper, which, in the worst case, printed
on both sides, allows the backing to shi-
ne through (and to be measured as well).
In practice, measurements are, therefore,
made in the prepress stage on a white ba- A measurement system cou-
cking (three layers of the substrate) and in pled with the control stand of
the printing stage on a black backing. a printing press (Heidelberg
Image Control)
24
 Colorimetry
7. Measuring Instruments and Measurement Methods
Densitometers
One of the most important measurement
and control methods for the printing in-
dustry is densitometry. It gives information
about the ink film transferred onto the sub-
strate as well as the area coverage on the
printing form created by screening.
The densitometer is used to describe the ink
film thickness of reflective/opaque originals
and the transmission density of transparen-
cies by means of measurement values. In
addition, they enable to determine dot gain
and continuous tone values.
Depending on the type of design and
construction, a densitometer is equipped
with defined and fixed status filters (color
filters) which filter light of the corresponding
wavelength. Densitometers offering more
flexibility in use make spectral measure-
ments and are not limited to pre-defined co-
lor filters and their spectral properties. There
are two different types of densitometers
• Densitometers with status filters
• Spectral densitometers
Densitometers with status filters
Nowadays, densitometers with status filters
are standard in the media industry and are
primarily used for four-colour printing. The
function of status filters (also called color fil-
ters) is to separate the colors CMYK.
In order to measure each color separately,
there is a photo element behind every co-
lor filter which converts the remitted light
into electrical impulses and transforms it
into densitometric parameters which are
then shown on the display of the device.
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This enables to draw conclusions as to the
thickness of the ink film on the substrate.
For evaluation, the ink film color with the
highest density value is used. The reason is
that the other colors have to a large extent
been absorbed by this ink film color so that
only “residual density values” are left.
The photo element with the highest densi-
ty values produced represents the printed
color and it is, therefore, relevant for the
evaluation. Densitometers are less suited
for measurements for the assessment of co-
lor distances and chromatic loci. For this pur-
pose, a spectrophotometer should be used.
Spectral densitometers
Spectral densitometers measure those por-
tions of light which are reflected by the light Schematic illustration of the
source over the total spectrum of visible functional principle of a den-
light, including a small part of the UV range. sitometer with status filters
C
display D 1.50 microprocessor
receiver C M Y K
colour filters
light source
polarisation filter
polarisation filter
aperture
sample
25
 Colorimetry
7. Measuring Instruments and Measurement Methods
For illumination, a light source is used which
contains portions of radiation of the total
spectrum (standard illuminant D50). The
spectral values of the reflectance curve are
then used to calculate densitometric values
with special algorithms (virtual filters).
The density curve is the reciprocal logarithm
function (mirror image) of the reflectance
curve. This reflectance curve is some kind of
color “fingerprint”.
For the measurement of surface colors, neu-
tral white light is produced with a light sour-
ce. This polychromatic light is diffracted into
monochromatic light (spectral portions) by
a prism, diffraction grating or a filter with a
narrow bandwidth.
A CCD (Charged Coupled Device) line records
the spectral values in width ranges from 5 to
20 nm (the smaller the bandwidth, the high-
er the accuracy of the measured value). The
respective amount of light is converted into
electrical potential and converted into digi-
tal values by a connected electronic device.
The resulting reflectance curve is converted
into the standard color values CIE XYZ by
multiplication with the standard chromatic
valences. Then, these rather inconclusive
values still need to be converted into the
CIEL*a*b* color space.
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Since spectral densitometers are full-
fledged spectrophotometers as to the
sensor technology used, the majority of
them also enable to determine the Lab
values and the Delta E color differences,
e.g. between reference and sample values.
Whether or not this is possible depends on
the software already installed in the device
or bought for it.
Possible applications
Densitometers are mostly used in printing
in order to check the printed product and to
test parameters which have a strong influ-
ence on the printing process. Determination
of ink film thickness and dot gain are the
main fields of application of densitometers.
In addition, densitometers are used to de-
termine densities and tonal values on films.
The results obtained with measurements of
halftones on printing plates are only useful
with some reservations. For this purpose,
image analyzers specially tuned to the type
of plate are better suited.
Color measurement devices
Tri-stimulus color measurement
devices (colorimeters)
In comparison with densitometers which de-
termine the density values for single colors
using color filters for C, M, Y and K, tri-stimulus
color measurement devices use only three fil-
ters for the colors red, green and blue.
This measuring principle is largely compliant
with human vision. An electronic assess-
ment system installed after the filters per-
forms the functions of the human brain and
interprets the electrical signals.
26
 Colorimetry
7. Measuring Instruments and Measurement Methods
Colorimeters are mainly used to measure colors on
monitors.
Due to their design, construction and func-
tioning, colorimeters are better suited for
measuring color differences than for deter-
mining absolute chromatic values. Another
deficit is that this device is not able to detect
and assess the occurrence of metamerism
and ink film thicknesses.
They do not need a light source of their own
since they process the light signals emitted
by a primary light source (e.g. a monitor).
Tri-stimulus measurement devices, on the
other hand, have a connectable light sour-
ce since they are also used for measuring
colors on objects and areas which do not
emit light. This type of devices is, however,
increasingly substituted by spectrophoto-
meters.
Possible applications
Colorimeters (which are rather low-priced)
are above all used for the measurement
of colors on monitors and their profiles. In
dark color ranges, the measurement results
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of colorimeters are even better than those
of spectral measurements. For the majori-
ty of applications, on the other hand, the
results provided by spectrally measuring
devices are more precise.
Spectrophotometers
Spectrophotometers measure color in the
total visible range of the spectrum of light.
They are equipped with a standard illumi-
nant (D50) and a ring-shaped optical sen-
sor. The latter enables to obtain identical
measurement results nearly independent
of the positioning of the measuring head.
In order to determine the necessary spec-
tral values of the sample to be measured,
the light that reaches the spectrophotome-
Schematic illustration of the
ter is broken up into its spectral componen-
functional principle of a tri-
ts and converted into electrical impulses. A
stimulus color measurement
CCD sensor processes these impulses and
device
L 24,5
display a 37,1 microprocessor
b -8,9
receiver X Y Z
colour filters
light source
aperture
sample
27
 Colorimetry
7. Measuring Instruments and Measurement Methods

sends them to software which then com- important (certification). In some rare cases,
putes these values mathematically. The re- spectrophotometers are also used to make
flectance curve of the colour is set off with control measurements on printing plates.
the curve of the incident light and the spec-
tral value curve of the standard color values
which enables the standard color values X, Y
and Z and subsequently the CIEL*a*b* coor-
dinates to be determined.

While spectral densitometers use a prism,

spectrophotometers use a mirror grating Measurement method
array as monochromator in order to diffract
the incident light into its spectral compon- Densitometry Color measurement
ents.

Densitometer with Assessment by Assessment by

Possible applications
optical filters color filters color filters
Spectrophotometers can be used in the to-
tal process chain from prepress to printing. Spectrally measuring
Spectral
color measurement
Typical applications include measurements densitometer
device
of control wedges on accurate and binding Spectral analysis
digital color proofs, the calibration of such
Spectrophotometer with densitometry and
systems and color measurements in printing
color measurement functions
if the determination of color coordinates is

L* L* DE
C* a*
h* b*

computer unit
light source

spectral remission The iOne spectrophotometer

380 nm 730 nm with scanning table for the
CCD - automated measurement of
color values

ring-shaped optical sensor

reflecting mirror

o°
diffraction grating

Schematic illustration of the

45°
functional principle of a spec-
color sample
trophotometer

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 Colorimetry
8. Limits of Colorimetry

Although colorimetry offers a host of pos-
sibilities to describe the phenomenon of
colour, it must be borne in mind that there
are limits in practice. The measuring in-
struments, for instance, always only scan
a small measurement patch. The human
eye, on the other hand, senses a much
larger “measurement patch" with all its
influences like illumination (metamerism),
whiteness of the substrate (optical brigh-
teners) or the interaction of individual
Colors (simultaneous contrast). Therefore,
color measurement values may be really
good, but the total impression of an image
is not right.
Metamerism
fixed in advance under which lighting con-
Metamerism index
dition color matching and color measure- For the definition of the
ment shall be carried out. This is necessary metamerism index, a pair
in order to eliminate deviations and quality of samples is measured
deficits. The compilation of a metamerism under at least two diffe-
index helps to define and classify critical rent lighting conditions
colors. (illuminants). Pairs of
samples which have a
very low color difference
under all lighting con-
ditions used are called
metamerism-free. Meta-
mers are pairs of samples
Illuminant A which are nearly identical
under one lighting con-
dition, but appear to be
clearly different under
other lighting conditions.

It may happen that two colors look iden-

tical when viewed in the same light. If,
however, another light source is used, the
colors suddenly look different. This effect
is called metamerism.

This phenomenon occurs as a result of

colors being reproduced in different pro-
cesses and of colors and/or colorants (pig-
ments or dyes) having different structures
and/or having been produced in different
Illuminant B
ways. These differences may result in the-
se colors having different reflectance spec-
tra.

Two color samples which appear the same

when viewed under the same lighting con- Schematic illustration of me-
dition and totally different when viewed tamerism which is produced
under other lighting conditions, are called by the different reflectance
conditional or metameric color matches. spectra of different light
Considering this phenomenon, it must be sources.

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 Colorimetry
8. Limits of Colorimetry

Optical brighteners in paper For paper grades without optical brighte-

Optical brighteners are often used in pa-
permaking in order to compensate for resi-
dues which were not completely removed
during the bleaching process and would,
therefore, cause yellowing afterwards.
They shall help to make the paper appear
whiter.
During the process described as fluore-
scence, mostly organic molecules (crystals)
absorb the ultraviolet wavelength range
of approx. 300-410 nm which is invisible
for the human eye. The energy created by
absorption is emitted by them. During con-
version, the wavelengths change. The pre-
viously invisible ultraviolet light is emitted
as visible bluish light.
Fluorescence
ners, the spectral composition in the UV is the short-time, sponta-
range of the measuring light is unimpor- neous emission of light
tant. If, however, optical brighteners are during the transition of an
added, the different spectral composition electrically activated sys-
of different light sources may cause diffe- tem into a state of lower
rent measurement results. energy; the energy of the
emitted light is normally
These “wrong” measurement results may lower than the energy of
be responsible for unsatisfactory digital the absorbed light.
proofs or wrong color separations, which is
just the start of production errors and pro-
duction waste.
Ultraviolet Infrared

The intensity of fluorescence depends on UV portions of daylight

the wavelength as well as the intensity of

the incident light. Depending on the type
of illuminant, the share of UV rays differs
sometimes substantially. The range in
which optical brighteners stimulate is bet-
ween 300-410 nm, with the most efficient Paper without optical brighteners
range being between 350-360 nm. The
agents used for brightening are called FWA
(fluorescent whitening agents) or OBA (op-
tical brightening agents).

The light fastness of paper treated in this Ultraviolet Infrared

way is significantly lower. The whiteness UV portions of daylight
resulting from fluorescence obviously de-
creases after a few months of storage al-
ready. Optical brighteners have a strong in-
fluence on the measurement of chromatic
values and, as a result, on the determinati-
on of color spaces. Paper white simulation
of proof prints is also strongly influenced
Paper with optical brighteners
by them.

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 Colorimetry
8. Limits of Colorimetry
Color contrasts (mental limits)
There is a host of other factors which in-
fluence color perception independent of
the technical factors already mentioned.
In most cases, they are misinterpretations
by the brain since the interpretation of the
color stimulus is also influenced by expe-
riences and memories.
The interpretation of the color stimulus is,
for instance, influenced by the size of an
object in comparison with its close vicinity.
In addition, different hues of objects in the
close vicinity result in objects with identi-
cal chromatic values being nevertheless
perceived differently.
Furthermore, the mental associations
which the human brain connects with the
individual colors have an effect on how we
perceive colors and objects, This means
that we perceive images with a high por-
tion of blue in general as colder and more
uncomfortable than images with a high
portion of red and/or orange, irrespective
of correct measurement values.
The color values and the size of the two grey are-
as are identical, but nevertheless they seem to be
different in lightness and size.
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As a result, the assessment of colors still is
not a purely objective process despite all
technical possibilities. Differences in the
assessment of colors may always occur if
no defined standards and tolerance ranges
are applied. Colorimetry and dedicated
measurement instruments, however, cer-
tainly provide the tools which enable to
reproduce, check and assess standardised
print production within defined tolerance
limits.
Colorimetry always reaches
its limits when colors interact
with each other. As to their
color values, all three hues
of yellow are identical. Due
to the different surrounding,
different chromatic valences
are produced in the brain,
since the yellow circle cannot
be viewed independent of its
surrounding. Therefore, each
of the three yellow dots looks
different.
The two green rectangular boxes are of the same
size and have identical color values. Due to the
interaction with the surrounding area, they are,
however, perceived as different.
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