CIVE 479 – Structural Design III

Design Loading on Bridges

Design standards:

The current Canadian Highway bridge design standard is CAN/CSA-S6-00 “Canadian Highway
Bridge Design Code”. Prior to this edition of the Canadian bridge design code, Canada had two
widely recognized bridge design standards: the CSA Design of Highway Bridges and the Ontario
Highway Bridge Design Code (OHBDC). The last edition of the CSA design standard for highway
bridges was published in 1988 whereas the last edition of the OHBDC was published in 1991. A joint
effort between the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario (MTO) and the Canadian Standard
Association resulted in the current CSA-S6-00, which encompasses clauses from both standards. For
the first time, a bridge design standard covers the design of short, medium, and long span bridges.
Earlier editions of the Canadian design standards (CSA-S6-1988 and OHBDC) covered only the
design of short and medium span bridges.

The highway bridge design standard in the U.S. is published by the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). The latest revision of the LRFD (Load and
Resistance Factor Design) standard was published in May 2004. This standard is available both in SI
and U.S. customary units and in Allowable Stress Design (ASD) and in LRFD (equivalent to Limit
States Design) formats.

Railway bridges in North America are designed in accordance to the American Railway Engineering
and Maintenance of Way Association. This standard is available only in U.S. customary units and
Allowable Stress Design Format.

LIMIT STATES DESIGN

Limit States Criteria

Bridges shall be assessed based on three limit states:

1) Ultimate limit states: Pertains to safety of the structure. The factored resistance must be greater
than the factored load effect. Under this limit state we find also overturning, sliding and uplift,
which are investigated under factored load level. There is approximately a 1% chance that the
factored load will be exceeded over the life of the structure;

2) Fatigue limit state: resistance under cyclic loading. This is a limit state induced by the repeated
application of a load. It is also a safety consideration. As opposed to ULS, the structure is
designed for a load level that has a high probability of recurrence rather than a load level that is
likely to occur only once in the lifetime of the structure. The live load effect is expected to be
exceeded about every five (5) minutes. The loads that do not vary with time (dead loads, for
example) are usually not considered in the calculations;

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 3) Serviceability limit states: Affect the life, appearance or use of the structure. Are often
vibration limitations (see Figure 3.4.4 in S6-00) to prevent pedestrian discomfort. There is a
10% to 20% probability that this load will be exceeded every week.

Load Factors and Load Combinations

Tables 3.5.1 (a) and (b) of S6-00 list the various load combinations and associated load factors that
should be used in the design of highway bridges. The loads are to be based on a service life of 75 years
(note the difference with buildings, which have a design life of 30 to 50 years).

The load factors used with the various loads have been calibrated to obtain a safety index of 3.5 over
the life of the structure (75 years) for CL-625 loading. This is closely equivalent to a safety index of
3.75 per year. Recall the significance of the safety index.

Frequency Distribution of the Safety Margin

A safety index of 3.5 represents a probability of failure of approximately 2.3 × 10−4 over the life of the
structure, or probability of failure of approximately 3 × 10−6 per year. See table on page 4 to put this in
perspective.

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3
 Risk of death for various activities
Yearly death rate per person per
year
Activity For those For the total
concerned population
Motorcycle racing 5 x 10-4
Mountain climbing 5 x 10-3
Mining 7 x 10-4
Swimming 1 x 10-4 2 x 10-5
Automobile travel 3.6 x 10-4
Airplane travel 1 x 10-4
Fire in buildings 2 x 10-5
Poisoning 1.1 x 10-5
Lightning 5 x 10-7
Vaccinations and innoculations 1 x 10-8
Structural collapse
During construction 3 x 10-5
All others 2 x 10-7

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Dead Loads (D)

Dead loads include the weight of all components of the structure and attachments fixed to the structure
(road signs, etc…), including wearing surface, earth cover, and utilities. In the absence of more precise
information, the unit weights given in Table3.6 shall be used in computing dead loads.

In some cases it may be important to consider dead loads a various stages of construction (e.g. during
transportation, launching, or other intermediate stage of construction). Reduced dead loads could result
in moment reversal, for example.

Earth Pressure (E)

Earth loads, other than those applied as dead loads, shall be as specified in Section 6 of CSA-S6-00.
These include both active (most likely) and passive earth pressure.

Secondary Prestress Effect (P)

Prestress is sometimes applied to concrete to avoid the development of excessive cracking at service
load level. The applied prestress can introduce secondary effects because of restrained deformations
resulting from support conditions. These effects are considered as permanent loads on the structure.

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Live Loads (L)

The design live load for bridges varies significantly between different jurisdictions. The configuration
of a design truck depends on the size of bridge. The following factors must be considered: (a) short
bridges are mainly affected by the heavy wheel loads whereas medium span bridges are mainly
affected by a single truck, or several trucks in a lanes. Long span bridges are mainly affected by a
lighter truck with superimposed distributed load, representing lighter traffic.

CL-625 Truck

CL-625-ONT Truck

CS 600 Truck (1988)

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 OHBDC Truck (1991)

AASHTO H325 Truck

AREMA Cooper E80 Load

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Live loads also include effects such as centrifugal force (Clause 3.8.5), braking force (Clause 3.8.6),
curb load (Clause 3.8.7), barrier loads (Clause 3.8.9) and pedestrian load (Clause 3.8.9).

Loads Introduced as a Result of Restrained Deformations (K)

This includes all strains, deformations, displacements, and their effects, including the effects of their
restraint and those of friction or stiffness in bearings. Strains and deformation include those due to
temperature change and temperature differential, concrete shrinkage, differential shrinkage and creep;
but not elastic strains.

Wind Loads on the Structure (W)

The direct action of wind on the structure must be accounted for. Both lateral and vertical loads are
present. The hourly mean wind pressure, q is obtained from Table A3.1.7, which is similar to the tables
provided in the NBCC.

(a) 100 years for bridge structures with any span greater than or equal to 125m in length;

(b) 50 years for bridge structures with a maximum span less than 125m in length, luminaire
support structures exceeding 16m in height, and overhead sign structures;

(c) 25 years for luminaire, traffic signal support structures 16m or less in height, and barriers; and

(d) 10 years for roadside sign structures where a long life expectancy is not required, or any of the
above structures during construction.

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The superstructure (the part of the bridge sitting on the piers and abutments) The superstructure shall
be designed for wind-induced vertical and horizontal drag loads acting simultaneously. The assumed
wind direction shall be perpendicular to the longitudinal axis for a straight structure or to an axis
chosen to maximize wind-induced effects for a structure curved in plan (Clause 13.10.3.2).

The horizontal drag load is given as:

Fh = q Ce Cg Ch

where Fh is the horizontal wind load component (drag load)

q is the reference wind pressure in accordance to the required return period as outlined in the
previous page. Refer to Table A3.1.7 of S6-00 for values of the reference wind pressure for
various locations across Canada.

Ce is the exposure coefficient, which reflects the variation of wind pressure with height above
ground. See clause 3.10.1.3 for recommended equation for Ce .

Variation of wind pressure above ground level

Cg is the gust effect coefficient. For highway bridges that are not sensitive to wind action,
which includes most bridges of spans less than 125m except those that are cable supported, the
gust effect coefficient Cg is taken as 2.0. For slender, lighter structures, such as pedestrian
bridges, luminaire, sign, and traffic signal supports, barriers, and slender structural elements,
Cg is taken as 2.5. For structures that are sensitive to wind action (cable-stayed and suspension
bridges), the gust factor approach is not applicable and the wind loads shall be determined on
the basis of a detailed analysis of dynamic wind action, accounting the dynamic interaction
between the wind and the structure.

Ch is the pressure coefficient, taken as 2.0.

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For individual components of highway bridge superstructures (e.g.truss elements), the approximate
value of Ch can be taken as 2 for angular shapes and 1.2 for circular shapes. For more exact values,
reference should be made to TableA3.2.2.

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In the case of truss spans, the horizontal wind pressure is taken to act on the windward truss, with an
identical force applied simultaneously to the leeward truss unless a recognized method is used to
calculate the shielding effect of the windward truss. CSA-S6-00 proposes the following method to
account for shielding action.

The vertical wind load is given as:

Fv = q Ce Cg C v

where Fh , q, Ce and Cg are as defined above and C v = 1.0 . The vertical wind load can be applied
either upward or downward, whichever is more severe.

Other parameters that affect wind loads on bridge superstructures are angle of attack of the wind onto
the bridge, the size and shape of the bridge, the topography around the bridge, and the gust
characteristics.

Aerodynamic Considerations

A bridge deck is essentially a slender bluff (nonstreamlined object), as compared with an airfoil. When
a steady wind blows across the width of such an object, a zone of turbulent fluid flow, called a wake,

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whose nature depends on the Reynolds number (recall that it is a function of the characteristic length
of the object submerged in the fluid, the velocity of the fluid relative to the object, the fluid density,
and the fluid dynamic viscosity), is created on the leeward side. The figure below shows the fluid flow
pattern past a circular cylinder (a nonstreamlined object) and is representative of the flow on the
leeward side of a bridge deck. For a given fluid (air, for example) and shape of object, Reynolds
number increases with velocity (wind speed). Characteristically, the pattern consists of large vortices
that are shed from the top and bottom of the cylinder with a definite periodicity. For Reynolds numbers
between 30 to 5000 the vortices tend to trail behind the cylinder in two rows called a von Karman
vortex trail. This oscillating streamline pattern caused by alternate vortex shedding causes a fluctuating
pressure on the cylinder that is dynamic in nature. If the frequency of the vortex shedding (a function
of the wind velocity) matches the natural frequency of the structure, the cyclic deformations of the
structure are going to amplify over time. This phenomenon is usually referred to as “galloping”.

In the case of a bridge deck, this interaction between the bridge deck and wind can give rise to an
oscillating motion in which bending and torsion motions are combined. This phenomenon, referred to
as flutter, has been observed in a number of bridges. The bridge design should be such that the critical
velocity at which this motion occurs is high and it should be ensure that wind speeds of this magnitude
will not occur at the bridge site.

Although the case of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge was very publicized, this was not the first time that
slender bridges had collapsed due to flutter problems.

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The original Tacoma Narrows Bridge was built between November 1938 and July 1, 1940. Four
months after it opened to the public, it fell.

Flexural torsional vibration (flutter) induced by wind

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Twisting motion of main span (sidewalk higher than normal by 8.5 m)

Collapse of main span

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 13.7 m sag in east span after collapse of centre span

Broken wires on the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, November 1940.

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Methods to stabilize bridges susceptible to aeroelastic instability
1. Modification of the bridge deck geometry – Streamlining the cross-section of the bridge deck
has a significant impact on the aeroelastic response of the bridge. Shapes such as solid-girder
form deck section with closed, unslotted, or unvented roadways and very bluff cross-sections
have a highly unstreamlined profile that can result in aerodynamically unstable shapes. The
shapes shown in the figure below are streamlined and offer much less resistance to air flow,
minimizing the risks of instability.

2. Modification of the bridge frequency of vibration – Bridge superstructure profiles may be

torsionally soft or stiff. Examples of stiff profiles are closed box sections or deep trusses closed
by the roadway deck at the top and the lateral wind bracing at the bottom chord to form a tube.
H-section, as was used for the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, are very flexible in torsion and should
be avoided.
3. Mechanical damping of the bridge – This is achieved by developing internal friction within the
system, which acts as dampers.

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Note that dangerous bridge vibrations can be generated due to loads other than wind, for example,
heavy pedestrian traffic. Undesirable bridge vibrations from marching armies on bridges have been
reported in the literature. This phenomenon occurs because the frequency of the pedestrians’
movements approach the natural frequency of the bridge, which leads to resonance.

Wind Load on Live Load (Cl. 3.10.2.4)

The horizontal wind load per unit exposed frontal area of the live load shall be computed using the
expression for the horizontal wind pressure on the superstructure ( Fh = q Ce Cg Ch ) except that Ch is
taken as 1.2.

The exposed frontal area of the live load is taken as the entire length of the superstructure, as seen in
elevation in the direction of the wind perpendicular to the axis of the bridge for straight structures, or
any part or parts of that length producing critical response, multiplied by a height of 3.0 m above the
roadway surface for vehicular bridges and 1.5 m for pedestrian bridges. Areas below the top of a solid
barrier wall shall be neglected.

Design of substructure

The substructure is designed for wind loads transmitted to it from the superstructure and wind loads
acting directly on the substructure. Loads for wind directions both normal to and skewed to the
longitudinal centreline of the superstructure shall be considered. For skewed bridges, two force
components are transferred to the piers from the superstructure. See Clause 3.10.3.2 if the structure is
skewed relative to the pier.

The wind load from the superstructure is applied on the centre of gravity of the exposed surface rather
than at the top of the pier.

The wind load acting directly on the substructure calculated using Fh = q Ce Cg Ch . The horizontal
drag coefficient, Ch , is taken as 0.7 for circular piers, 1.4 for octagonal piers, and 2.0 for rectangular
and square piers.

For wind directions skewed to the substructure, the loads shall be resolved into components taken to
act perpendicular to the end and side elevations of the substructure. These load components shall be
assumed to act horizontally at the centroids of the exposed areas of the end and side elevations and
shall be applied simultaneously with the loads transmitted from the superstructure.

Both horizontal and vertical wind loads shall be applied to the substructure to create the worst
combination of axial load and bending moment in the substructure. To that effect, the vertical wind
force is to be applied as an equivalent vertical line load (equal to Fv times the width of the bridge) at
the windward quarter point of the transverse superstructure width.

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Water Loads (F)

Water loads include both the static pressure on a surface retaining water, buoyancy, and stream
pressure due to drag on the structure.

Longitudinal and lateral water pressure on pier

The pressure of flowing water acting longitudinally on a pier element shall be calculated from:

where C D is the longitudinal drag coefficient given in Table 3.11.4.1 of CSA-S6-00

The lateral pressure component of water flowing at an angle, θ, is obtained from

where CL is the longitudinal drag coefficient given in Table 3.11.4.2 of CSA-S6-00.

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The variables in the above equations are defined as follows:

p : hydrostatic water pressure, equal to the height of water times the density of water.

A : the area of pier (or drift, if drift can accumulate) exposed to flowing water, projected parallel
to the longitudinal axis of the pier onto a plane perpendicular to that axis.

v : water velocity at the design flood in m/s.

H : the depth of flowing water at a pier

L : The length of the pier along the longitudinal axis of the pier.

Ice Loads (F)

Note that CSA-S6-00 only deals with ice pressure in freshwater such as in lakes or rivers.
Characteristics of sea water ice are quite different from that of freshwater ice. Specialist advice is
recommended when dealing with piers in seawater.

Ice forces on piers are strongly dependent on the interaction between the ice and the structure. This
interaction can take the following forms:

(a) dynamic forces due to collision of moving ice sheets carried by the stream current or driven by
wind action; both horizontal and vertical force components should be considered;

(b) static forces due to thermal movements of continuous stationary ice jams;

(c) lateral thrust due to arching action resulting ice dams and ice jams;

(d) static or dynamic vertical forces along the substructure element due to the effects of fluctuating
water levels or due to the dynamic effects of colliding ice floes.

Data about the ice thickness, direction of movement, speed and height of its action should be obtained
or derived from field surveys and existing records at the proposed bridge site.

Effective Ice Strength (Clause 3.12.2.1 of CSA-S6-00)

Unless more precise data is available, the following values for the effective crushing strength of ice, p,
shall be used:

(a) 400 kPa, ice breaks up at melting temperature and is substantially disintegrated;

(b) 700 kPa, ice breaks up at melting temperature and is somewhat disintegrated;(

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 (c) 1100 kPa, ice breaks up or ice movement occurs at melting temperature and is internally
sound moving in large pieces;

(d) 1500 kPa, ice breaks up or ice movement occurs at temperatures considerably below its
melting point.

Crushing and Flexural Strength of Ice

The horizontal force, F, due to the pressure of moving ice shall be taken as

where

where t is the thickness of ice expected to contact a pier and w is the pier width at the level of ice
action, measured perpendicular to the direction of ice motion.

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Vessel Collision (Clause 3.14 of CSA-S6-00)

Piers in navigable waterway are at risk of vessel collision. In determining the magnitude of the force
transmitted to the pier, one must determine the probability of such an event happening. The magnitude
of the force is therefore governed by the size and weight distribution and speed of the vessels, water
conditions (which could have an impact on the ability of a vessel to remain on course), distance from
pier to navigable channel, and consequence of impact with the bridge. Class I bridges are of critical
importance and must remain open to all traffic after a vessel collision. Because of this requirement,
these bridges would be designed for higher loads. From a limit states design point of view, the
probability of failure of the bridge must be acceptably small over the life of the bridge.

Vehicle Collision Load

Highway bridge piers located less than 10 m from the edge of the road pavement shall be designed for
a collision load equivalent to a horizontal static force of 1400 kN, applied at 1.2 m above ground level
at the pier and at 10 degrees to the direction of travel.

Note that loads due to collision with the superstructure are also possible.

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 Live Loads

Number of design lanes

The number of design lanes is obtained from Table 3.8.2 of S16-00.

The width of the design lanes is obtained from:

where Wc is the deck width.

Application of live load (Clause 3.8.4)

General

(a) Truck axles that reduce the load effect shall be neglected. Many analysis software do not
remove the axles that reduce load effect.

(b) The uniformly distributed portion of the lane load shall not be applied to those parts of a
design lane where its application decreases the load effect.

(c) For the fatigue limit state, and for the superstructure vibration serviceability limit state
(Combination 2), the traffic load shall be one truck only, placed at the centre of one travelled
lane. The lane load shall not be considered.

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(d) For serviceability limit states (Combination 1) requirements, and for the ultimate limit states,
the traffic load shall be the truck load increased by the dynamic load allowance or the lane
load, whichever produces the maximum load effect. This load shall be positioned
longitudinally and transversely within each design lane at a location and in the direction that
produces maximum load effect. The truck width shall not project beyond the design lane
except as specified in Clause 3.8.4.3(d). The lane load shall not project beyond the edge of a
design lane, nor shall the CL-W Truck clearance envelope, except as specified in Clause
3.8.4.4.

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 CL-W Truck width

Multilane Loading (Clause 3.8.4.2)

When more than one design lane is loaded, the traffic load shall be multiplied by a modification factor
obtained from Table 3.8.4.2.

Loading of local components (Clause 3.8.4.3)

(a) For components incorporated into decks other than modular expansion joints, such as manhole
covers, drainage gratings, etc., the axle load considered shall be Axle No.2 of the CL-W
Truck.

(b) For modular expansion joints, the axle load considered shall be Axle No. 4 of the CL-W
Truck.

(c) For decks and other components whose design is governed by the axle loads, the tandem axle
comprising the Axles Nos. 2 and 3 of the CL-W Truck, or the Axle No. 4 of the CL-W Truck,
whichever produces larger effects, shall be considered.

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 (d) In the design lane adjacent to a curb, railing, or barrier, the minimum distance from the
centres of the wheels to the curb, railing, or barrier wall shall be 0.30 m. (Note: In the design
of local components such as the deck slab, for which critical load effects are mostly due to one
or two wheel loads and increase rapidly as the wheels approach the curb or barrier, it is
prudent to consider the wheels in extreme position, such that they are almost in contact with
the curb or barrier and yet are still in motion to the extent that the dynamic load allowance
applies. Since this loading is considered to be rare, it is considered only at the ultimate limit
states.)

Wheels on the Sidewalk (Clause 3.8.4.4)

When sidewalks and other areas, adjacent to a roadway, are separated from it only by curbs, local
responses shall be computed by considering a CL-W Truck with each axle load reduced to 70% and
with its wheel centres not less than 0.30 m from the face of the railing or barrier on the outer edge.
This requirement shall not apply to longitudinal effects in slab bridges, nor to main girders, and shall
apply only at the ultimate limit states.

Dynamic Load Allowance (DLA) (Clause 3.8.4.5)

This used to be referred to as the Impact Factor. The dynamic load allowance is an equivalent static
load, expressed as a fraction of the CL-W Truck load, which is considered to be equivalent to the
dynamic and vibratory effects of the interaction of the moving vehicle and the bridge. DLA is not
required for centrifugal, braking, collision or pedestrian loads. The Lane Load represents the CL-W
Truck and additional traffic in the same lane. It is unlikely that all axles of all these vehicles would be
in phase, so the dynamic responses will be reduced from those for a single truck. The DLA is applied
to the CL-W Truck, but not to the CL-W Lane Load.

DLA is included in loads on the superstructure and loads transferred from the superstructure to the
substructure, not to loads transferred to footings that are surrounded with earth, nor to those parts of
piles that are below ground.

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3.8.4.5.2 Buried Structures

The dynamic load allowance for loads on arch type buried structures having depth of earth cover, DE,
between the riding surface and the highest point of the structure, shall be

DLA = 0.40 (1-0.5 DE) ≥ 0.10.

The dynamic load allowance for box type buried structures shall be the value obtained from Clause
3.8.4.5.3 multiplied by the factor (1-0.5 DE), but not less than 0.10.

3.8.4.5.3 All Other Components

For all other components, the dynamic load allowance shall be

(a) 0.50 for deck joints;

(b) 0.40 where only one axle of the CL-W Truck is used, except for deck joints;

(c) 0.30 where any two axles of the CL-W Truck, or axles 1, 2, and 3, are used; or

(d) 0.25 where three axles (or more) of the CL-W Truck, except for axles 1, 2, and 3, or more
than three axles, are used.

Methods of Analysis (Section 5 of CHBDC)

Various methods of analysis can be utilized for live loads on highway bridges. Clause 5.7.1 outlines
the conditions for which a simplified approach can be used.

Live Load - Conditions for Use of Simplified Methods of Analysis

The Simplified Method may be used if:

a) The bridge width is constant;

b) The support conditions are closely equivalent to line support, both at the ends of the bridge and,
in the case of multispan bridges, at intermediate supports;

c) For slab bridges and slab-on-girder bridges with skew, the provisions of Appendix A5.1 (b)(i)
regarding the respective skew parameters are met;

d) For bridges that are curved in plan, the radius of curvature, span, and, width satisfy the relevant
requirements of Appendix A5.1 (b)(ii);

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 e) A solid or voided slab is of substantially uniform depth across a transverse section, or tapered
in the vicinity of a free edge provided that the length of the taper in the transverse direction
does not exceed 2.5 m;

f) For slab-on-girder bridges, there shall be at least three longitudinal girders that are of equal
flexural rigidity and equally spaced, or with variations from the mean of not more than 10% in
each case;

g) For a bridge having longitudinal girders and an overhanging deck slab, the overhang does not
exceed 60% of the mean spacing between the longitudinal girders or the spacing of the two
outermost adjacent webs for box girders, and, also, is not more than 1.80 m;

h) For a continuous span bridge, the provisions of Appendix A5.1 (a) shall apply;

i) In the case of multispine bridges, each spine has only two webs. Also, the conditions of Clause
10.12.5.1 shall apply for steel and steel-composite multispine bridges.

Ultimate Limit States and Serviceability Limit States

Amplification factors, Fm and Fv given as functions of:

• Girder spacing

• Girder span

• Number of design lanes

• Lane width

• Multilane loading reduction

• Bending and torsional stiffness parameters for multi-spine (box girder) bridges

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Simplified Method of Analysis – Ultimate Limit States and Serviceability Limit States

The total moment on the cross-section at any point along the span can be averaged by sharing the total
moment equally among all girders, such that

n MT R L
M g avg =
N

where,

M g avg is the average moment per girder, due to live load, determined by sharing equally the total
live load moment on the bridge cross-section among all girders in the cross-section;

n number of design lanes on the bridge;

MT the maximum longitudinal moment for one lane width of truck or lane loading, as applicable,
including dynamic load allowance;

RL modification factor for multilane loading

N the total number of girders within the width of the bridge deck;

The actual variation in maximum force intensity across the width of the bridge will be dependent upon
the following factors:

• Transverse position of the lane load;

• Torsional stiffness of the cross-section;

• Span length;

• The transverse and longitudinal sitffnesses.

The maximum moment across the width of the bridge can be obtained from:

Mg
Fm =
M g avg

A similar approach is used for shear, where the transverse distribution factor for shear
( Fv = Vg Vg avg ).

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R L , the modification factor for multilane loading, is obtained from Table 3.8.4.2 of the CHBDC (S6-
00)

The amplification factor Fm is obtained from:

SN
Fm = ≥ 1.05
⎛ μ Cf ⎞
F⎜ 1 +
⎝ 100 ⎟⎠

where,

S is the centre-to-centre girder spacing in metres,

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 N is the number of girders over the width of the bridge,

F is a width dimension that characterizes load distribution for a bridge (obtained from Table
A5.7.1.2.1 for bridges with four design lanes or less)
We − 3.3
μ= but ≤ 1.0
0.6
We is the width of a design lane in metres (see clause 3.8.2)
Cf is a correction factor, in %, obtained from Table A5.7.1.2.1
μ Cf ⎞
The term ⎛⎜ 1 +
100 ⎟⎠
in the above equation is a lane width correction factor.
⎝
For more than four design lane, the value of F shall be calculated from:

n RL
F = F4
2.80

where F4 is the value of F for four design lanes obtained from Table A5.7.1.2.1

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32
 Truck Position for Exterior Girder Loading

Fatigue Limit State and Vibrations (One truck in a travel lane)

• For slab on girder bridges it also accounts for:

o Truck location in a travel lane, D ve

o Reduction for wide girder spacing

• For multi-spine (box girder) bridges with very wide deck, Fm is slightly reduced.

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 Figure 5.7.1.2.2 Definition of Dve for Slab-on-Girder Bridges

The following method can be used for obtaining the longitudinal moments in a shallow superstructure
(see Clause 5.7.1.2.2)

(a) Using the relevant formulae of Tables A5.7.1.2.2 (a) and (b), the values of F, Cf and Ce
shall be obtained for both internal and external portions of the cross-section, corresponding to
the type of bridge, the number of design lanes, the span L and, in the case of slab-on-girder
bridges, the vehicle edge distance D VE which is defined in Figure 5.7.1.2.2. For bridges
other than the slab-on-girder type, there is no need to consider D VE . When the actual value
of D VE is greater than 3.00 m, it shall be taken as 3.00 m for use in this clause. The span, L,
for continuous spans shall be as defined in Appendix A5.1(a).

Appendix A 5.1 (a)

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(b) The longitudinal bending moments and deflections shall be calculated by treating the bridge
as a beam loaded by two lines of wheels that comprise one truck, as specified in
Clause3.8.3.1. The bending moments and deflections, thus obtained, shall be multiplied by
the factor (1 + DLA) where DLA is the relevant dynamic load allowance for a single vehicle,
or portion of a vehicle, as appropriate, in order to give the live load longitudinal bending
moments and deflections for the entire cross-section of the bridge. The governing moments
thus obtained shall be designated as M T , which shall be distributed in the cross-section in
accordance with Clause 5.7.1.2(c).

(c) For girder-type bridges and bridges with longitudinal wood beams, the longitudinal moment
per girder is obtained from:

M g = Fm M g avg

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36
37
 Simplified Method of Analysis for Live Load

Shear for Ultimate Limit States and Serviceability Limit States

For a bridge classified as a shallow superstructure and meeting the requirements for application of the
simplified method of analysis, the following method can be used for calculating the live load shears in
the internal and external portions of the bridge (refer to Claus 5.7.1.4.1).

Longitudinal vertical shear diagrams shall be obtained, treating the bridge as a beam, for two load
cases:

(1) One truck, consisting of two lines of wheels as specified in Clause 3.8.3.1; and

(2) Lane load specified in Clause 3.8.3.2, the loads in each case being multiplied by the
appropriate factor (1 + DLA) as specified in Clause 3.8.4.5 and combined in accordance with
that clause.

The governing shears per design lane thus obtained shall be designated as VT .

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