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Cause and
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62222 Academic work frequently involves demonstrating a link
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between a cause, such as a cold winter, and an effect, such as an
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9 increase in illness. This unit explains two methods of describing
20 the link, with the focus either on the cause or on the effect.
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4 1 The language of cause and effect
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6 A writer may choose to put the emphasis on either the cause or the effect.
7 In both cases, either a verb or a conjunction can be used to show the link.
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(a) Focus on causes
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1 With verbs
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3 The heavy rain caused the flood
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With conjunctions
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40 Because of the heavy rain there was a flood
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2 Owing to
36222 As a result of
110 Part 2 Elements of writing

(b) Focus on effects

With verbs

The flood was caused by the heavy rain

was produced by
resulted from
(note use of passives)

With conjunctions

There was a flood due to the heavy rain

because of
as a result of

Compare the following:

Because children were vaccinated diseases declined

(because + verb)
Because of the vaccination diseases declined
(because of + noun)
As/ since children were vaccinated diseases declined
(conjunction + verb)
Owing to/ due to the vaccination diseases declined
(conjunction + noun)

Conjunctions are commonly used with specific situations, while verbs tend
to be used in general cases:

Printing money commonly leads to inflation

(general)
Due to July’s hot weather demand for ice cream increased
(specific)
 111 2.2 Cause and effect

1EEE 2 Practice A
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3 I Match the causes with their likely effects and write sentences linking
4 them together.
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6 Causes Effects
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8 Cold winter of 1995 more tourists arriving
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10 Higher rates of literacy a new government being formed
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Constructing an airport reduced infant mortality
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5 Installing speed cameras on main roads increased demand for electricity
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Opening a new hospital in 2006 a fall in the number of fatal accidents
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Owing to the cold winter of 1995 there was increased
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1 demand for electricity.
___________________________________________________________
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9 (d) ___________________________________________________________
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2 (e) ___________________________________________________________
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5 (f) ___________________________________________________________
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I Complete the following sentences with likely effects.
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2 (a) Increasing use of the internet for shopping __________________
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___________________________________________________________
112 Part 2 Elements of writing

(b) The violent storms last week _______________________________

___________________________________________________________
(c) The new vaccine for TB ____________________________________
___________________________________________________________
(d) Building a high-speed railway line __________________________
___________________________________________________________

I Complete these sentences with possible causes.

(e) The serious motorway accident _____________________________

___________________________________________________________
(f) The war of 1856–8 _________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
(g) Earthquakes _______________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
(h) The rising prison population ________________________________
___________________________________________________________

4 Practice C
I Use conjunctions or verbs to complete the following paragraph.

4.1 WHY WOMEN LIVE LONGER

Some British scientists now believe that women live longer than men
(a)___________________ T cells, a vital part of the immune system that protects the
body from diseases. Previously, various theories have attempted to explain
longer female life expectancy. Biologists claimed that women lived longer
(b)___________________ they need to bring up children. Others argued that men
take more risks, (c)___________________ they die earlier. But a team from Imperial
College think that the difference may be (d)___________________ women having
better immune systems. Having studied a group of men and women they found
that the body produces fewer T cells as it gets older, (e)___________________ the
ageing process. However, they admit that this may not be the only factor, and
(f)___________________ another research project may be conducted.
 113 2.2 Cause and effect

1EEE 5 Practice D
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3 I (a) Study the flow chart below, which shows some of the possible
4 effects of a higher oil price. Complete the paragraph describing this
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4 Cost of Oil Increased Reduced
5 transport and consumption investment in demand for
freight rises falls oil exploration large cars
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Airline Demand for Increased Increased
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An increase of 25 per cent in the price of oil would have numerous results.
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First, it would lead to
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114 Part 2 Elements of writing

I (b) Choose a similar situation in your own subject. Draw a flow chart
showing some probable effects, and write a paragraph to describe
them.