Received: 6 April 2020 Revised: 11 July 2020 Accepted: 2 August 2020

DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12625

COMPREH ENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETY

Understanding whole-wheat flour and its effect in breads: A

review

Manuel Gómez1 Luiz C. Gutkoski2 Ángela Bravo-Núñez1

1Food Technology Area, College of

Agricultural Engineering, University of
Valladolid, Palencia, Spain
2 Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciência
e Tecnologia de Alimentos, Universidade
de Passo Fundo, Passo Fundo, RS, Brazil
Correspondence
Manuel Gómez, Food Technology Area,
College of Agricultural Engineering, Uni-
versity of Valladolid, 34071, Palencia,
Spain.
Email: pallares@iaf.uva.es
Abstract
Although the consumption of whole grains, including bread made with whole-
wheat flour, is promoted for health benefits and reduced risk for disease and
mortality, consumer acceptance, and consumption of some whole-wheat prod-
ucts is low compared to that of white breads. This review focuses on the under-
standing of whole-wheat flours, both their positive and negative aspects, and
how to improve those flours for the production of whole-wheat breads. The
review addresses genetic aspects, various milling systems, and pretreatment of
bran and germ. The baking process and use of additives and enzymes may also
improve product quality to help consumers meet dietary recommendations for
daily whole-wheat consumption.

KEYWORDS
bakery products, bran, nutrition, rheology, whole wheat

1 INTRODUCTION On top of this problem, another common concern of

The consumption of wheat products provides carbohy-
drates, proteins, dietary fiber, and bioactive compounds to
the diet. Nevertheless, the composition and the nutritional
value of these products is dependent on the way of process-
ing wheat and obtaining the whole-grain (WG) flour, as
well as on the further processing of this flour. The require-
ments that flour has to meet to be called WG flour rely
on the legal requirements, which are different around the
world. Same issue comes along when looking for a defini-
tion for WG breads. This matter has been reviewed world-
wide, and experts have given their recommendations—
as the ones given by the Healthgrain Forum (Ross et al.,
2017) or by the WG initiative (Whole Grain Initiative,
2020)—up to the date requirements are still different
depending on the country. Table 1 shows the legal defini-
tion of WG flours and WG products in Brazil, USA, and
Spain, together with the definitions given by the Health-
grain Forum (Ross et al., 2017) and the WG initiative
(Whole Grain Initiative, 2020).
consumers and researchers is not familiar to cereal sci-
ence if there is a difference between WG and whole-wheat
products, and the overlaps of these concepts. WG products
cover products elaborated with flours from any kind of ker-
nels that meet the legal requirements of the place where
they are going to be commercialized, while whole-wheat
products only refer to products elaborated with flours
from wheat kernels that meet these same legal require-
ments. Hence, whole-wheat products are always WG
products.
According to mostly all the definitions given in Table 1,
whole-wheat flour (WWF) has the principal anatomical
components of wheat—the starchy endosperm, germ, and
bran—in substantially the same relative proportions as
they exist in the intact caryopsis. While the proportion
of endosperm is relatively stable—representing approx-
imately 80% of the entire grain (Delcour & Hoseney,
2010; Shewry, Wan, Hawkesford, & Tosi, 2020)—the
amount of bran and germ can vary among wheat cultivars.
Thus, on top of the processing conditions, the genotype,

Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2020;1–25. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/crf3 © 2020 Institute of Food Technologists
R 1
2 Whole wheat flour effect in breads. . .

TA B L E 1 Some of the available definitions of whole grain flours and whole grain products around the world
Whole grain flour Whole grain/wheat bread
Brazil Product made from wheat grains (Triticum aestivum L.) or Product prepared necessarily with wheat flour
other wheat species of the Triticum variety, or and whole wheat flour and/or wheat fiber
combinations thereof by means of grinding or milling and/or wheat bran (ANVISA, 2000, 2005)
and other technologies or processes from the complete
processing of the clean grains, whether or not
containing the germ (MAPA, 2015).
The United Cereal grains that consist of the intact, ground, cracked, or Breads that qualify as whole grain-rich are breads
States of flaked caryopsis, whose principal anatomical that contain a blend of wholegrain meal and/or
America components—the starchy endosperm, germ, and whole grain flour and enriched meal and/or
bran—are present in the same relative proportions as enriched flour of which at least 50 percent is
they exist in the intact caryopsis—should be considered whole grain and the remaining grains in the
a whole grain food (FDA, 2006) food, if any, are enriched; or foods that contain
100% whole grain (Child and adult care food
program: meal pattern revisions, 2016)
Spain Whole grains flours shall consist of the product resulting Breads made with exclusively whole grain flour,
from the milling of the cereal grain and whose which can be labeled as “100% wholegrain
composition corresponds to that of the whole cereal bread” or “wholegrain bread.” The name will
grain. The milling process can be varied, including be complemented by the name of the cereal or
either milling of the grain with separation of the cereals from which the flour or flours were
a
different components, which are then put back together obtained (Real Decreto 308, 2019).
to make the final product, or a milling process, with one
or more milling stages, during which the components of
the cereal grain are not separated from each other (Real
Decreto 677, 2016).
Healthgrain Whole grains flours shall consist of the intact, ground, Breads made with at least 30% whole-grain
Forum cracked, or flaked kernel after the removal of inedible ingredients on a dry weight basis, including
parts, such as the hull and husk. The principal noncereal component(s), and more whole-grain
anatomical components—the starchy endosperm, germ, ingredients than refined grain ingredients (Ross
and bran—are present in the same relative proportions et al., 2017).
as those that exist in the intact kernel. Small losses of
components, that is, >2% of the grain or 10% of the bran
that occurs through processing methods consistent with
safety and quality are allowed (Ross et al., 2017).
Whole Grain Whole grain flours shall consist of the intact, ground, No given definition
Initiative cracked, flaked, or otherwise processed kernel after the
removal of inedible parts such as the hull and husk. All
anatomical components, including the endosperm,
germ, and bran must be present in the same relative
proportions as in the intact kernel (Whole Grain
Initiative, 2020).
a
Breads on which the flour used in the preparation is not exclusively whole grain shall have the indication “made with wholegrain flour X %,” “X” corresponding
to the percentage of wholegrain flour used respect the total flour.

environment, and cultivation conditions can affect the
proportions of the different nutrients of the grain (Jones,
Adams, Harriman, Miller, & Van Der Kamp, 2015). In
general, whole-grain flours contain more fiber, minerals,
vitamins, and bioactive compounds than refined flours
that are made only from the endosperm. An approximate
composition of whole- and refined-wheat flours, together
with the one of bran and germ is given in Table 2, covering
the main components and minerals. More detailed infor-
mation about the composition of refined wheat flours can
be found elsewhere (Ji, Ma, & Baik, 2020; Lv et al., 2012).
On the basis of the chemical composition of whole-grain
flours, different nutritional benefits have been proved. This
is not in the scope of this review, as very good reviews on
this matter can be found in the literature (Aune et al., 2016;
Fardet, 2010; Lillioja, Neal, Tapsell, & Jacobs, 2013; Slavin,
2004; Zhu & Sang, 2017). In general terms, all these reviews
state that accumulated evidence in epidemiological stud-
ies has consistently shown that consumption of WGs is
inversely associated with risk of major chronic diseases—
such as certain types of cancer, type 2 diabetes, or car-
diovascular disease—and these effects are attributed both
Whole wheat flour effect in breads. . . 3

TA B L E 2 Proximate composition of whole and refined wheat flours, wheat bran, and wheat germ
Refined wheat flour Whole wheat
(unenriched) flour Bran Germ
Carbohydrates (g/100 g) 76.31 71.20 64.51 49.60
Fibre (g/100 g) 2.70 10.60 42.80 15.1
Protein (g/100 g) 10.33 15.10 15.55 29.10
Lipids (g/100 g) 0.98 2.73 4.25 10.70
Calcium (mg/100 g) 15 38 73 45
Iron (mg/100 g) 1.17 3.86 10.75 9.09
Magnesium (mg/100 g) 22 138 611 320
Phosphorus (mg/100 g) 108 352 1,013 1,182
Potassium (mg/100 g) 107 372 1,182 947
Data retrieved from the website FoodData Portal (2020). Composition of the endosperm was not included separately as it is the same as the approximate composition
of refined wheat flour.

to the fiber content as well as to the presence of phyto-

chemicals in these flours. It also seems proven the pos-
itive effect of whole-grain products consumption against
constipation (Gélinas, 2013; Stewart & Schroeder, 2013).
It has also been observed that the consumption of foods
rich in either cereal fiber or mixtures of WGs and bran is
modestly associated with a reduced risk of obesity (Cho,
Qi, Fahey, George, & Klurfield, 2013; Kikuchi et al., 2018).
But probably, the article that most supports the need to
substitute as much as possible the consumption of refined
flours by whole-grain flours is the one by Reynolds et al.
(2019), which after performing systematic reviews and
meta-analyses of prospective studies concludes that this
practice can reduce the risk of mortality and incidence of
a wide range of noncommunicable diseases and their risk
FIGURE 1 Main advantages and disadvantages of whole wheat
factors.
flours
It is also known that the benefits of whole-grain product
consumption are related, at least partly, with their influ-
ence on human microbiota (Jefferson & Adolphus, 2019), less, WEFs do also present disadvantages when compared
as these products help to increase both its quantity and with refined flours (Figure 1), because of the higher pres-
diversity. Jones, García, and Braun (2020) warn that the ence of pesticide residues and mycotoxins, a shorter shelf
better nutritional characteristics of whole-grain products life, higher risk of rancidity, and poorer organoleptic char-
should not lead to eliminating the consumption of prod- acteristics of bakery products elaborated with these flours.
ucts elaborated with refined flours. Because of the poorer It is also important to point out that, on top of the legal
organoleptic characteristics/lower acceptance of WG prod- requirements, that as already addressed before, differ from
ucts, these authors recommended consuming at least half one country to another, consumers and the scientific com-
of cereal-based products in their WG form, although De munity have difficulty in defining what the term WWF
Leon et al. (2020) suggest that the acceptance/liking of means, as well as interpreting processed grains in labeling.
whole products can be increased by exposure to them. When consumers try to identify WWF, frequently, they do
Despite the health benefits of WWF, its consumption is not understand the difference between breads labeled as
still very much lower than the recommended levels (M. Li, 100% wheat, whole wheat, or graham (Jones, 2010). This
Ho, Hayes, & Ferruzzi, 2019). The barriers to increasing shows that it is important that a clear definition of WG
the consumption of WWF include consumer taste prefer- products exists. The article by Ferruzzi et al. (2014) dis-
ences, inability to identify whole foods, poor technological cusses this and gives some recommendations, aiming to
quality of WWF compared to refined flour, difficulty in the reach a consensus on a definition based on the percentage
substitution of WGs for existing ingredients, price, avail- of grain or WG flour per serving. These aspects are of vital
ability, and convenience (Kuznesof et al., 2012). Neverthe- importance because bread—especially WG bread—is the
4 Whole wheat flour effect in breads. . .
staple food of choice to combat future food supply chal-
lenges (Weegels, 2019).
Despite all the aforementioned, currently, only 10% of
the produced wheat bran is used in the food industry, while
90% is sold as animal feed or is wasted (Onipe, Jideani, &
Beswa, 2015). The aim of this review is to take retrospec-
tive look to the available information about the chemical
composition of WWFs, taking a close look at the possible
strategies to improve the quality of WG flours, maximizing
its benefits while minimizing the possible disadvantages,
for their optimal application in whole-wheat breads.
2 WWF CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
2.1 Nutrients and bioactive compounds
Given that wheat grains are used mainly as a source
of energy, their composition is a mixture of carbohy-
drates, proteins, lipids, fiber, minerals, vitamins, and phy-
tochemical compounds, with some of them being bioac-
tive molecules. Although, as stated before, starch and pro-
teins are the major components of flours—and therefore
the key factors responsible for their functionality—in the
case of whole-wheat grains, there are other components
of great importance due to their nutritional properties and
their health benefits. Among these components—in addi-
tion to the fiber—carotenoids, phenolic compounds, toco-
pherols, and tocotrienols (Borneo & León, 2012) are found,
together with less known compounds, such as benzoxazi-
noids (Dihm, Vendelbo Lind, Sundén, Ross, & Savolainen,
2017).
As stated in Section 1, wheat endosperm represents the
main part of refined flours, and more than 80% of the
wheat grains, and it is composed mainly of starch and pro-
teins (Delcour & Hoseney, 2010). Germ is composed of the
embryonic axis and scutellum and represents about 3% of
the grain; it is rich in proteins, fats, vitamins, and min-
erals, as well as in bioactive compounds, such as antioxi-
dants, sterols, unsaturated fatty acids, and essential amino
acids (Shewry et al., 2013). The detailed wheat germ chem-
ical composition was recently reviewed by Boukid, Fol-
loni, Ranieri, and Vittadini (2018). In this review, authors
pointed out that the mayor component of germ is carbohy-
drates, followed by proteins, dietary fiber (mainly insolu-
ble fiber), and lipids (mainly unsaturated fatty acids such
as oleic, linoleic, and α-linoleic acids), which was sup-
ported by previous studies (Marti et al., 2014; Sjövall, Vir-
talaine, Lapveteläinen, & Kallio, 2000; Srivastava, Sudha,
Baskaran, & Leelavathi, 2007) and with the data given in
Table 2 of the present review, which shows the different
amount of these components in wheat bran and germ. In
addition, germ contains excellent amounts of other nutri-
ents such as minerals, vitamins E and B, essential amino
acids, flavonoids, and sterols (Zou, Yang, Zhang, He, &
Yang, 2015). For its part, bran is characterized by differ-
ent structures and constituents, representing between 13%
and 17% of the wheat grain (Gebruers et al., 2008). The
nonstarch polysaccharides (cellulose, arabinoxylan, and β-
glucan) form the major components of the bran (Ander-
sson et al., 2013; Collins et al., 2010). In the bran frac-
tion, it can also be appreciated by a higher content of fat,
minerals, and vitamins than that found in the endosperm.
The aleurone layer is located between the bran and the
endosperm, and it concentrates some of the bioactive com-
pounds from wheat grain, such as antioxidants, pheno-
lic acids, vitamins, and minerals (Brouns, Hemery, Price,
& Anson, 2012; Rosa-Sibakov, Poutanen, & Micard, 2015;
Zaupa et al., 2014).
Despite the fact that bran, and therefore WWFs, are
a good source of minerals, it has to be considered how
these minerals will be absorbed, and therefore used by
the organism. It is known that phytic acid is able to trap
metallic ions, preventing them from being absorbed by
the body. Phytic acid present in fiber can have the same
effect (Torre, Rodriguez, & Saura-Calixto, 1991). Wheat
bran contains 4.5% to 5.5% phytic acid, which is predomi-
nantly present in the aleurone layer (Hemdane et al., 2016).
This phytic acid forms phytates with mono- and divalent
cations (K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+), reducing their bioavail-
ability (Harland & Harland, 1980; Rickard & Thompson,
1997). But those phytates can be hydrolyzed during the
bread-making process, increasing the availability of min-
erals (Schlemmer, Frølich, Prieto, & Grases, 2009). This
hydrolysis will be dependent on the quantity of phytates
in the medium, as well as on the time and temperature of
the fermentation process, pHs of the doughs, and the pres-
ence of calcium salts. Therefore, while the consumption of
untreated WWFs can reduce considerably the availability
of the minerals present, if the WG flours are consumed in
the form of bread, this availability increases. Nevertheless,
to greater increase the availability of minerals, the incor-
poration of phytases (Haros, Rosell, & Benedito, 2001a,
2001b), or phytase-producing bifidobacteria (Sanz-Penella,
Tamayo-Ramos, Sanz, & Haros, 2009) to the formulations
has been proposed, together with longer fermentation time
with sourdough (Lopez et al., 2001). It is also possible to
reduce the amount of phytates in the bran by fermenting
it, either with yeast or with lactic acid bacteria, before its
incorporation in the bread-making process (Lioger, Leen-
hardt, Demigne, & Remesy, 2007; Lopez et al., 2001). It is
also known that reducing the particle size of bran, as well
as hydrothermal treatments, can reduce the presence of
phytic acid (Majzoobi, Ghiasi, Habibi, Hedayati, & Farah-
naky, 2014). Nonetheless, phytic acid has shown to have a
favorable effect on reducing the risk of colon cancer (Jenab
Whole wheat flour effect in breads. . .
& Thompson, 2000), and therefore, it seems that it may
be more interesting to hydrolyze phytates to improve the
bioavailability of minerals, more than reducing the content
of phytic acid.
Bioactive compounds are unevenly distributed between
the various tissues and cells of the wheat grain. Sev-
eral studies have found a higher content of phenolic
compounds, flavonoids and yellow pigments, and higher
antioxidant capacity in WWF when compared with refined
flours (Spaggiari et al., 2020; Yu, Nanguet, & Beta, 2013;
Žilić, Serpen, Akıllıoğlu, Janković, & Gökmen, 2012). In
fact, polyphenols (mainly ferulic and phenolic acids) are
the main contributors of the antioxidant capacity (Masisi,
Beta, & Moghadasian, 2016) of flours. The antioxidant
capacity of cereal grain phytochemicals gives WG flours
the potential to mitigate oxidative stress, hence delaying
the onset of some chronic diseases (Masisi et al., 2016).
Regarding phytosterols—which are components struc-
turally related to cholesterol, but contain an extra ethyl
or methyl group in the side chain (Turpeinen & Meri-
maa, 2011)—their presence is higher in wheat bran than
in the endosperm (Tsuzuki et al., 2017). These compo-
nents have the capacity to lower LDL cholesterol and main-
taining good heart health, while furthermore they pos-
sess anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activ-
ities (Berger, Jones, & Abumweis, 2004; Law, 2000). For
its part, while in the wheat bran, a high concentration
of tocotrienols exists, the germ is a good source of toco-
pherols (Górnaś, Rudzińska, Raczyk, & Soliven, 2016).
Both tocotrienols and tocopherols are usually summarized
under the term vitamin E (Schwartz, Ollilainen, Piiro-
nen, & Lampi, 2008). Nonetheless, it has to be taken into
account that the efficacy of some of these compounds,
such as polyphenols, depends on their bioavailability. This
bioavailability can be improved through fermentation or
enzymatic treatments, and therefore, the nutritional bene-
fits of WG breads can be boosted with enzymatic pretreat-
ments of the brans, or by the fermentative processes of
bread making (Angelino et al., 2017; Saleh, Wang, Wang,
Yang, & Xiao, 2019). This will be addressed further on in
this review.
2.2 Differences according to the cultivar
It is known that genetic and cultivar conditions affect con-
siderably the composition of the endosperm, and there-
fore, the nutritional values and the functionality of refined
flours. For this reason, genetics has focused on the pro-
tein content of cereals (Roy et al., 2020; Wenefrida, Utomo,
& Linscombe, 2013), both to improve their nutritional
value and its functionality, in the case of wheat. Regarding
wheat, research has mostly focused on the proteins present
5
in the endosperm, as these proteins form the gluten net-
work and are a key to the functionality of wheat flours
(Payne, 1987). Nonetheless, genetics has also influenced
the composition of other parts of the grain. Thus, great
differences have been observed between wheat varieties
in the content of minerals such as iron or zinc (Monaste-
rio & Graham, 2000). Recently, Cu et al. (2020) reported
the importance of wheat genoma on the concentration of
multiple micronutrients (zinc, iron, copper, manganese,
and phosphorus). Vignola, Moiraghi, Salvucci, Baroni, and
Pérez (2016) also observed the influence of genetics on
the content of other minerals, as well as—together with
environmental conditions—on the content and type of
arabinoxylans present in WWF. In fact, genetics have a
major influence on the dietary fiber content of grains
and the characteristics of this fiber (Ciudad-Mulero et al.,
2020; Shewry & Lovegrove, 2014). In the same way, genet-
ics influence the content of B-group vitamins (thiamine,
riboflavin and pyridoxine) in wheat grains (Batifoulier,
Verny, Chanliaud, Rémésy, & Demigné, 2006). In addition,
wheat pericarp color can vary from white to black or from
red to blue, although the majority of commercial wheats
are classified as red or white. Y. Li et al. (2015) found that
lighter varieties have lower polyphenol and flavonoid con-
tent than darker ones. These differences in the function
of the genetics have been corroborated by Verma, Hucl,
and Chibbar (2008) in a study on the phenolic content and
antioxidant capacity of bran obtained from different wheat
cultivars. Similarly, differences in tocotrienol and tocophe-
nol (vitamin E) content have been observed depending on
the color of the wheat (genetics) and the growing con-
ditions (Lachman, Hejtmánková, Orsák, Popov, & Mar-
tinek, 2018). These genetic variations in the content of
bioactive compounds generate differences in the anti-
inflammatory and antiproliferative activities against col-
orectal adenocarcinoma cells (Whent et al., 2012). There-
fore, although the baking quality of the wheat must be
taken into account, genetic improvement can also be ori-
entated toward obtaining wheat with better nutritional
characteristics.
In addition, other factors that do not affect the quality
of refined wheat flours should also be taken into account,
as they do affect the baking quality of WWFs, for example,
bran friability, which is an important factor in the particle
size of the flours and therefore in their functionality, and
varies among cultivars (Gélinas & Mckinnon, 2011).
2.3 Differences according to the milling
process
A significant proportion of the consumed WWF is pro-
duced in roller mills (Jones et al., 2015). Roller milling
6 Whole wheat flour effect in breads. . .
involves separation of the endosperm from the bran
and germ followed by a gradual size reduction of the
endosperm. The production of WWF is achieved by blend-
ing bran and germ with the endosperm, obtaining a recon-
stitution/recombination in the occurring proportions in
the wheat grains. In this milling process, the shear and
compressive forces on endosperm are minimal, generat-
ing less heat and resulting in a lower loss of heat-sensitive
components in the flour (Posner & Hibbs, 2005). WWF can
also be produced with stone mills, hammer mills, ultra-
fine mills, or other techniques. Stone mills simultaneously
use compression, shear, and abrasion to mill wheat kernels
between two stones, and produce a WWF with a theoreti-
cal extraction rate of 100% (Posner & Hibbs, 2005). In ham-
mer mills, wheat grains are reduced in size by impact and
forced to pass through a perforated screen by hammers,
creating heat and friction. Due to this, the flour heats up
and loses moisture. Prabhasankar and Haridas Rao (2001)
found that the temperatures reached in stone mills were
higher than those reached in hammer mills, while roller
mills had the lowest (90, 55, and 35 ◦ C, respectively). These
authors observed that the systems that heated wheat flours
the most generated products with greater protein degra-
dation, especially in the high molecular glutenin regions,
greater loss of amino acids, and a lower content of unsat-
urated fatty acids, regardless of the type of wheat milled.
The higher friction is generated in stone and hammer
mills, which can also result in increase of damaged starch
(Doblado-Maldonado, Pike, Sweley, & Rose, 2012). How-
ever, these results can also vary depending on the regu-
lation of the mills and the preconditioning of the wheat
grains. In fact, Cappelli, Oliva, and Cini (2020) pointed out
the benefits of using stone mills under certain conditions.
Nonetheless, these authors also state that both stone and
roller mills have advantages and disadvantages, and that
the optimal milling system is a function of the aim of the
process, keeping in mind business needs and flour product
demand.
One of the key differences in WWF produced by dif-
ferent milling processes is the particle sizes. It has to be
taken into account that the differences in particle size
distribution affect functionality, composition, nutritional
quality, sensory acceptability, and shelf life of whole-wheat
products. For example, the reduction of bran particle size
can increase the total phenolic content, flavonoid con-
tent, anthocyanin content, carotenoids concentration
(beta caroten, zeaxanthin, and lutein), and oxygen radical
absorbance capacity value (Brewer, Kubola, Siriamornpun,
Herald, & Shi, 2014). For their part, Rosa, Barron, Gaiani,
Dufour, and Micard (2013) also verified that the reduction
of the bran particle size increased its antioxidant capacity,
proportionally to the increase of the specific surface.
Doblado-Maldonado and Rose (2013) found large differ-
ences between the particle sizes of commercial WWFs,
which they attributed to the differences in the degree to
which the bran fraction of the kernel was milled. Roller
mills reduce particle size of endosperm flour while main-
taining the bran particles in relatively large pieces, while
stone and hammer mills lack this system (Posner & Hibbs,
2005). This is supported by the results of Carcea et al.
(2019), who found that flours obtained with stone mills
have a higher percentage of fractions with smaller particle
size. However, the bran obtained from the roller milling
process may also be reworked or micronized before being
incorporated back into the flour from the endosperm. The
ultrafine mill allows WWFs with finer particle sizes to be
obtained. Small particles have a high surface-to-volume
ratio and area, and thereby, improve solubility of dry
products, increasing water absorption, and accessibility
for chemical reactions (Protonotariou, Drakos, Evage-
liou, Ritzoulis, & Mandala, 2014, 2020). However, this
type of milling can affect the endosperm by increasing
the amount of damaged starch and thus modifying the
pasting and thermal properties (Angelidis, Protonotariou,
Mandala, & Rosell, 2016). These changes can have a
major influence on the functionality of flours in different
applications.
Humidifying the wheat grains before milling can also
change the characteristics of the flours. For example,
a prewashing of the grains can reduce the content of
protein, phytic acid, free phenolic, and ash of the flours,
by passing these to the wash water, increasing the starch
content, and facilitating its hydrolysis (Kandil, Li, Vasan-
than, Bressler, & Tyler, 2011). In addition, low-moisture
tempering increases the particle size of the bran after
milling (Doblado-Maldonado, Flores, & Rose, 2013). This
technique has been used when producing refined wheat
flours to better separate the bran from the endosperm in
milling systems by using sieves.
These differences between the wheat flours obtained
with the different milling systems result in different bak-
ing qualities. Accordingly, Kihlberg, Johansson, Kohler,
and Risvik (2004) observed that the milling system had a
greater influence on bread quality than the cultivar, envi-
ronmental conditions, or the baking technique used. In
this study, the flours obtained with a stone mill had higher
values of damaged starch, extensographics (resistance
and energy), and farinographic values (water absorption,
dough development time, and dough stability) than
roller-milled flours. Differences were also observed in the
sensory characteristics of the breads depending on the
milling system. However, the differences between the var-
ious milling systems may differ depending on the variety
of wheat used in the process (Y. Liu et al., 2015), especially
depending on its hardness. Therefore, not all varieties
may be equally adapted to different milling systems. This
Whole wheat flour effect in breads. . .
was confirmed by Ross and Kongraksawech (2018). This
study also confirms that other characteristics, such as the
regulation or features of the mills, and especially the final
particle size of the flour obtained, are more decisive than
the type of mill, with those that obtain flours with smaller
particle size being preferable, as long as a high level of
damaged starch is not generated. The effect of milling reg-
ulation has been analyzed by Khalid, Manthey, and Simsek
(2017) in an ultracentrifugal mill. These authors concluded
that together with the initial moisture of the grain, the
feed rate and rotor speed influence the characteristics of
the flours and hence their suitability for baking processes.
Nevertheless, these studies must be carried out for each
type of mill and each variety of wheat to draw general
conclusions.
3 INCONVENIENCES OF WWF
CONSUMPTION
As already stated, the bioactive compounds are indeed
mostly concentrated in the wheat grain outer layers,
implying that their levels in WWF are higher than in
refined wheat flour. However, contaminants such as
agrochemicals, microorganisms, mycotoxins, and heavy
metals can also be localized in the grains outer layers
(Cheli et al., 2010; Kolberg, Prestes, Adaime, & Zanella,
2011; Laca, Mousia, Díaz, Webb, & Pandiella, 2006). There-
fore, these contaminants could remain in larger amounts
in WWF because there is no separation of fractions in
the milling process when compared with white wheat
flour. This could have the potential to result in serious
public health consequences (Sabillón & Bianchini, 2016).
Thankfully, legislation in different countries bans the
commercialization of products with high levels of these
contaminants, and some companies set stricter limits
depending on the destination of these products.
3.1 Pesticide residues
Studies on the presence of pesticide residues in wheat
normally find a nonhazardous amount of them, within
the limits established by international legislation (Bordin,
Minetto, do Nascimento Filho, Beal, & Moura, 2017), but
the control of this parameter is especially important in
WG flours compared to white flours. Limitations on their
use will depend on the destination of the flour. It is known
that certain processes, such as baking in general (Sharma,
Satya, Kumar, & Tewary, 2005) and fermentation (D̄ord̄ević
& D̄urović-Pejčev, 2016) or cooking (Uygun, Senoz, Öztürk,
& Koksel, 2009), in particular, can reduce the presence of
these residues. It is also possible to reduce their quantity
7
through prolonged storage of the wheat grains (Fleurat-
Lessard, Chaurand, Marchegay, & Abecassis, 2007). On
the other hand, it should be borne in mind that the use of
pesticides can reduce the risk of mycotoxins (da Luz, Paz-
diora, Dallagnol, Dors, & Chaves, 2017); therefore, when
used in the right doses and over the recommended periods,
they can have more advantages than disadvantages.
3.2 Mycotoxins
Among the negative changes in the chemical composition
of wheat grain, the production of mycotoxins is one of
the several consequences of mold growth (Duarte, Pena,
& Lino, 2010). The most predominant mold species after
harvest belong to the genus Alternatia, Cladosporium, and
Fusarium, whereas after the storage the dominant ones
are those belonging to Aspergillus and Penicillium, which
together with Fusarium produce mycotoxins (Blandino
et al., 2013). Mycotoxins have various negative effects
on human health and represent another important risk
associated with whole-wheat products (Bianchini et al.,
2015; Pitt, 2000; Rodríguez-Amaya & Sabino, 2002).
The mycotoxins of greatest significance in wheat grains
include deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEA),
produced by Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium
culmorum, respectively, during wheat flowering, and
ochratoxin (OTA), produced by Penicillium verrucosum
and Aspergillus ochraceus during wheat storage (Duarte
et al., 2010).
White flours contain DON levels that are 10 to 20
times lower than the observed levels in the bran frac-
tions (Bianchini et al., 2015; Cheli et al., 2010; Tibola,
Fernandes, Guarienti, & Nicolau, 2015) or in whole-wheat
foods (Fardet, 2010; Savi et al., 2016; Sovrani et al., 2012).
In the same way, the content of OTA is much higher in
whole-wheat grains than in white flours, its content being
approximately double in WWFs (Peng et al., 2015). The
ZEA content is also higher in the outer layers than in the
endosperm, this difference being greater than in the case
of DON (Schwake-Anduschus et al., 2015). These levels
of mycotoxins can be decreased initially by cleaning to
remove dust and broken grains (Duarte et al., 2010). The
removal of the outermost layers of the wheat grain by light
pearling can also help to reduce the level of mycotoxins,
as their concentration is higher in these layers (Spaggiari
et al., 2019). There are some studies that observed the
influence of the type of milling process on the mycotoxins
levels, with contradictory results, as pointed out in the
review of Cappelli et al. (2020). Some authors state that
different milling processes (stone mills versus roller mills)
do not modify mycotoxin content (Albergamo et al., 2018),
while others reported that stone mills reduce the toxins
8 Whole wheat flour effect in breads. . .
content in flour, unlike roller mills (Palpacelli, Beco,
& Ciani, 2007). Recently, Wan, Chen, and Rao (2020)
published a review regarding the strategies to control
mycotoxins in cereal-based food, and concluded that using
one or another milling does not modify mycotoxin content,
although milling process can influence the distribution of
the mycotoxins in different milling fractions.
It has to be considered that OTA is a heat-stable
molecule that can survive most food processes, and
therefore, it appears in final products (Cabañas, Bragulat,
Abarca, Castellá, & Cabañes, 2008). In fact, OTA content
can even be increased with some bread-making processes,
such as those of steamed breads, while other processes
help to reduce its content, but do not fully eliminate it
(Peng et al., 2015). Milani and Heidari (2017) observed
that in conventional baking processes, some reduction
in OTA content occurred, with baking being the stage
where the greatest reduction of this mycotoxin occurs.
These authors also observed that the type of yeast used
during fermentation also had a significant influence on
the reduction during the fermentation process. Although
OTA is more stable than DON in a baking treatment, there
are certain DON derivatives that are quite stable in baking.
In addition, it has to be considered that wheat bran may
contain hidden DON that may be enzymatically released
during the bread-making process, for example, when
the fermentation temperature is close to 30 ◦ C (Vidal,
Ambrosio, Sanchis, Ramos, & Marín, 2016), a temperature
that is very frequent in these kinds of processes. It has also
been proved that the usage of common enzymes (such as
xylanases and amylases) in bread-making processes can
increase DON levels in the obtained breads (Vidal, Sanchis,
Ramos, & Marín, 2017). Nonetheless, Tibola et al. (2018)
have shown that DON levels are reduced in significant per-
centages (39% and 49%) in final breads when comparing
with both WWF and refined flours. To further reduce the
presence of these toxins, it may be interesting to increase
baking times or temperatures (Vidal, Sanchis, Ramos, &
Marín, 2015). Nevertheless, it must not be forgotten that
this could increase the acrylamide content (Przygodzka
et al., 2015), something undesirable because of its toxicity.
For its part, the reduction of ZEA in baking processes is
greater than that of other mycotoxins (Bol, Araujo, Veras,
& Welke, 2016), probably because of its lower thermal
stability.
It seems clear that most mycotoxins can be reduced in
concentration by heat treatment, although their tolerance
to this type of treatment varies. This is well addressed
in the review by Bullerman and Bianchini (2007), and
they conclude that the roasting and extrusion process—in
temperatures higher than 150 ◦ C—appears to reduce
mycotoxin concentrations to a higher degree, although
these treatments will also modify the nutritional profile
of the extrudates, differently depending on the applied
process (e.g., denaturalization of thermolabile vitamins
(Athar et al., 2006)). These changes should be taken into
account, something recently addressed in the reviews of
De Pilli and Alessandrino (2020) and Menis-Henrique,
Scarton, Piran, and Clerici (2020). In this way, it is possible
to reduce the concentration of mycotoxins in WG flours
by thermally treating the bran and then reincorporating
it into the flour, so that the fractions coming from the
endosperm—composed mainly of starch and protein—are
not affected in their functional properties. However, it
must be made from grains with a low mycotoxin content,
within the limits set by legislation. To this end, extreme
care must be taken in production, and especially in the
storage of wheat grains, controlling humidity and carrying
out the necessary treatments to limit mycotoxin content
as much as possible.
3.3 FODMAPs
In recent years, there has been a growing interest in diets
that are low in fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccha-
rides, monosaccharides, and polyols (FODMAPs). These
molecules are poorly absorbed in the small intestine
and rapidly fermented by bacteria in the large intestine,
resulting in the production of short-chain fatty acids and
gases like hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and methane (Gibson
& Shepherd, 2010). It is well known that the intake of
FODMAPs induces abdominal symptoms such as pain,
bloating, nausea, and disturbed bowel habit in people
suffering from irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) (Gold-
stein, Braverman, & Stankiewicz, 2000; Halmos, Power,
Shepherd, Gibson, & Muir, 2014). Unfortunately, this
syndrome is suffered by between 7% and 15% of the world’s
population (Tuck, Muir, Barrett, & Gibson, 2014). Wheat
grains have fructan values between 0.7% and 2.9%, mostly
concentrated in the bran (Haskå, Nyman, & Andersson,
2008); hence, WWFs have higher fructan content than
refined ones. Although during fermentation some of these
fructans (50% to 80%) are hydrolyzed by the yeast, their
levels in the final breads (both white and whole wheat)
are almost always above the cutoff value—0.2 g per serve
(∼49 g)—which is considered to be a risk for inducing
symptoms in IBS patients (Varney et al., 2017). It is known
that there are microorganisms with a greater capacity to
reduce the level of fructans. Thus, in recent years, the use
of certain microorganisms (e.g., Saccharomyces cerevisiae
and Torulaspora delbrueckii) has been proposed to reduce
the level of FODMAPs in whole-wheat breads through
fermentation (Fraberger, Call, Domig, & D’Amico, 2018;
Loponen & Gänzle, 2018; Struyf, Vandewiele, et al., 2018;
Struyf, Verspreet, & Courtin, 2018).
Whole wheat flour effect in breads. . .
3.4 Rancidity
Another disadvantage of whole-wheat products is the
increased presence of lipids. Although the presence of
lipids in WWFs does not reach 4%, their content comes
mostly from the outer layers of the grain (bran and germ)
and, due to the lipase activity levels, it is sufficient to
cause rancidity, and hence, when used in food systems,
their presence results in lower product quality. It has been
proven that most of the lipases in the bran are concen-
trated in the more external parts (peripheral layers), so it
has also been proposed to abrade these tissues by pearling
prior to milling to improve storage stability (De Brier
& Delcour, 2017). Steaming treatments have also been
proposed to reduce lipase activity in WWFs (De Almeida,
Pareyt, Gerits, & Delcour, 2014). These treatments are
interesting because they can inactivate lipases without
gelatinizing the starch. Dry heat treatments of the external
layers of the grain have also been proposed to inactivate
the enzymes that cause rancidity (Jacobs, Hemdane, Del-
cour, & Courtin, 2016). These outer layers could then be
added to the white flour to obtain a WWF. However, these
treatments can change the functional properties of the
bran, since they reduce the speed at which it is hydrated
(Jacobs et al., 2016). In general, heat treatments applied
to the bran can extend the life of the WWFs for periods
longer than 12 months without reducing its antioxidant
potential (Rose, Ogden, Dunn, & Pike, 2008).
3.5 Organoleptic properties
Perhaps, one of the biggest drawbacks of products made
from WWFs is their poorer organoleptic profile and hence
poorer consumer acceptance (Bakke & Vickers, 2007;
Heiniö et al., 2016; Kuznesof et al., 2012). In general,
whole-wheat breads or breads where bran is incorporated
have a darker color, a specific flavor, less specific volume,
and a denser texture (Heiniö et al., 2016). Many articles
dealing with whole-wheat breads analyze characteris-
tics related to these parameters, such as volume, color,
honeycombing, or texture, using instrumental methods.
However, these methods do not give complete informa-
tion about the sensory quality as aspects such as taste,
aroma, and mouth feel cannot be completely analyzed
by instrumental methods. It is curious that although the
inclusion of product acceptability in articles addressing
the improvement of whole-wheat breads should be very
important, it is not always addressed in the available
literature, and when done, not all available studies include
a refined wheat bread for comparison as a control (e.g.,
Kihlberg et al. 2004; Parenti, Guerrini, Cavallini, Baldi,
& Zanoni, 2020; or Talbert et al., 2013). However, there
9
are some studies that compared the sensory attributes of
refined wheat breads versus whole-wheat breads (Bakke
& Vickers, 2007; Challacombe, Abdel-Aal, Seethara-
man, & Duizer, 2012; Chang & Chambers, 1992; Keeney,
Mohamadi, Tsao, Planck, & Ramsay, 2015; Watts et al.,
2012; Worden, Keeney, Smith, Tsao, & Ramsay, 2016),
focusing on the aroma and taste differences between
refined and whole-wheat breads. From these studies,
Keeney et al. (2015)) and Worden et al. (2016) evaluated
sensory preference of whole-wheat breads, reporting a
more frequent liking of refined breads. Nevertheless, these
results should be considered taking into account that these
studies where preformed with kids (aged between 3 and 5),
and sensory preference of adults could be different. Bakke
and Vickers (2007) also evaluated sensory acceptance of
whole-wheat breads with respect to refined bread (among
adults), showing a higher acceptance of the refined ones.
The potential low acceptability of WG products could be
reduced by promoting its consumption, as De Leon et al.
(2020) showed that after exposing a group of consumers to
WG products (6 weeks), consumer acceptance and liking
of WG products improves in terms of liking, flavor, texture,
and willingness to include them in the diet improved.
More detailed information regarding the sensorial profile
of WG products (including whole-wheat breads) can be
found in the review of Grafenauer, Miglioretto, Solah, and
Curtain (2020). According to the available literature, one
of the main problems of whole-wheat products is their
more bitter taste and characteristic aroma (Heiniö et al.,
2016). The aroma of the bread is formed during the fermen-
tation and baking processes, but according to Czerny and
Schieberle (2002), WWFs have a higher amount of volatile
compounds and amino acids (precursors of aromatic
substances), which influences the final aroma of whole-
wheat bread, and hence, its differences to white bread. In
this line, Jiang and Peterson (2013) reported the Maillard
reaction was a main mechanism of bitterness development
in whole-wheat bread crust. Bin, Jiang, Cho, and Peterson
(2012) reported that the concentration of the bitter com-
pounds was, in fact, related with the bitterness perception
by a sensory panel. Regarding bitterness of the crumb of
whole-wheat breads, it seems that it is mainly driven by
the oxidative changes of linoleic acid during baking (Bin
& Peterson, 2016). Unfortunately, none of these studies
analyzed preference/sensory acceptability. On the other
hand, the greater bitterness of WG products is also related
to the greater presence of phenolic compounds (Heiniö
et al., 2008), since these are more concentrated in bran and
WWFs, as previously addressed in this review. Studies to
improve these aspects in bread are rare and are focused on
the effect of wheat color, prefermentation of the bran, or
controlled germination of the wheat prior to milling, as dis-
cussed below. As indicated by Heiniö et al. (2016), the use
10
of sweeteners and salt to mask the bitterness of WG prod-
ucts is common, but there is no research in this area. In
addition, a higher content of sugars or salt is not advisable
at a nutritional level either. Similarly, there is no research
on other possibilities of masking these flavors through
the use of other ingredients or additives. Changes in
texture and mouthfeel of whole-wheat breads are also not
limited to what a texturometer can measure, and aspects
such as juiciness, or the effect of chewing different sized
pieces of bran must be analyzed through sensory methods,
which are not usually used in most studies. The cost and
availability of whole-wheat products are also barriers
toward consumer liking (Dror, Rimon, & Vaida, 2020).
4 HOW TO IMPROVE THE QUALITY
OF WHOLE-GRAIN WHEAT FLOURS AND
WHOLE-GRAIN BREADS
4.1 Analysis of the functionality of
whole-grain wheat flours for baking
As previously addressed in this review, the success of
wheat flours in breads depends on the gluten protein
fraction, which is formed by about 80% to 85% of total
wheat proteins and performs a key role in the rheological
properties by its ability to form dough (Shewry, 2009). In
fact, the techniques and technologies for the breadmak-
ing process with unrefined wheat flours were recently
reviewed by Parenti, Guerrini, and Zanoni (2020). Most
WG flours are obtained by mixing white flours with the
parts that have been separated from the endosperm during
the roller milling, and the flour producers usually base
their quality controls on those made on the white flours,
dismissing the influence of the bran. However, as observed
by Seyer and Gélinas (2009), the characteristics of the
bran also influence the quality of the breads. As previously
addressed, according to these authors, the friability of
the bran, and therefore, its particle size in the final flour,
seems to be correlated with the final volume of the bread
obtained, while its fiber content had no significant effect.
For their part, Cai, Choi, Lee, Park, and Baik (2014) found
a correlation between insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) con-
tent, phytate content, and water retention capacity of bran
and the volume of bread, but in this case, bran of different
varieties of wheat was added to the same white flour.
Nonetheless, Gélinas and Mckinnon (2011) observed that
the correlation between volume data obtained with WWF
and white flours and the water retention capacity of their
components were inconsistent. These researchers also
found no correlation between absorption data and farino-
graphic stability between WWF and white flours, although
in general whole flours had higher absorption values and
Whole wheat flour effect in breads. . .
lower stability. In a previous study, Bruckner, Habernicht,
Carlson, Wichman, and Talbert (2001) found better corre-
lations when they separated the samples by type of wheat
(spring or winter), something that in practice is often not
known. Therefore, traditional analyses of flours to predict
the volume of breads with white flours may not be valid
to predict the behavior of WWFs, as already suggested by
Parenti et al. (2020), and new methods adapted to these
flours should be developed or studied.
Many companies have not deepened their knowledge
of WWFs because the percentage of sales of these flours
is very residual compared to white flours. However, the
study of the correlations between the different analyses of
the flours and the characteristics of the obtained breads
has been addressed in different articles, but mainly with
white flours. Németh, Bánfalvi, Csendes, Kemény, and
Tömösközi (2018) have recently undertaken this particular
study for a laboratory bread-making procedure (macro-
and microscale). But there are many other similar previ-
ous studies (Dobraszczyk & Salmanowicz, 2008; Kieffer,
Wieser, Henderson, & Graveland, 1998; Stojceska & Butler,
2012; Thanhaeuser, Wieser, & Koehler, 2014). However,
similar studies with WWFs are needed. In the same way,
it is necessary to study whether the classical methods
of flour analysis are valid or require changes in the way
they are carried out or in the interpretation of the results.
For example, alveograph analysis cannot be carried out
on many of the WWFs, and farinograph analysis can
give anomalous results (Stauffer, 1990), which indicates
that in doughs rich in fiber, two peaks may appear on
the farinograph curve, and only the second should be
considered as the development of the dough, since the
first one may correspond to absorption of the fiber. In the
same way, it may be convenient to adapt the baking tests,
modifying the fermentation times and hydration levels of
the doughs (Steinfurth, Koehler, Seling, & Mühling, 2012).
4.2 Influence of bran particle size in
whole-grain breads
The fact that the volume of whole-wheat breads is lower
than their counterparts made with white flours has been
reported in numerous studies (Bruckner et al., 2001;
Gélinas & Mckinnon, 2011; Lin et al., 2020; Wang, Hou, &
Dubat, 2017). This effect has been explained by the dilution
of the gluten content in WWFs, but as Hemdane et al.
(2016) pointed out, this cannot be the only explanation,
as factors such as particle size or type of bran affect the
volume of the breads. Therefore, the explanation for this
effect must also be sought in the physical, chemical, and
biochemical properties of the bran. The influence of the
bran on the gluten secondary structure during the baking
Whole wheat flour effect in breads. . .
process is thus pointed out by Bock (2019). This author
found that the presence of bran triggers the formation of
additional β-sheets in gluten structure, which can have
a negative effect on the final volume, as proteins have a
role to play in maintaining loaf volume through the ability
to maintain a certain critical threshold of β-turn protein
structures. However, the dilution of gluten is undoubtedly
one of the causes of the adverse effect of WWFs on bread
volume. In fact, Baik (2019) proposes elaborating the
doughs in a first step only with the refined flour, and to
incorporate the bran once the gluten network has been
developed, to reduce the adverse effects of this on the
specific volume and crumb structure of steamed breads.
Apart from the quantity of bran, one of the most studied
characteristics of the bran regarding its influence in bread
volume has been its particle size. In the milling process,
different types of bran are obtained (fine weatings, coarse
bran, and coarse weatings), which correspond to different
parts of the bran and therefore can present a different com-
position, and also present different particle sizes depend-
ing on the phase at which they are separated. Hemdane
et al. (2015), who evaluated the effect of brans of different
particle sizes obtained with a roller mill, observed that the
finer bran (fine weatings) reduced the volume of the bread
more significantly than the thicker ones (coarse bran and
coarse weatings). This effect may be due to both the parti-
cle size and the different composition of these brans. In the
preparation of a WG flour, the white flour should be mixed
with the fractions obtained in the milling processes in the
same proportions as in the grains, but this is not always
the case, and sometimes, the proportions of the different
brans are not the same, or these fractions do not come
from the same wheats. The effect of the bran particle size
on the volume of the breads is somewhat contradictory.
While some studies claim that the smaller the particle size
(obtained by crushing the coarse bran fraction of the bran),
the smaller the volume and quality of the bread (Noort,
van Haaster, Hemery, Schols, & Hamer, 2010), others
claim that a smaller particle size gives breads with greater
volume (Wang et al., 2017) and still others claim that the
optimum is found with an intermediate particle size (Coda
et al., 2014; Zhang & Moore, 1999). Recently, Protonotar-
iou, Stergiou, Christaki, and Mandala (2020) reported no
significant differences between breads elaborated with
WG wheat flours of different particle sizes (between 84 and
18 μm), while Lin et al. (2020) reported significantly higher
specific volumes with fine particle sizes (they compared
particle size ranging from 199 to 1315 μm) although in
these cases, the mentioned sizes correspond to all the flour
and not only the bran size. In the review on the effect of
wheat bran on bread quality carried out by Hemdane et al.
(2016), the same conclusion is reached about the absence
of a clear effect of particle size on bread volume, and the
11
contradictory results in different studies. These authors
associate the influence of particle size with changed
hydration properties, but also as being due to an increased
specific surface of bran and an increased accessibility of
cell components. Hemdane et al. (2016) also attribute the
contradictions to the different baking techniques used, or
to the different varieties of wheat used. In a later study,
Navrotskyi, Guo, Baenziger, Xu, and Rose (2019) provided
some clarification of this effect. Looking at 80 different
bran types, with two particle sizes in all cases, they found
that the influence of the bran type was much greater than
that of the particle size, but that the finer bran types gener-
ated higher specific volume and softer breads. In this study,
the fine bran (462.8 microns) was much coarser than those
analyzed in other studies as fine, which could support the
theory that an intermediate particle size is preferable to
achieve whole-wheat breads with a higher volume.
Regarding the dough behavior, Navrotskyi et al. (2019)
found a correlation between some components of the
bran, mainly protein and ash, and the properties analyzed
with the mixograph, as well as a negative correlation
between the water-holding capacity of the bran, partly
influenced by particle size, and the volume and texture
of the breads. However, in this study, the water-holding
capacity was lower in the case of the fine bran, contrary to
what is usually considered in the literature. In the study
by Bressiani et al. (2017), unlike what was observed by
Navrotskyi et al. (2019), a clear influence of particle size
reduction on mixing properties was found, by increasing
water absorption and reducing dough development time.
It should be noted that the study by Bressiani et al.
(2017) analyzed bran with a much smaller particle size
(194.98 mm) than that of Navrotskyi et al. (2019), but
this does not explain the differences between the larger
particle sizes. On the other hand, it must be taken into
account that in the work of Navrotskyi et al. (2019), 80
different bran sizes were analyzed, so it is possible that
this trend depends on the type of bran analyzed.
The influence of the bran composition on the bread
characteristics is confirmed by Khalid, Ohm, and Sim-
sek (2017) when analyzing the effect of different compo-
nents extracted from the bran (lipids, extractable pheno-
lics, hydrolyzable phenolics, and fiber) on the bread char-
acteristics, with the fiber content being the most influenc-
ing, increasing water absorption and gassing power while
decreasing other dough and baking-quality characteris-
tics, including farinograph stability and bread loaf volume.
Nevertheless, it must be taken into account that the effect
of the isolated components (including the fiber) is not the
same as when they are in the form of bran, and therefore,
these results cannot be taken as a reflection of what would
occur if using bran as a whole, but still this work gives us
an idea of the importance of the composition of the bran.
12 Whole wheat flour effect in breads. . .

TA B L E 3 Significant research studies regarding the influence of bran pretreatments on whole wheat breads
Bran pre-treatment Literature reference
Wetting Lai et al. (1989a)
Lai et al. (1989b)
Zhang et al. (2019)
Heat De Kock et al. (1999)
Gómez et al. (2011)
Nelles et al. (1998)
Wang et al. (1993)
Fermentation Coda et al. (2014)
Hartikainen et al. (2014)
Katina et al. (2006)
Messia et al. (2016)
Pontonio et al. (2017)
Tu et al. (2020)
Main observation
Improved bread specific volume (wetting corse bran)
Improved bread specific volume (wetting shorts)
Improved farinograph stability, structure, and imfinal evaluation of steamed
breads. However, excesive wetting can have and slightly negative effect.
Dry heat-treated brans decreased total reducing substances, inactivated lipases,
and increased loaf volume and height.
Contradictory results. Extrusion of the bran only had a positive effect on specific
volume on breads with improvers in the formulation.
Weat heat-treated brans increassed loaf volume and height but decreased
firmness of breads.
Extruded bran did not affect the loaf volume and height, while aceptability was
slighly decreased
Fermented bran improved the antioxidant capacity, phytosanitary activity, free
amino acid content and protein digestibility
Fermented bran did not modify specific volume or firmness of breads
Fermented bran increased specific volume and shelf life of breads
Fermented bran increased specific volume and moisture content of breads.
Fermented bran improved nutritional profile and increased their specific
volume of breads
Fermented bran improved the nutrition profile and decreased hardness of breads

The effect of WWFs on other types of bread, such as
Chinese steamed bread, has also been studied over the past
few years. For example, Y. Liu et al. (2015), after comparing
the breadmaking performance of different varieties of
wheat white flours (obtained with a roller mill) combined
with the obtained bran after this milling, versus WWFs
obtained by different milling systems (hammer, stone,
and ultrafine mill processes), concluded that the systems
that separate the bran and remix it generate breads with a
higher specific volume and greater height/width ratio than
those elaborated with the whole-wheat grain, regardless of
the treatment given to the bran before mixing it (extrusion,
heating, or grinding). These differences are greater than
those observed between the different types of wheat, and
may be due to the larger particle size of the recombined
flours, although no significant differences were observed
when the mixed bran was remilled. However, the recom-
bined flours in which the bran was remilled before mixing
present better sensory evaluations in the tasting due to
the final color of the breads, which is less dark and the
pieces of bran are not noticeable. It must be taken into
account that Chinese breads, unlike baked breads, present
a whitish color due to the fact that they are finished by
steaming, without exceeding 100 ◦ C and without the Mail-
lard reactions, and the color is highly valued by consumers.
For their part, Wang et al. (2017) observed that reducing
the particle size of the bran in reconstituted flours resulted
in breads with a higher specific volume, unlike those
observed by Y. Liu et al. (2015), although the differences in
texture depended on the variety of wheat used. It should
be noted that in the study by Y. Liu et al. (2015), the specific
volume of whole-wheat breads was higher than those
obtained by Wang et al. (2017), and, in general, there were
hardly any significant differences compared to the control,
while in the study of Wang et al. (2017), there was a clear
decrease in the specific volume compared to breads with-
out bran. This may indicate that different baking systems
may influence the results. As in baked breads, the com-
position of the bran, and especially its water-extractable
arabinoxylans content, also influences the characteristics
of the obtained breads (Ma, Lee, & Baik, 2018), and the
greater the amount of water-extractable arabinoxylans,
the greater the specific volume of these breads.
4.3 Pretreatments of bran
The pretreatment of the bran, which can be applied in
the roller grinding systems, since the bran is previously
separated from the endosperm, allows specific modifica-
tions to be achieved without affecting the rest of the grain
components (Zhang, Wang, Cao, & Wang, 2018). Table 3
highlights some of available studies about the effect of
bran pretreatments in whole-wheat breads. In general,
the effect of bran in baking processes, in addition to its
gluten-dilution effect, has been attributed to its ability to
capture and retain water. In this sense, Hemdane et al.
(2017) observed that the incorporation of bran increased
Whole wheat flour effect in breads. . .
the water absorption on the farinograph analysis, but also
generated a progressive immobilization of water during
dough resting, which could contribute to the reduction of
final volume. To avoid these phenomena in the baking pro-
cess, wetting the bran beforehand has been proposed, and
Zhang, Gao, and He (2019) observed that this technique
improved the farinograph stability, and the structure of
the steamed breads, as well as their final evaluation. These
observations agree with the fact that both coarse bran
(Lai, Hoseney, & Davis, 1989a) and shorts (Lai, Hoseney, &
Davis, 1989b), when presoaked before incorporation into
the kneading process, improve the final volume of the
breads. However, if this prehydration is excessive, either
because of time (Chen, Rubenthaler, Leung, & Bara-
nowski, 1988) or because of the amount of water incorpo-
rated (Zhang et al., 2019), the positive effects of presoaking
can be minimized or even become slightly negative.
Another pretreatment of the bran that has been studied
is a preheat treatment, both dry and wet, to improve
the quality of the resulting breads. In this way, Caprez,
Arrigoni, Amadò, and Neukom (1986), De Kock, Taylor,
and Taylor (1999), and Nelles, Randall, and Taylor (1998)
analyzed the performance of different heat treatments,
such as roasting, boiling, or autoclaving. For their part,
Ralet, Thibault, and Della Valle (1990), Wang, Klopfen-
stein, and Ponte (1993), and Gómez, Jiménez, Ruiz,
and Oliete (2011) have proposed extrusion of the bran to
improve the quality of doughs and breads with added bran.
In general, heat treatments can help to inactivate enzymes,
and in the case of hydrothermal treatments to gelatinize
the residual starch present with the bran. However, as indi-
cated by Hemdane et al. (2016) in their review, the results
are inconclusive and while in some cases, they improve the
volume of the breads, and in others, they have no effect or
make it worse. These results will depend on the treatment
received and its parameters (time, temperature, humidity,
subsequent milling, etc.), as well as on the baking process
and the ingredients used, but no final conclusion can be
reached. In this way, Gómez et al. (2011) observed that
while in breads that included improvers, the volume of
the bread increased with the extrusion of the bran, and in
breads without improvers, this effect was not appreciated.
In any case, extrusion and other heat treatments allow the
inactivation of lipases, reducing rancidity, and can also
be used to stabilize the germ (Gómez, González, & Oliete,
2012), which is richer in oil than bran, without a decrease
in the organoleptic quality of the breads.
Finally, the fermentation of the bran prior to its inclu-
sion in the dough has been proposed. This process can
improve the folate content and the volume and texture of
breads, which has been attributed to enzymatic activity,
especially on arabinoxylans (Katina et al., 2012). In fact,
the incorporation of exogenous enzymes modified the
13
state of fiber in bran, resulting in the solubilization of
arabinoxylans and a slight degradation of the insoluble
fiber improving these effects (Hartikainen, Poutanen, &
Katina, 2014), as well as the incorporation of amylases and
lipases (Katina, Salmenkallio-Marttila, Partanen, Forssell,
& Autio, 2006). However, aspects such as temperature,
fermentation time, and microorganisms present affect the
final result (Katina et al., 2012; Tu et al., 2020). For exam-
ple, Coda, Rizzello, Curiel, Poutanen, and Katina (2014)
showed that fermentation of the bran with starters such
as lactobacillus improved the antioxidant capacity, phy-
tosanitary activity, free amino acid content, and protein
digestibility, but this positive effect was greater if enzymes
were incorporated and if the bran had a smaller particle
size. In the same way, this practice improves the stability
and volume of the breads, although combining these
fermentations with other exogenous enzymes showed
a greater antistaling effect, obtaining the best effects
with an intermediate bran particle size (160 µm) (Coda
et al., 2014). In this study, it was also demonstrated that
reduction of particle size increased perceived smoothness
of mouthfeel but provided darker color in bran-containing
breads. Pontonio, Lorusso, Gobbetti, and Rizzello (2017)
confirmed the improvements in nutrition and in the
volume and texture of breads through the prefermentation
of bran, but also observed that this practice reduced the
glycemic index of breads and improved their sensory
characteristics by increasing salty and acidic flavors. Tu
et al. (2020) showed that fermentation affected positively
bread texture, as well as nutritional profile, but no results
of specific volume were reported. For their part, Messia
et al. (2016) attributed the improvement in the volume
of the breads and the stability of the doughs both to the
increase of soluble arabinoxylans, and to the effect of the
improvement of the gluten network by the lactic acid,
and to the enhancement of the action of the yeasts by the
action of the acidolactic bacteria. In this same research, it
was observed that prefermentative treatments of the bran
made it possible to obtain breads that retained humidity
better and prolonged their shelf life. This effect is partic-
ularly interesting because of the problems of staling of
whole-wheat breads (Sehn & Steel, 2020).
4.4 Influence of bran color (genetics)
As already mentioned in this review, among the different
varieties of wheat, we can find different external colors,
and these colors are related with its composition (includ-
ing bioactive compounds, as previously discussed) and
their effect on the organoleptic properties of the products,
and therefore on their acceptability. Obviously, differences
in the color of breads made from both types of WWFs are
14
easily detectable, as is the taste (Grafenauer et al., 2020).
In fact, to reduce the influence of bran color in sensory
studies, the use of dyes has been proposed (Smith, Ramsay,
Roe, Ferrante, & Brooks, 2019). Some bitterness is detected
in breads made with red varieties and a sweeter taste in
those made with white varieties (McGuire & O’Palka, 1995;
Talbert et al., 2013; Watts et al., 2012). These differences
can be attributed to phenolic compounds, as the bitter
taste of some of them is known (Soares et al., 2013). In
fact, these varieties differ in their phenolic compound
profile, although the total phenolic acid content is similar
(Challacombe et al., 2012). In the same way, although the
differences in the volatile compounds of breads made from
different bran colors are not very important (Chang, Larry,
& Chambers, 1995), they are sufficient for sensory pan-
elists to find differences in the flavor impression of these
breads, especially in the order of appearance and intensity
of the flavor notes (Chang & Chambers, 1992). Despite
the differences in color, taste, and aroma of breads and
products made from white or red wheat, the differences
between their acceptability are not clear. Some studies find
no significant differences (Lang & Walker, 1990), while in
others, consumers prefer products made with red varieties
(Challacombe, Seetharaman, & Duizer, 2011). Camire et al.
(2006), in a study on muffin acceptability, observed that
although no differences in the acceptability of muffins
made from whole red and white wheat flours were found,
consumers perceived muffins made from red wheat as
healthier. The perception of healthiness increased when
the consumer was informed of the flours used. Therefore,
the selection of a wheat of different color in the production
of WWFs influences the organoleptic characteristics of the
products produced, but it cannot be concluded that one or
the other gives products of greater acceptability, and it will
be necessary to make an appropriate study for each case.
4.5 Influence of germ treatments in
whole-grain breads
One of the main issues of the presence of the germ in
whole-wheat breads is related with its fast development of
rancidity when not integrated in the grains (Li et al., 2016),
due to its high content of unsaturated oils (Sjövall et al.,
2000), as previously addressed in this review. Different
approaches can be used to stabilize the germ and delay the
appearance of this rancidity, such as physical, chemical,
and biological treatments (Sjövall et al., 2000). There
are different studies where the effect of both treated and
untreated germ on wheat breads has been addressed (e.g.,
Gómez et al. (2012), Ma et al. (2014), or Marti et al. (2014),
among others). From these studies, it can be concluded
that its effect depends on the type of bread, the addition
Whole wheat flour effect in breads. . .
level, and the pretreatments of the germ (if any), and no
general conclusion can be obtained. For example, Ma et al.
(2014) observed higher crumb firmness and chewiness of
steamed breads enriched with chemically treated germ,
while Marti et al. (2014) observed a decrease of firmness
of sourdough breads enriched with fermented germ. For
its part, Gómez et al. (2012) reported a volume increase in
leavened breads after the inclusion of up to 5% of extruded
germ. This matter was reviewed in depth by Boukid et al.
(2018). However, these studies compared the performance
of white flours enriched with germ versus white flours,
and the percentage of germ was much higher (up to
20%) than the approximately 3% that germ represents in
wheat kernels (Shewry et al., 2013). To the best of our
knowledge, until now there is no research available about
the performance of wheat germ (neither raw nor treated)
in whole-wheat breads. On top of the influence of germ in
the characteristics of whole-wheat breads, it is interesting
to point out its potential to be used as a biomarker to
identify WWF content, as pointed out recently by Killilea,
McQueen, and Abegania (2020), which proposed the
measurement of wheat germ agglutinin, a lecitin naturally
present in wheat germ, for this purpose.
4.6 Germination
One of the most studied aspects in recent years for the
improvement of gluten-free breads has been the use of
sprouted flours. The advantages of germination in the
nutritional characteristics of wheat are widely known and
include a greater availability of nutrients such as proteins
and minerals, as well as a greater antioxidant capacity due
to the greater number of phenolic compounds (Benincasa,
Falcinelli, Lutts, Stagnari, & Galieni, 2019; Lemmens et al.,
2019). During the germination process, a large number of
enzymes are generated that modify the grain, but these
modifications will depend on the times and temperatures
of the process, as well as on the genetics of the grains.
According to Marti, Cardone, Nicolodi, Quaglia, and
Pagani (2017), flours elaborated with these wheat grains
can be used in small proportions as improvers in bread
processes, as they provide amylases that favor the fer-
mentation processes and improve the volume of breads.
Sprouted flours can also be used in higher proportions to
improve the nutritional quality of bread, but in this case,
care must be taken to avoid using flours with too high
levels of germination, or not to include doses of sprouted
flours that are too high (Marti, Cardone, Pagani, & Casir-
aghi, 2018). This is because the enzymatic activity of flours
can be harmful in high doses to the baking process as it
weakens the doughs and reduces gas retention. In the case
of whole-wheat breads, Johnston et al. (2019) observed
Whole wheat flour effect in breads. . .
that with a controlled germination of the grain to obtain
flours with a falling number close to 200 (compared to
352 of the original wheat), the volume of the breads could
be increased and the sensory acceptability improved.
Something similar was achieved by Poudel, Finnie, and
Rose (2019) by incorporating percentages of up to 10% of
flours obtained from wheat germinated during different
times. Recently, Cardone, D’Incecco, Pagani, and Marti
(2020) reported that sprouting at industrial level (for 48
hr at 20 ◦ C, 90% relative humidity) increased the specific
volume and decreased hardness of WG wheat breads. In
general, the incorporation of sprouted flours improved
the volume and texture of the breads. These flours have
nutritional advantages, such as a higher lysine content and
γ-aminobutyric acid, as well as a greater availability of the
minerals, but also disadvantages. For example, a higher
content of lipolytic activities can reduce the shelf life of
flours and a higher content of free asparagine can increase
the acrylamide content of breads. Montemurro, Pontonio,
Gobbetti, and Rizzello (2019) proposed a combination
between the use of whole-wheat sprouted flours and
their fermentation by acid-lactic bacteria to improve the
nutritional and sensory quality of breads, as they increase
the lactic/acetic ratio of breads through germination, as
opposed to flours without germination.
4.7 Improvement with additives and
enzymes
The use of enzymes and additives to improve the quality
of whole-wheat breads has been addressed in the review
of Tebben, Shen, and Li (2018). Regarding the possibility
of improving the quality of whole-wheat breads with the
use of additives or enzymes, some studies confirm that
many of those used in conventional baking are also useful
for the development of whole-wheat breads. For example,
the use of alpha-amylases, which allow the generation of
fermentable sugars from damaged starch, helps to increase
the volume and reduce the hardness of both white and
whole-wheat breads (Armero & Collar, 1996), or that of
breads elaborated with mixtures of white and WWFs
(Matsushita et al., 2017). Altınel and Ünal (2017a, 2017b)
also reported that other enzymes, such as glucose oxidase,
hemicellulose, and phospholipase + hemicellulose, can be
used to improve the characteristics of dough and bread pre-
pared from WWF. From all the enzymes, hemicellulases
are the most studied enzymes to modify the components
of bran with positive results, and among these, xylanases
stand out (Altınel & Ünal, 2017a, 2017b; Butt, Tahir-
Nadeem, Ahmad, & Sultan, 2008; Courtin & Delcour,
2002; Driss et al., 2013; Ghoshal, Shivhare, & Banerjee,
2013; Park, Fuerst, & Baik, 2019; Shah, Shah, & Madamwar,
15
2006). These enzymes are also used with white flours,
but as the content of arabinoxylans in the bran is higher
than in the endosperm, these enzymes may be even more
useful in whole-wheat breads. The inclusion of xylanases
reduces the farinographic absorption, and improves the
gas retention capacity of the doughs and the volume
of the breads, as well as reducing their hardness and
increasing water retention during baking. An improve-
ment in the organoleptic quality of the breads was also
observed.
In the same way, some emulsifiers, such as diacetyl
tartaric acid ester of monoglycerides (DATEMs) or sodium
stearoyl lactylate (SSL), whose effectiveness had already
been demonstrated in white breads as giving tolerance in
fermentation, increasing the volume of the breads, and
reducing their hardness and staling (Gómez et al., 2004),
have similar results in whole-wheat breads (Indrani &
Rao, 1992a; Mettler & Seibel, 1993). Since in whole-wheat
breads, gluten proportion is lower than in white breads,
oxidizing additives are also useful, allowing the gluten
network to be strengthened, the gas retention capac-
ity to be improved, and the volume of the bread to be
increased (Stauffer, 1990). Among the oxidants, ascorbic
acid has been successfully tested (Galliard & Collins, 1988;
Indrani & Rao, 1992a, 1992b). This aligns with the already
mentioned positive effect of glucose oxidase (Altınel
& Ünal, 2017a, 2017b), which is an oxidizing enzyme.
But perhaps, the most widely used ingredient in the
preparation of whole-wheat bread, to compensate for the
dilution of gluten, is vital gluten itself (Day, Augustin,
Batey, & Wrigley, 2006; Indrani & Rao, 1992a; Lai, Davis,
& Hoseney, 1989).
Other additives that can also improve the quality of
whole-wheat breads are hydrocolloids (Mettler & Seibel,
1993; Parenti et al., 2020; Sudha & Rao, 2009; Zannini,
Waters, & Arendt, 2014). These studies show that the use
of hydrocolloids involves an increase in the hydration of
the doughs, but the results regarding their influence on
the rheology of the doughs, the volume of the bread, or
the texture are contradictory. Therefore, it seems that the
results depend on the method of baking, as well as on the
dose and type of hydrocolloid used and how the hydration
adjustment is done. However, the higher hydration of the
doughs and the water-retention capacity of the hydrocol-
loids can generate more humid breads, compensating for
the typical dryness of WG products (Heiniö et al., 2016). In
a recent study, Tebben and Li (2019) analyzed the ability of
xanthan gum to improve the quality of gluten-free bread.
They agree with previous studies on the need to increase
water absorption and dough development times, but they
achieve a clear increase in the volume of the breads and
a reduction in hardness. In addition, breads with xanthan
gum lost less moisture over time.
16
Enzymes and additives can be added not only to improve
the characteristics of the WG final products, but also to
improve their nutritional profile. As previously addressed
in this review, phytases can be used to improve the bioavail-
ability of minerals present in the bran that are originally
trapped in the form of phytates (Haros et al., 2001a, 2001b).
Phytates are also known to be detrimental to the qual-
ity of bread, since they interfere with the cross-linking
of glutenin molecules and reduce the volume of bread,
although they increase water absorption (Park, Fuerst,
& Baik, 2016). The use of phytases reduces slightly the
farinographic absorption (Sanz-Penella et al., 2009) and
allows the volume of the breads to increase (Haros et al.,
2001b). These authors attributed the effect of phytases to
the release of calcium ions that interacted positively with
alpha-amylases. However, the volume increase has not
been confirmed in other studies (Haros, Rosell, & Bened-
ito, 2001a; Rosell, Santos, Sanz Penella, & Haros, 2009),
so it may depend on the enzyme dose or the type of bak-
ing process used. The improvement of the bioavailability of
minerals can also occur through fermentation, since yeasts
and certain acidolactic bacteria have phytasic action (Kara-
man, Sagdic, & Durak, 2018; Nor Qhairul Izzreen, Nuo-
bariene, Rasmussen, Arneborg, & Hansen, 2017; Yildirim
& Arici, 2019). However, the optimal conditions for
increasing bioavailability may go against the sensory qual-
ity of the breads, and should be studied as a whole.
5 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE
PROSPECTS
Whole-wheat products have clear nutritional advantages
over their counterparts obtained from refined flours. These
advantages, related to their composition, can be increased
with a proper choice of the wheat to be processed (vari-
ety and growing conditions) and a suitable processing. In
fact, research dealing with the influence of genetics on the
composition of bran, germ, and in the nutritional profile
of whole-wheat grains is of great interest, and research
studies regarding these matters should be increased. In
the last few years, multiple investigations have been car-
ried out on the improvement of the quality of WWFs and
breads. These investigations include aspects such as pre-
vious treatments of the bran (milling, enzymes, and fer-
mentation), the use of additives or enzymes, the germi-
nation of the grains, or the choice of lighter-colored vari-
eties. However, the consumption of whole-wheat products,
despite their obvious advantages, remains low. While it is
true that whole-wheat products may have a higher con-
tent of mycotoxins and pesticides, the usual practices in
flour production (controls and external peeling) eliminate
these problems. However, one of the main problems with
Whole wheat flour effect in breads. . .
whole-wheat breads is their generally low sensory accept-
ability, which has not been studied as extensively as the
sensory acceptance of white breads. It would be convenient
to increase research on improving the organoleptic qual-
ity of breads, beyond the aspects that can be studied in
an instrumental way, such as volume, texture, or honey-
combing, and including aspects such as taste, aroma, per-
ception in the mouth, or general acceptability. In addition,
the still lower technological performance of WWF with
respect to WF is another of the main problems of whole-
wheat products, and although, as showed by this review,
an effort is being made to overcome this problem, further
research should be conducted to address this issue, espe-
cially regarding the technological performance of germ,
that to the date has been less well studied than other com-
ponents of WWF, such as bran. There is also a pending
work related to improve the quality controls of the WWFs,
allowing them to be related to their baking quality, in order
to be able to obtain adequate and uniform flours.
AC K N OW L E D G M E N T S
The authors are grateful to FEDER-Interreg España-
Portugal programme for financial support through the
project TRANSCoLAB 0612_TRANS_CO_LAB_2_P.
The authors acknowledge the Coordination for the
Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES)
by scholarship granted, process BEX 5778/15-8. Ángela
Bravo thank University of Valladolid for her postdoctoral
contract.
AU T H O R CO N T R I B U T I O N S
Manuel Gómez conceived and designed the review. All
authors contributed to the writing of the manuscript.
Manuel Gómez and Ángela Bravo were involved in final
review and editing.
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
The authors have no conflict of interest.
ORCID
Manuel Gómez https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2650-4082
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How to cite this article: Gómez M, Gutkoski LC,
Bravo-Núñez Á. Understanding whole-wheat flour
and its effect in breads: A review. Compr Rev Food
Sci Food Saf. 2020;1–25.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12625