Retaining Wall Specification

International Journal of Civil and Structural Engineering Research ISSN 2348-7607 (Online)
Vol. 3, Issue 1, pp: (318-326), Month: April 2015 - September 2015, Available at: www.researchpublish.com
Design of Cantilever Retaining Wall with 4m

Height
Tamadher Abood1, Hatem E.Younis Eldawi2, Faeza R. Elnaji Abdulrahim3
1, 2,3
Omar Al-Mukhtar University, Civil Engineering Department –AL- Quba- Libya
Abstract: Retaining structures hold back soil or other loose material where an abrupt change in ground elevation
occurs. The retained material or backfill exerts a push on the structure and thus tends to overturn or slide it, or
both. The cantilever is the most common type of retaining wall and is used for walls in the range of 3to 6m in
height. This study presents analyses and design of cantilever retaining wall which is made from an internal stem of
steel-reinforced, cast-in-place concrete (often in the shape of an inverted T). In this work a detailed analyses and
design for this type of walls which include estimation of primary dimensions of the wall, then these dimensions
were checked.The factor of safety against sliding, overturning and bearing were calculated.the shear resistance
for the base,the tension stresses in the stem andthe tension stresses for the base were checked. Calculation of
reinforcement for each part of the wall were done. All analysis and design are based on the ACI code
Keywords: retaining, cantilever, wall, sliding, shear, reinforcement.
I. INTRODUCTION
Retaining walls are usually built to hold back soil mass to retail soil which is unable to stand vertically by themselves.
However, retaining walls can also be constructed for aesthetic landscaping purposes. They are also provided to maintain
the grounds at two different levels. Retaining walls shall be designed to withstand lateral earth and water pressures, the
effects of surcharge loads, the self-weight of the wall.There are many types of retaining walls; following are the different
types of retaining walls, based on the shape and the mode of resisting the pressure:
a. Gravity wall-Masonry or Plain concrete.
b. Cantilever retaining wall.
c. Counter fort retaining wall.
d. Buttress retaining wall.
Cantilever retaining walls are constructed of reinforced concrete. They consist of a relatively thin stem and a base slab.
The base is also divided into two parts, theheel and toe. The heel is the part of the base under the backfill. The toe is the
other part of the base. The analysis and design of retaining walls includes the following:
a. Estimation of primary dimensions of the wall, then these dimensions should be checked.
b. Checking external stabilityof the walls (sliding of retaining walls, overturning stability and bearing stability)
c. For reinforced concrete retaining walls main and secondary reinforcement must be calculated.
II. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

This paper shows the analysis and design of the cantilever retaining wall.The design involves two major steps: the first
one is the evaluation of the stability of the whole structure under the service loads, which includes the overturning ,
sliding and bearing failure modes, and the second one is the design of the different components, such as the stem, heel and
toe for bending and shear, under the combined factored loads.All analysis and design are based on the ACI code.
Page | 318
Research Publish Journals
1. The design procedure: All design parameters are shown in table 1.

TABLE 1.The design parameters
Parameter Notation Value

The height of wall h 4m
The density of back fill soil kN/
0
the angle of internal friction of back fill soil
Density of concerte 25 kN/
the assumed surcharge load q 50 kN/m2
The bearing capacity of soil under the wall qa 200 kN/m2
the angle of internal friction of fondation soil 32
The cohesion of foundation soil C 10 kN/m2
Compressive strength of concrete 21Mpa
The yield stress of steel 347Mpa
1.1 The dimensions of the retaining wall will be assumed as follow refer to figure1:
a. The width of the wall base
B= 0.4H to 0.7H = 0.4 * 4 to 0.7 * 4
B = 2.8m to1.6m ,the width of the base will be assumed as 3.2m
b. The thickness of the stem at the top
t= to
t= = = 0.4 m
t= = = 0.3 m, use 0.3m as thickness of the stem at the top and 0.4m at the base
Fig.1 The primary dimension of the wall
c. Length of toe = = = 1.067 m
d. The thickness of the stem at the top will be assumed equal to 0.3m and its thickness at the base = = 0.4m
Fig.2 the assumed dimension of the wall

Page | 319
Fig.3. loads and earth pressures acting on the wall
1.2 the loads and earth pressures acting on the wall:

a. The loads:
W1 = 0.3 * 3.6 * 1 * 25 = 27 KN
W2 = 0.5 * 0.1 * 3.6 * 1 * 25 = 4.5KN
W3 = 0.4 * 3.2 * 1 * 25 = 32KN
W4 = 3.6 * 1.733 * 1 * 17.5 = 109.179 KN
W5 = 50 * 1.733 * 1 = 86.65 KN
The sum of these weights
Rv = ∑ 259.329 KN
b. The active earth pressures:
ka = = 0.33
1= ka * q
1= 0.33 * 50 = 16.5 kpa
2= ( q + γ H ) ka = ( 50 + (17.5 * 4 ) 0.33 = 39.6 kpa

Ea1 = 1* H*1
Ea1 = 16.5 * 4 * 1 = 66 KN
Ea2= 0.5( 2– 1) H*1
Ea2= 0.5 * (39.6 – 16.5) 4 * 1 = 46.21 KN
1.3 The stability analysis:
a. Checking the factor of safety against sliding:
F.S=
F.S = = 1.67, F.S > 1.5 ok , The wall is safe against sliding
b. Checking the factor of safety against overturning:
F.S=
Page | 320
The resisting moment and the overturning moment are shown in the following tables.
TABLE 1. The resisting moments
Force KN Arm m Moment around point O OKN.m

W1= 27 1.317 35.559
W2 = 4.5 1.13 5.085
W3 = 32 1.6 1.2
W4 = 109.179 2.3335 254.78
W5 = 86.65 2.3335 202.19
M1 = 548.814kN.m
TABLE 2. The overturning moments
Force KN Arm m Moment around point O
= 66 2 132
= 46.2 1.33 61.446
M2= 193.446kN.m
F.S = = = 2.8 1.5 the wall is safe against overturning.
c. Checking the pressure under the base of the wall:

Rv * = M1 – M2
= 1.37 m
e= = 0.23 m
Fig.4. the pressure distribution under the wall
= – 2e
= 3.2 - 2 * 0.23 = 2.74 m
max= ( )
Page | 321
max= = 142.3 kpa
min=
min= = 46.977 kpa
1.4 Design of stem reinforcement:
Fig. 5. Shear force on the steam.
The critical section for moment in the stem is at section (1-1) see figure 5 .
Moment in Section (1-1).
= Ea1* + Ea2 *
= 1h * +(( 2- 1) 0.5 * h * )
= (16.5 * 3.6 * ) + ((37.29 – 16.5) 0.5 * 3.6 * ) = 151.83kn.m
= M * 1.6 = 151.83 * 1.6 = 242.928 KN.m
Ru =
Ru = = 2.7
√ = 0.0084
ρmin= 0.002
max = 0.75
= 0.75 (0.85 * 0.85 * ( ))
= 0.75 (0.85 * 0.85 * ( ) ) = 0.021
max min
Page | 322
As = b d = 0.0084 * 1000 * 315 = 2646mm2

Use Ab = 314 mm2
No .of bars = = = 8.4 = 9 /m
The Secondary longitudinal reinforcement
As = * 1000 * 0.002
As = * 1000 * 0.002
Use , Ab = 78.5 mm2
No .of bars = = 11 /m
Transverse temperature and shrinkage reinforcement
Asmin = * h * 0.002
Asmin= * 3600 * 0.002 = 2520mm2
Use , Ab = 79mm2
No .of bars = = 32.08
Use 33
One third for inside face of the wall and two – third for outside face of the wall.
1.6 Design of the base of the wall:
a. The shear force for the base
1 = q * 1.6
1 = 50 * 1.6 = 80 kpa
2= * h * 1.2 = 17.5 x 3.6 x 1.2 = 75.6 kpa
3 = * t * 1.2 = 25 * 0.4 * 1.2 = 12 kpa

∑ = 169.6 kpa
1= max* 1.6 = 142.3 * 1.6 = 227.68 kpa
2= min * 1.6 = 46.977 * 1.6 = 75.1632 kpa
Fig.6. the pressures on the base

Page | 323
The ultimate shear force on the base:
Vu = = = 85.99 KN
d = 400 – 75 - = 315 mm
The shear resistance:

Vc = *b*d
= 0.17 * 0.85 * * 1000 * 1 * 0.315 = 208.5 KN

Vc Vu the thickness of the base is ok
Fig. 7 the net pressure on the base
b. The reinforcement of the heel:

Dived the pressure which acts on the heel to rectangular and triangular shape and take the moment of these shapes around
the face of the stem see figure 9,
M = (11.84 * 1.733) * ( )+ (0.5 * 1.733 * 82.6) x ( * 1.733)
M = 17.77 + 82.69 = 100.46KN.m

Mu = 100.46 * 1.6 = 160.736KN.m
= = = 1.79
√ = 0.0054
min= 0.002
max min
As = b d = 0.0054 * 1000 * 315 = 1701 mm2

Use Ab = 314 mm2
No .of bars = = = 5.41
Page | 324
Use 6 / m top.
Fig. 8 The pressure on the heel
c. The shear force on the toe:
Vu = *L
= 215.68kpa, = 179.88kpa and L = 0.752m
Vu = * 0.752 = 148.731kN
Vc = 208.5 kN
Vc Vu t is ok
d. the reinforcement of the toe:
M = [(164.82 * 1.067) * ] + [(0.5 * 1.067 * 50.86) * * 1.067)] = 112.5KN.m
Mu= M * 1.6 = 180KN.m
= = = 2.01
√ = 0.0061 min
As = b d = 0.0061 * 1000 * 315 = 1921.5mm2

Use Ab = 314 mm2
7 /m bottom
Fig .9 Pressure on the toe

Page | 325
The secondary reinforcement .
Asmin= 0.002 x b x t = 0.002 x 3200 x 400 = ⁄ = 1280 mm2
Use , Ab = 79 mm2
The spacing S = * 1000 = 61.7 mm
top and bottom.
Fig.10 The reinforcement of the cantilever R.W
REFERENCES
[1] ACI – code 318 – 1989 manual of reinforced concrete.
[2] Alam Singh and B.C. pumpia; soil mechanics and foundations; standard book house, Delhi, 1970.
[3] Clarence W. dunham; the theory and practice of reinforced concrete. Mc. Graw-Hill book company, New York.
[4] E. w. Brooker and H.O. Ireland; earth pressure at rest related to stress history, Canadian geotechnical journal , vol.
II, No.1 ,1965.
[5] G.P.T Shebotaroiff, soil mechanics and earth structures. Mc. Graw-Hill book company, New York, USA.
[6] Joseph E. Bowles; Foundation analysis and design fifth edition. Mc-Graw-Hill book company, New York.
Page | 326
Chapter (8)
Retaining Walls
Foundation Engineering Retaining Walls
Introduction
Retaining walls must be designed for lateral earth pressure. The procedures
of calculating lateral earth pressure was discussed previously in Chapter7.
Different types of retaining walls are used to retain soil in different places.
Three main types of retaining walls:
1. Gravity retaining wall (depends on its weight for resisting lateral earth
force because it have a large weigh)
2. Semi-Gravity retaining wall (reduce the dimensions of the gravity
retaining wall by using some reinforcement).
3. Cantilever retaining wall (reinforced concrete wall with small dimensions
and it is the most economical type and the most common)
Note:
Structural design of cantilever retaining wall is depend on separating each
part of wall and design it as a cantilever, so it’s called cantilever R.W.
The following figure shows theses different types of retaining walls:
There are another type of retaining wall called “counterfort RW” and is a
special type of cantilever RW used when the height of RW became larger
than 6m, the moment applied on the wall will be large so we use spaced
counterforts every a specified distance to reduce the moment RW.
Page (177) Ahmed S. Al-Agha

Where we use Retaining Walls

Retaining walls are used in many places, such as retaining a soil of high
elevation (if we want to construct a building in lowest elevation) or retaining
a soil to save a highways from soil collapse and for several applications.
The following figure explain the function of retaining walls:

Elements of Retaining Walls

Each retaining wall divided into three parts; stem, heel, and toe as shown for
the following cantilever footing (as example):
Application of Lateral Earth Pressure Theories to

Design
Rankine Theory:
Rankine theory discussed in Ch.7 was modified to be suitable for designing
a retaining walls.
This modification is drawing a vertical line from the lowest-right corner till
intersection with the line of backfill, and then considering the force of soil
acting on this vertical line.
The soil between the wall and vertical line is not considered in the value of
Pa, so we take this soil in consideration as a vertical weight applied on the
stem of the retaining wall as will explained later.

The following are all cases of rankine theory in designing a

retaining wall:
1. The wall is vertical and backfill is horizontal:
γ, ϕ
Here the active force P is horizontal and can be calculated as following:

1 ϕ
P = γH K , K = tan 45 −
2 2
2. The wall is vertical and the backfill is inclined with horizontal by
angle ( ):
γ, ϕ

Here the active force P is inclined with angle (α) and can be calculated as
following:
1
P = γH K
2
Why H ? → Because the pressure is applied on the vertical line (according
active theory) not on the wall, so we need the height of this vertical line H
H = H + d →→ d = L tanα
K is calculating from ( . )
Now the calculated value of P is inclined with an angle (α), so its analyzed
in horizontal and vertical axes and then we use the horizontal and vertical
components in design as will explained later.
P , = P cos(α) , P , = P sin(α)
3. The wall is inclined by angle ( )with vertical and the backfill is

inclined with horizontal by angle ( ):
Note that the force P is inclined with angle (α) and not depend on the
inclination of the wall because the force applied on the vertical line
and can be calculated as following:
1
P = γH K
2

What about K ? ? ?
K is depend on the inclination of the wall and inclination of the backfill
because it’s related to the soil itself and the angle of contact surface with
this soil, so K can be calculated from the following equation (Ch.7):
cos(α − θ) 1 + sin ϕ − 2 sinϕ cos ψ

K =
cos θ cosα + sin ϕ − sin α
sinα
ψ = sin − α + 2θ
sinϕ
P, = P cos(α) , P , = P sin(α)
Coulomb’s Theory:
Coulomb’s theory discussed in Ch.7 will remains unchanged (without any
modifications) in this chapter. The force P is applied directly on the wall, so
whole soil retained by the wall will be considered in P and thereby the
weight of soil will not apply on the heel of the wall.
θ
δ

1
P = γH K
2
Why H??? Here the force P is applied directly on the wall, so the lateral
pressure of the soil is applied on the wall from start to end, so we only take
the height of the wall (in coulomb theory).
K is calculated from (Table 7.4 and 7.5 Page 343) according the following
angles:
ϕ, α, β and δ
As shown, the force P is inclined with angle (δ + θ) with horizontal, so:
P , = P cos(δ + θ) , P , = P sin(δ + θ)
What about Passive Force

You can always calculate passive force from rankine theory even if its
require to solve the problem based on coulomb’s theory, because we
concerned about rankine and coulomb’s theories in active lateral pressure.
Important Note:
Coulomb’s theory can’t be used in the following cases:
1. If the soil retained by the wall is C − ϕ soil, because coulomb’s theory
deal only with granular soil (pure sand).
2. If wall friction angle between retained soil and the wall is equal zero.
3. If we asked to solve the problem using rankine theory .
Stability of Retaining Wall

A retaining wall may be fail in any of the following:
1. It may overturn about its toe.
2. It may slide along its base.
3. It may fail due to the loss of bearing capacity of the soil supporting the
base.
4. It may undergo deep-seated shear failure.
5. It may go through excessive settlement.
We will discuss the stability of retaining wall for the first three types of
failure (overturning, sliding and bearing capacity failures).

We will use rankine theory to discusses the stability of these types of

failures. Coulomb’s theory will be the same with only difference mentioned
above (active force applied directly on the wall).
Stability for Overturning
The horizontal component of active force will causes overturning on

retaining wall about point O by moment called “overturning moment”
H
M =P, ×
3
This overturning moment will resisted by all vertical forces applied on the
base of retaining wall:
1. Vertical component of active force P , (if exist).
2. Weight of all soil above the heel of the retaining wall.
3. Weight of each element of retaining wall.
4. Passive force (we neglect it in this check for more safety).
Now, to calculate the moment from these all forces (resisting moment) we
prepare the following table:
Force = Volume × unit weight but, we take a strip of 1 mlength
→ Force = Area × unit weight

Weight/unit length Moment arm Moment

Section Area
of the wall measured from O about O
1 A W =A × γ X M
2 A W = A ×γ X M
3 A W = A ×γ X M
4 A W = A ×γ X M
P , (if exist). B M
V M=M
γ = unit weight of the soil above the heel of RW
FS = ≥2
Note:
If you asked to consider passive force→ consider it in the resisting moment
and the factor of safety remains 2. (So we neglect it here for safety).
Stability for Sliding along the Base

Also, the horizontal component of active force may causes movement of the
wall in horizontal direction (i.e. causes sliding for the wall), this force is
called driving force F = P , .
This driving force will be resisted by the following forces:
1. Adhesion between the soil (under the base) and the base of retaining wall:
c = adhesion along the base of RW (KN/m)
C = c × B = adhesion force under the base of RW (KN)
c can be calculated from the following relation:
c =K c c = cohesion of soil under the base
So adhesion force is:
C =K c B
2. Friction force due to the friction between the soil and the base of RW:
Always friction force is calculated from the following relation:
F =μ N
Here N is the sum of vertical forces calculated in the table of the first check
(overturning)
→ N = ∑ V (including the vertical component of active force)
μ = coefficient of friction (related to the friction between soil and base)
μ = tan( ) δ = K ϕ →→ μ = tan(K ϕ )
ϕ = friction angle of the soil under the base.
→F = V × tan(K ϕ )
Note:
1 2 2
K =K = → if you are not given them → take K = K =
2 3 3
3. Passive force P .(Calculated using rankine theory).
So the total resisting force F can be calculated as following:
F = V × tan(K ϕ ) + K c B + P
Factor of safety against sliding:
F
FS = ≥ 2 (if we consider P in F )
F
F
FS = ≥ 1.5 (if we dont consider P in F )
F

Check Stability for Bearing Capacity Failure
As we see, the resultant force (R) is not applied on the center of the base of
retaining wall, so there is an eccentricity between the location of resultant
force and the center of the base, this eccentricity may be calculated as
following:
From the figure above, take summation moments about point O:
M = V ×X
From the first check (overturning) we calculate the overturning moment and
resisting moment about point O, so the difference between these two
moments gives the net moment at O.
M =M −M
M −M
→M −M = V × X →→ X =
∑V
B
e = − X = ✓ (see the above figure).
2
Since there exist eccentricity, the pressure under the base of retaining wall is
not uniform (there exist maximum and minimum values for pressure).

We calculate qmax and qmin as stated in chapter 3:

Eccentricity in B-direction and retaining wall can be considered strip footing
If <
∑V 6e
q = 1+
B×1 B
∑V 6e
q = 1−
B×1 B
If >
4∑V
q , =
3 × 1 × (B − 2e)
Now, we must check for q :

q ≤q →q = q (at critical case)
q
FS . = ≥3
q
Calculation of :
q is calculated using Meyerhof equation as following:

q = cN F F F + qN F F F + 0.5BγN F F F
Where
c = Cohesion of soil under the base
q = Effective stress at the level of the base of retaining wall.
q=γ ×D
D here is the depth of soil above the toe = D (above figure)
→q=γ ×D
γ = unit weight of the soil under the base of the RW.
Important Note:
May be a water table under the base or at the base or above the base (three
cases discussed in chapter 3) is the same here, so be careful don’t forget
Ch.3.
B = B = B − 2e
N , N , N = Myerhof bearing capacity factors (Table3.3)according
the friction angle for the soil under the base
F = F = F = 1 (since RW is considered a strip footing)
Depth factors: (We use B not B )

Here since the depth D is restively small to width of the base B, in most
cases ≤ →→
1. = .
D
F = 1 + 0.4
B
F =1
F =1
2. > .
1−F
F =F −
N tanϕ
D
F = 1 + 2 tanϕ (1 − sinϕ)
B
F =1

Inclination Factors:
Note that the resultant force applied on the base of the foundation is not
vertical, but it is inclined with angle β = Ψ (with vertical), this angle can
be calculated as following:
P,
β = Ψ = tan
∑V
β°
F =F = 1−
90
β°
F = 1− °
ϕ
Problems:
1.
The cross section of the cantilever retaining wall shown below. Calculate the
factor of safety with respect to overturning, sliding, and bearing capacity.
γ = 24 kN/m
γ = 18 kN/m
ϕ = 30°
C = 0.0
γ = 19 kN/m
ϕ = 24°
C = 40kN/m

Solution
Since it is not specified a method for solving the problem, directly we use
Rankine theory.
Now draw a vertical line starts from the right-down corner till reaching the
backfill line and then calculate active force (P ):
d
tan 10 = → d = 2.6 × tan 10 = 0.458m
2.6
H = 6.7 + d = 6.7 + 0.458 = 7.158m
Now we calculate P :
1
P = × γ × H′ × K
2
Since the backfill is inclined and the wall is vertical, K is calculated from
Table 7.1 according the values of α = 10 and ϕ = 30:
K = 0.3495
1
→ P = × 18 × 7.158 × 0.3495 = 161.2 kN
2
Location of P :
.
Location= = = 2.38
The force P is inclined with angle α = 10 with horizontal:
P , = 161.2 cos(10) = 158.75 , P , = 161.2 sin(10) = 28

Check for Overturning:
M = 158.75 × 2.38 = 337.8 KN. m

Now to calculate M we divided the soil and the concrete into rectangles and
triangles to find the area easily (as shown above) and to find the arm from
the center of each area to point O as prepared in the following table:
Weight/unit length Moment arm Moment about

Section Area
of the wall measured from O O
2.6
1 0.595 0.595 × 18 = 10.71 4− = 3.13 33.52
3
2 15.6 15.6 × 18 = 280.8 1.4 + 1.3 = 2.7 758.16
3 3 3 × 24 = 72 1.4 − 0.25 = 1.15 82.8
0.2
4 0.6 0.6 × 24 = 14.4 0.9 − = 0.833 12
3
4
5 2.8 2.8 × 24 = 67.2 =2 134.4
2
P , = 28 B=4 112
V = 470.11 M = 1132.88
Note that we neglect passive force because it is not obligatory.

.
FS = = = 2.99 > 2 → ✓.
.
Check for Sliding:

F
F
It is preferable to consider passive force in this check.
Applying rankine theory on the soil in the left (draw vertical line till
reaching the soil surface).
2C k
γ × 1.5 × k
k is calculated for the soil using rankine theory without considering

any iniclination of the wall, because it is calculated for the soil below the bas
ϕ 20
k = tan 45 + = tan 45 + = 2.04
2 2
P = (rectangle area) = 2 × 40 × √2.04 × 1.5 = 171.4 kN
1
P = (triangle area) = × (19 × 1.5 × 2.04) × 1.5 = 43.6 kN
2
P = P + P = 171.4 + 43.6 = 215 kN
F = P , = 158.75 Kn
F = V × tan(K ϕ ) + K c B + P
Take K = K = 2/3 ∑ V = 470.11 (from table of first check)

2 2
F = 470.11 × tan × 20 + × 40 × 4 + 215 = 433.1 kN
3 3
433.1
→ FS = = 2.72 > 2 → ✓.
158.75
Check for Bearing Capacity Failure:
As stated previously, X can be calculated as following:

M −M 1132.88 − 377.8
X= = = 1.6 m
∑V 470.11
B
e = − X = 2 − 1.6 = 0.4m
2
B 4 B
= = 0.667 → e = 0.4 < →→→
6 6 6
∑V 6e 470.11 6 × 0.4
q = 1+ = 1+ = 188.04 kN/m
B×1 B 4×1 4
∑V 6e 470.11 6 × 0.4
q = 1− = 1− = 47 kN/m
B×1 B 4×1 4

Calculation of ( ):
c = 40 , q = 1.5 × 19 = 28.5 , γ = 19
B = B = B − 2e = 4 − 2(0.4) = 3.2m
Shape factors = 1 (RW can be considered strip footing).
For ϕ = 20 → N = 14.83 , N = 6.4 , N = 5.39 (from table 3.3)
D 1.5
= = 0.375 < 1 and ϕ = 20 > 0.0 →→
B 4
D
F = 1 + 2 tanϕ (1 − sinϕ)
B
= 1 + 2 tan20 (1 − sin20) (0.375) = 1.12
1−F 1 − 1.12
F =F − = 1.12 − = 1.14
N tanϕ 14.83 × tan20
F =1
P, 158.75
β = Ψ = tan = tan = 18.6 (with vertical)
∑V 470.11
β° 18.6
F =F = 1− 1− = 0.63
90 90
β° 18.6
F = 1− ° = 1− = 0.07
ϕ 20
→ q = 40 × 14.83 × 1.14 × 0.63 + 28.5 × 6.4 × 1.12 × 0.63

+0.5 × 3.2 × 19 × 5.39 × 1 × 0.07
→ q = 566.2 kN/m
q 566.2
FS . = = = 3.01 > 3 (slightly satisfied) ✓.
q 188.04

2. (Example 8.2)
A gravity retaining wall is shown in figure below. Use δ = ϕ and
coulomb's active earth pressure theory.
γ = 18.5 kN/m
ϕ = 32 kN/m
c = 0.0
γ = 18 kN/m
ϕ = 24 kN/m
c = 30 kN/m
(See the solution from textbook) with the following notes:

1. As seen the force P is applied directly on the wall.

2. The force P is inclined with angle δ with the normal to the wall and
inclined with angle (δ + 15) with horizontal.
3. The distance 2.83 (arm of vertical component of P from toe corner) is not
given and can be calculated as following:
.
The location of force P is = = 2.167
2.167 − 0.8 = 1.367
1.367 1.367
tan(75) = →X=
X tan(75)
→ X = 0.366 m
2.83 = (3.5 − 0.3) − 0.366
4.
Note that when we want to calculate passive force (in overturning pressure)
we use rankine theory for the following two reasons:
 The soil below the base is C − ϕ soil, so we can’t use coulomb’s theory
because it deals only with granular soil.
 It is required to use coulomb’s theory in calculating of active force,
however in calculating passive force we can always use rankine theory.
5. In calculating summation of vertical forces, the weighs if soil above the
heel are not taken in consideration because the force is applied directly on
the wall.
6. Always when calculating P the height of the wall (H) is always taken
even if the backfill is inclined because the force applied directly on the wall.
7. (After these notes, solve the problem by yourself ).

3.
For the retaining wall shown below.
a. Find the lateral earth pressure distribution.
b. Compute Pa (Rankine).
c. Calculate Overturning stability.
d. Compute Sliding safety factor.
e. Locate the resultant on the base of the footing and determine the
eccentricity.
f. Calculate the factor of safety against bearing capacity failure.
ϕ = 28
γ = 115 pcf
C = 400 psf
C = 750 psf
γ = 130 pcf
ϕ = 35
Solution
We use rankine theory because there is no friction between the soil and the
wall.
a.
Calculation of active lateral earth pressure distribution:
ϕ
σ , = (q + γH)K − 2c K K = tan 45 −
2

28
K = tan 45 − = 0.361 (for the soil retained by the wall)
2
@z = 0.0 (right side)
σ , = (500 + 0) × 0.361 − 2 × 400 × √0.361 = −300.2 psf
@z = H = 22ft (right side)
σ , = (500 + 115 × 22) × 0.361 − 2 × 400 × √0.361 = 613.2 psf
Since the pressure at the top is negative, so there are some depth causing
cracking on the wall and may be calculated as following:
(500 + 115 × Z ) × 0.361 − 2 × 400 × √0.361 = 0.0 → Z = 7.23 ft
Calculation of passive lateral earth pressure distribution:
ϕ
σ , = (q + γH)K + 2c K K = tan 45 +
2
35
K = tan 45 + = 3.69 (for the soil below the wall "left soil")
2
@z = 0.0 (left side)
σ , = (0 + 0) × 3.69 + 2 × 750 × √3.69 = 2881.4 psf
@z = 4ft (left side)
σ , = (0 + 130 × 4) × 3.69 + 2 × 750 × √3.69 = 4800.2 psf
Now the LEP distribution on the wall is as following:

Now, for design purposes, we modify this pressure to be zero at the top of
the wall (for more safety), so the LEP distribution after modification is:
b.
We calculate the active rankine force using the modified LEP because we
use it in designing process.
1
P = (area of modified triangle) = × 613.2 × 22 = 6745.2 Ib.
2
Location of P is at = 7.33 ft (from the base)
If we want to calculate passive force (for sliding check):

1
P = (area of trapezoidal) = × (2881.4 + 4800.2) × 4 = 15363.2 Ib.
2
c. Overturning Stability:

Note that there is no vertical component of active force.

M = 6745.2 × 7.33 = 49442.3 Ib. ft.
Weight/unit length of Moment arm Moment about

Section Area
the wall measured from O O
1 120 120 × 115 = 13800 12 − 3 = 9 124200
2 20 20 × 150 = 3000 6 − 0.5 = 5.5 16500
1
3 10 10 × 150 = 1500 5 − = 4.67 7005
3
12
4 24 24 × 150 = 3600 =6 21600
2
V = 21900 M = 169305
M 169305
FS = = = 3.42 > 2 → ✓.
M 49442.3
The most important note here, the surcharge (q) is considered only when we
calculate the pressure and it is not develop any moment about O because it is
not applied force on the wall, and doesn’t considered in vertical forces
because we considered it in pressure calculation.
If the overturning check is not satisfied, what modification you shall do
to make the foundation stable against overturning?? (Important)
In this case, we want to increase the resisting moment (MR) by increasing
the vertical forces and these arms about O.
This can be satisfied by increasing the width of the footing (increase the
width of heel) to increase the weight of soil above the base and the weight of
the base itself as following:

M = 6745.2 × 7.33 = 49442.3 Ib. ft.

The table of calculating M is:
Moment arm
Sectio Weight/unit length of the
Area measured Moment about O
n wall
from O
1 20B′ 20B′ × 115 = 2300B′ 0.5B + 6 1150B + 13800B
6 − 0.5
2 20 20 × 150 = 3000 16500
= 5.5
1
3 10 10 × 150 = 1500 5 − = 4.67 7005
3
6
4 12 12 × 150 = 1800 =3 5400
2
5 2B′ 2B × 150 = 300B 0.5B + 6 150B + 1800B
V = 2600B + 6300 M
M = 1300B + 15600B + 28905

Now, put FS = 2 (critical case) to calculate B′
M 1300B + 15600B + 28905

2= =
M 49442.3

1300B + 15600B − 69979.6 = 0.0
Now, in this problem if we calculate B here, it will be less than 6ft, because
calculated the FS is 3.42>2 (as calculated above) and here we put it 2.
So, if the FS is not satisfied (<2) do the above procedures and calculate the
new value of B and then:
The final footing width is: B = 6 + B (must be larger than original value of
B).
d. Check for sliding:

F
F
F = P , = 6745.2 Ib
F = V × tan(K ϕ ) + K c B + P
Take K = K = 2/3 ∑ V = 21900 (from table of first check)
2 2
F = 21900 × tan × 35 + × 750 × 12 + 15363.2 = 30809.94 Ib.
3 3
30809.94
→ FS = = 4.57 > 2 → ✓.
6745.2
If the Sliding stability not satisfied, what modifications you shall do:
Solution (1):
Increase the base width of the footing (width of the heel) to increase vertical
forces:
F = V × tan(K ϕ ) + K c B + P
V = 2600B + 6300 (as calculted above in terms of B )

F
FS = = 2 (at critical case)
F
Now the value of B can be calculated and then calculate the new width of
the footing.
Solution (2):
Use a base key (beam) of depth D under the base of the wall, this base key
increase the passive force as following:

As we see, this base key increase the passive force and thereby increase the
value of F and factor of safety.
@z = 4 + D
σ , = (0 + 130 × (4 + D)) × 3.69 + 2 × 750 × √3.69 = 4800.2 psf
1
P = × (2881.4 + 4800.2 + 479.7 D) × (4 + D)
2
You may ask the following tow question (in this case):
1. If a base key of depth 1.5m is constructed under the base of the
foundation, calculate the factor of safety against sliding.
1
P = × (2881.4 + 4800.2 + 479.7 × 1.5) × (4 + 1.5) = 23103.16 Ib.
2
2 2
F = 21900 × tan × 35 + × 750 × 12 + 23103.16 = 38549.94 Ib
3 3
38549.94
→ FS = = 5.7
6745.2
Note that the FS increase when we use base key.
2. If the sliding stability is not satisfied, find the depth of base key located
under the base key to make the wall sable against sliding.
Here, the passive force is a function of D (base key depth), so calculate the
value of F in terms of D, and then:

F
FS = = 2 → F = ✓ → D = ✓.
6745.2
e.
M −M 169305 − 49442.3
X= = = 5.47ft
∑V 21900
B
e = − X = 6 − 5.47 = 0.53 ft.
2
B 12 B
= = 2 → e = 0.53 < →→→
6 6 6
∑V 6e 21900 6 × 0.53
q = 1+ = 1+ = 2308.6 psf
B×1 B 12 × 1 12
∑V 6e 21900 6 × 0.53
q = 1− = 1− = 1341.4 psf
B×1 B 12 × 1 12
Calculation of ( ):
c = 750 , q = 4 × 130 = 520 , γ = 130
B = B = B − 2e = 12 − 2(0.53) = 10.94 ft

For ϕ = 35 → N = 46.12 , N = 33.3 , N = 48.03 (from table 3.3)

D 4
= = 0.333 < 1 and ϕ = 35 > 0.0 →→
B 12
D
F = 1 + 2 tanϕ (1 − sinϕ)
B
= 1 + 2 tan35 (1 − sin35) (0.333) = 1.084
1−F 1 − 1.084
F =F − = 1.084 − = 1.086
F =1
P, 6745.2
β = Ψ = tan = tan = 17.12 (with vertical)
∑V 21900
β° 17.12
F =F = 1− 1− = 0.65
90 90
β° 17.12
F = 1− ° = 1− = 0.51
ϕ 35
→ q = 750 × 46.12 × 1.086 × 0.65 + 520 × 33.3 × 1.084 × 0.65

+0.5 × 10.94 × 130 × 48.03 × 1 × 0.51
→ q = 54036.54
q 54036.54
FS . = = = 23.4 > 3 ✓.
q 2308.6

4.
A gravity retaining wall shown in the figure below is required to retain 5 m
of soil. The backfill is a coarse grained soil with saturated unit weight =18
kN/m3, and friction angle of ϕ = 30 . The existing soil below the base has
the following properties; γ = 20 kN/m , ϕ = 36 . The wall is
embedded 1m into the existing soil, and a drainage system is provided as
shown. The ground water table is at 4.5m below the base of the wall.
Determine the stability of the wall for the following conditions (assume
K1=K2 = 2/3):
a- Wall friction angle is zero.
b- Wall friction angle is 20 .
c- The drainage system becomes clogged during several days of rainstorm
and the ground water rises to the surface of backfill (use rankine).
γ = 24 kN/m
Solution
a- (wall friction angle = δ = 0.0)
Since δ = 0.0 (we use rankine theory).

(The unit weight of the soil (natural) is not given, so we consider the
saturated unit weight is the natural unit weight).
ϕ 30
K = tan 45 − = tan 45 − = 0.333 (for the retained soil)
2 2
ϕ 36
K = tan 45 + = K = tan 45 + = 3.85 (for soil below the base)
2 2
Calculation of active lateral earth pressure distribution:

σ , = (q + γH)K − 2c K
@z = H = 5m (right side)
σ , = (0 + 18 × 5) × 0.333 − 0 = 29.97 kN/m
Calculation of passive lateral earth pressure distribution:
σ , = (q + γH)K + 2c K
@z = 1m(left side)
σ , = (0 + 20 × 1) × 3.85 + 0 = 77 kN/m
Calculation of active force:

1
P = (area of right triangle) = × 29.97 × 5 = 74.9 kN
2
Calculation of passive force:
1
P = (area of left triangle) = × 77 × 1 = 38.5 kN
2

Overturning Stability:
M = 74.9 × 1.67 = 125.08 kN. m
Note that since there is no heel for the wall, the force is applied directly on
the wall.
Weight/unit length of Moment arm Moment about

Section Area
the wall measured from O O
1 3 3 × 24 = 72 3.9 280.8
2 9 9 × 24 = 216 2.4 518.4
V = 288 M = 799.2
Note that there is no vertical component of active force

M 799.2
FS = = = 6.39 > 2 → ✓.
M 125.08

Sliding Stability:
F
F
F = P , = 74.9 kN/m
F = V × tan(K ϕ ) + K c B + P
Take K = K = 2/3 ∑ V = 288 (from table of first check)
P = 38.5 kN/m (as calculated above)
2 2
F = 288 × tan × 36 + × 0 × 4.2 + 38.4 = 166.62 kN.
3 3
166.62
→ FS = = 2.2 > 2 → ✓.
74.9
Bearing capacity check:
M −M 799.2 − 125.08
X= = = 2.34 m
∑V 288
B 4.2
e= −X= − 2.34 = −0.24 m (R is at right of base center)
2 2

B 4.2 B
= = 0.7 → e = 0.24 < →→→
6 6 6
∑V 6e 288 6 × 0.24
q = 1+ = 1+ = 92.08 kN/m
B×1 B 4.2 × 1 4.2
∑V 6e 288 6 × 0.24
q = 1− = 1− = 45.06 kN/m
B×1 B 4.2 × 1 4.2
Calculation of ( ):
c = 0.0 , q = 1 × 20 = 20
Water table is at distance 4.5m > B=4.2m >>> no effect of water table.
→ γ = 20
B = B = B − 2e = 4.2 − 2(0.24) = 3.72m
For ϕ = 36 → N = 50.59, N = 37.75 , N = 56.31 (from table 3.3)
D 1
= = 0.238 < 1 and ϕ = 36 > 0.0 →→
B 4.2
D
F = 1 + 2 tanϕ (1 − sinϕ)
B
= 1 + 2 tan36 (1 − sin36) (0.238) = 1.058
1−F 1 − 1.058
F =F − = 1.058 − = 1.06
F =1
P, 74.9
β = Ψ = tan = tan = 14.6 ° (with vertical)
∑V 288
β° 14.6
F =F = 1− 1− = 0.7
90 90
β° 17.12
F = 1− ° = 1− = 0.59
ϕ 36
→ q = 0.0 + 20 × 37.75 × 1.058 × 0.7

+0.5 × 3.72 × 20 × 56.31 × 1 × 0.59

→ q = 1795 kN/m
q 1795
FS . = = = 19.5 > 3 ✓.
q 92.08
b- (wall friction angle = δ = 20)

Since δ = 20 (we use coulomb s theory for active pressure ).
Here, the active force is not horizontal, but it is inclined by angle δ = 20
with horizontal:
δ = 20°
P = ×γ×H ×k
2
δ = 20 , ϕ = 30 → δ = ϕ →→
3
k in this case is calculated from (Table 7.4 P.343)
β = 90 , α = 0 , ϕ = 30 →→ k = 0.2973
1
P = × 18 × 5 × 0.2973 = 66.9 kN
2
This force having horizontal and vertical components:
P , = 66.9 cos(20) = 62.86 KN
P , = 66.9 sin(20) = 22.88 kN
Calculation of passive force always done by rankine theory (i.e. passive
force doesn’t change from first required)
P = 38.5 kN (as calculate in first required)
Now, you can complete the solution without any problems  .

c- When the ground water rises to the surface, the retaining wall is shown
below:
What differ???
If we want to use rankine theory (force from soil is gorizontal):
1. Calculation of active force:
Don’t forget we calculate effective stress every change, and the we add
water alone.
1
P = (force due to effective soil) = × 13.32 × 5 = 33.3 kN
2
1
P = (force due to water) = × 50 × 5 = 125 KN
2

P , = P + P = 33.3 + 125 = 158.33 KN
Loacation of P , :
Take the moment at the bottom of the wall to get the location, but here the
two forces have the same location, so the resultant of the two forces will
have the same location (1.67 from base).
2. Calculation of passive force:
P , =P +P
3. In calculation of vertical forces due to the soil weight always take the
effective unit weight and multiply it by the area to get the effective force
but this is not required in this problem because the force applied
directly on the wall.
4. In calculating of bearing capacity for the soil below the base, since the
water table is above the base (case 3) we take γ = γ in Meyerhof Eq.
Now you can complete the solution with the same procedures without any
problem .
Now, If the water table is at distance 2m below the surface, what’s new???

Calculation of Active force:
Here we calculate the effective stress every change, and then added the
water alone from its beginning:
P , = P + P + P +P
To find the location of P , take summation moment at the base of the wall.
Calculation of passive force will not change
The weight of soil above heel (when heel exist), we divide the soil above
the heel for two areas, soil above water table and soil below water table.
The area of soil above water table is multiplied by natural unit weight,
and the area of soil below water table is multiplied by effective unit
weight.
In calculating of bearing capacity, the water is still above the base, so we
use effective unit weight in Meyerhof Eq.

The last idea in this chapter:

If you are asked to solve this problem (in case of water table) using
Coulomb’s theory:
As stated above, the force here will be inclined by angle δ = 20 with

horizontal.
Calculation of Active force:
Calculation of P :
1
P = ×γ×H ×k γ = γ = 18 − 10 = 8
2
2
δ = 20 , ϕ = 30 → δ = ϕ →→
3

k in this case is calculated from (Table 7.4 P.343)

β = 90 , α = 0 , ϕ = 30 →→ k = 0.2973
1
P = × 8 × 5 × 0.2973 = 29.73 kN
2
This force having horizontal and vertical components:
P , = 29.73 cos(20) = 27.93 KN
P , = 29.73 sin(20) = 10.17 kN
Calculation of P :
1
P = (force due to water) = × 50 × 5 = 125 KN
2
Calculation of :
P , = P , + P = 27.93 + 125 = 152.93 kN
P , = P , = 10.17 kN
Calculation of :
Will not changes because always we can use rankine theory in calculating of
passive force.
Other notes remains the same.

CE 437/537, Spring 2011 Retaining Wall Design Example 1/8
Design a reinforced concrete retaining wall for the

psf
following conditions. surcharge = qs = 400
f'c = 3000 psi

Fill: φ = 32o
fy = 60 ksi Unit wt = 100 pcf
HT = 18 ft
tf
wtoe tstem wheel
Natural Soil: φ = 32o

allowable bearing pressure = 5000psf
Development of Structural Design Equations. In this example, the structural design of the
three retaining wall components is performed by hand. Two equations are developed in this
section for determining the thickness & reinforcement required to resist the bending moment
in the retaining wall components (stem, toe and heel).
Equation to calculate effective depth, d: Three basic equations will be used to develop an
equation for d.
M u = φM n
⎛ a⎞
M n = As f y ⎜ d − ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
⎛ a⎞
M u = φAs f y ⎜ d − ⎟ [ Eqn 1]
⎝ 2⎠
C = T , 0.85 f c' a b = As f y
f c'
As = 0.85 ab [ Eqn 2]
fy
0.003 ε s + 0.003 a 0.003

strain compatibility : = , = β1
a / β1 d d ε s + 0.003
Assuming β1 = 0.85,
εs a/d
0.005 0.319
0.00785 0.235
0.010 0.196
and choosing a value for εs in about the middle of the practical design range,
a
= 0.235, a = 0.235 d [ Eqn 3]
d
Substituting Eqn. 2 into Eqn. 1:

⎛ f' ⎞ ⎛ a⎞
M u = φ ⎜ 0.85 c ab ⎟ f y ⎜ d − ⎟
⎜ f ⎟ 2⎠
⎝ y ⎠ ⎝
And substituting Eqn. 3 into the above:

f c' ⎛ 0.235 d ⎞
M u = φ 0.85 0.235d b f y ⎜ d − ⎟
fy ⎝ 2 ⎠
0.883d
Inserting the material properties: f'c = 3 ksi and fy = 60 ksi, and b = 12in (1-foot-wide
strip of wall, in the direction out of the paper).
k
M u = 0.90(0.85) 3ksi (12 in )(0.235)(0.883)d 2 M u = 5.71 in d 2
Equation for area of reinforcement, As. The area of reinforcement required is calculated
from Eqn. 1:
M u = φ As f y 0.883d = 0.90 As 60 ksi 0.883 d M u = 47.7 ksi As d
Design Procedure (after Phil Ferguson, Univ. Texas)
1. Determine HT. Usually, the top-of-wall elevation is determined by the client. The
bottom-of-wall elevation is determined by foundation conditions. HT = 18 feet.
2. Estimate thickness of base. tf ≈7% to 10% HT (12" minimum)

Tf = 0.07 (18' x 12"/') = 15.1" use tf = 16"
3. Design stem (tstem, Asstem). The stem is a vertical cantilever beam, acted on by the
horizontal earth pressure.
ft in in/ft
h = 8 – 16 /12
ft
h =16.67
h
tf = 16in
ka γ h ka qs
wtoe tstem wheel
calc. d:
1
Pfill = ( k a γ h ) h (1 ft out of page)
2
1 − sin φ 1 − sin( 32 o )
ka = = = 0.31
1 + sin φ 1 + sin( 32 o )
1
Pfill = (0.31)(100 pcf )(16.67 ft ) 2 (1 ft ) = 4310 lb
2
Psur = k a q sur h (1 ft ) = 0.31 ( 400 psf )(16.67 ft )(1 ft ) = 2070 lb
h h
M u = ( Earth Pressure LoadFactor)( Pfill )( ) + ( Live LoadFactor)(Psur )( )
3 2
ft ft
16.67 16.67
M u = (1.6)(4310 lb )( ) + (1.6)(2070 lb )( ) = 65.9 k − ft
3 2
k
Mu = 5.71 in d2
k
in
65.9 k − ft (12 ) = 5.71 in d 2 , d = 11.8in
ft
1
t stem = 11.8in + 2 in cover + (1.0 in ) = 14.3in , ( assume #8 bars ) use t stem = 15in
2
d = 15 − 2 − 0.5 = 12.5in
in in in
calc. As:
M u = 47.7 ksi As d
in
65.9 k − ft (12 ) = 47.7 ksi As (12.5in ), As = 1.33 in 2
ft
As of one #8 bar = 0.79 in 2

in 2
0.79
bar in in
2
12 = 7.13 , use #8 @ 6 in
in ft bar
1.33
ft of wall
4. Choose Heel Width, wheel Select wheel to prevent sliding. Use a key to force sliding
failure to occur in the soil (soil-to-soil has higher friction angle than soil-to-concrete).
12in
Neglect soil resistance in front of the
wall.
Fresist 18
ft
set = Fsliding
FS
FS = Factor of Safety = 1.5 for sliding
Fresist = (Vertical Force)(coefficient of friction)
Fresist = WT (tan φnatural soil )
tf = 16in
tan φnatural soil = tan(32 o ) = 0.62
WT = W fill + Wstem + W found 15in
lb
W fill = (100 pcf )(16.67 ft )( wheel )(1 ft ) = 1670 wheel
ft
12 in + 15in 1 ft
Wstem = (150 pcf )(16.67 ft )( in
(1 ft ) = 2810 lb
2 12 )
16 15
W found = (150 pcf )( ft )( wheel + ft + 3 ft )(1 ft ) = 200 plf wheel + 850
12 12
Fsliding = Pfill + Psur

1
Pfill = (0.31 × 100 pcf )(18 ft ) 2 (1 ft ) = 5020 lb
2
Psur = (0.31 × 400 psf )(18 ft )(1 ft ) = 2230 lb
Fsliding = 5020 lb + 2230 lb = 7250 lb
⎡ lb lb lb lb ⎤
⎢1670 ft wheel + 2810 + 200 ft wheel + 850 ⎥(0.62)
7250lb = ⎣ ⎦
1.5
1.5 lb
7250lb = 3660lb + 1870 wheel , wheel = 7.42 ft , use wheel = 7.5 ft
0.62 ft
5. Check Overturning. 12in
18 ft 18 ft
M over = P fill ( ) + Psur ( )
3 2
M over = 5.02 k (6 ft ) + 2.23k (9 ft ) = 50.2 k − ft 18
ft
7.5 ft 15
M resist = W fill ( + ft + 3 ft ), assume wtoe = 3 ft
2 12
1.25 ft tf = 16in
+ Wstem (3 ft + )
2
11.75 ft 3' 15" 7.5'
+ W found ( )
2
M resist = (1.67 klf × 7.5 ft )(8 ft ) + ( 2.81k )(3.625 ft ) + (0.20klf × 7.5 ft + 0.85k )(5.875 ft )
12.53k 2.35k
M resist = 124.2 k − ft
M resist 124.2 k − ft
= = 2.47 > 2.0 = FSover , OK
M over 50.2 k − ft
6. Check Bearing.
WT M L
σ v at end of toe = + , equation is valid only if e <
bL bL2 6
6
WT = W fill + Wstem + W found
WT = 12.45 k + 2.81k + 2.35 k = 17.69 k
7.5 ft 1.25 ft
M = M over − W fill (5.875 ft − ) + Wstem (7.5 ft + − 5.875 ft ) + W found (0)
2 2
M = 50.2 k − ft − 12.53k ( 2.125 ft ) + 2.81k ( 2.25 ft ) = 29.9 k − ft
Check that e < L/6:

m 29.9 k − ft ft L 11.75 ft L
e= = k
= 1. 68 , = = 1.96 ft , ∴ e < , OK
WT 17.69 6 6 6
17.69 k 29.9 k − ft
σv = + = 2.80 ksf < 5.0 ksf = allowable bearing capacity, OK
ft
(1 )(11.75 ) ft 1 ft
(1 )(11.75 ft ) 2
6
7. Heel Design.
Max. load on heel is due to the weight of heel + fill + surcharge as the wall tries to tip over.
Flexure:
W = Wheel + W fill + Wsur
16
W = 1.2(150 pcf )( ft )(1 ft ) wu
12 Vu
+ 1.2(100 pcf )(16.67 ft )(1 ft ) 16
in
Mu
+ 1.6( 400 plf ) 7.5
ft
klf
W = 2.88
wu L2 2.88klf (7.5 ft ) 2
Mu = = = 81.0 k − ft
2 2
k 2
M u = 5.71 d
in
in k
81.0 k − ft (12 ) = 5.71 d 2 , d = 13.0in for flexure
ft in
Shear:
Vu = wu (7.5 ft ) = 2.88 klf (7.5 ft ) = 21.6 k
φVc = (0.75) 2 f c' bw d = (0.75) 2 3000 psi (12 in ) d
setVu = φVc , 21,600lb = (0.75) 2 3000 psi (12 in ) d , d = 21.9 in for shear, controls
Shear controls the thickness of the heel.

1
t heel = 21.9 in + 2 in cover + in = 24.4 in (assume #8 bar ), use t heel = 21.5 in
2
Reinforcement in heel:
M u = 47.7 ksi As d
in
81.0 k − ft (12 ) = 47.7 ksi As (21.9 in ), As = 1.07in 2
ft
in 2
0.79
bar (12 in ) = 8.83 in , use #8 @ 8"
in 2 ft
1.07
ft
8. Toe Design.
Earth Pressure at Tip of Toe:
Wu Mu
σv = ±
bL 1 2
bL
6
Wu = 1.2(W fill + Wstem + W found ) + 1.6 (Wsur )
Wu = 1.2(12.53k + 2.81k + 2.35k ) + 1.6(0.4 ksf )(18 ft )(1 ft ) = 32.7 k , (did not recalc foundation wt b.c. neglible change)
M u = 1.6 M over − 1.2(Wsoil × 2.125 ft + Wstem × 1.0 ft ) 3' 1.25' 7.5'
[ ]
M u = 1.6(50.2 k − ft ) − 1.2 12.53k ( 2.125 ft ) + 2.81k (1 ft ) = 45.0k − ft
32.7 k 45.0k − ft
σv = +
(1 ft )(11.75 ft ) 1 (1 ft )(11.75 ft ) 2
6
ksf
σ vA = 2.78 + 1.96ksf = 4.74 ksf
A B C
σ vC = 2.78ksf − 1.96ksf = 0.82 ksf
4.74 ksf − 0.82 ksf
σ vB = 0.82 ksf + (8.75 ft ) = 3.74 ksf
11.75 ft
d for flexure:
3 ft 1 2
M u = (3.74 ksf )(3 ft )(1 ft )( ) + (1.00 ksf )(3 ft )(1 ft )( 3 ft ) = 19.8k − ft
2 2 3
k 2
M u = 5.71 d
in
in k
19.8k − ft (12 ) = 5.71 d 2 , d = 6.5in for flexure
ft in
d for shear:
Assume theel = ttoe = 21.5in
Critical section for shear occurs at "d" from face of stem, d = 21.5" – 3"cover-1/2"=18"
4.74 ksf − 0.82 ksf 18

σ vcritical sec tion = 0.82 ksf + ft
(8.75 ft + ft ) = 4.24 ksf
11.75 12
1 18
Vu = ( 4.74 ksf + 4.24 ksf )(3 ft − ft )(1 ft ) = 6.74 k
2 12
φVc = (.75)2 3000 psi (12in )(18in ) = 17,750lb > Vu , OK , d for flexure controls
Reinforcement in toe:
M u = 47.7 ksi As d
in
19.8k − ft (12 ) = 47.7 ksi As (18in ), As = 0.28 in 2
ft
in 2
0.79
bar (12 in ) = 33in , try smaller bars , say #4
in 2 ft
0.28
ft
in 2
0.20
bar (12 in ) = 8.6in use #4 @ 8"
in 2 ft
0.28
ft
DESIGN AND DETAILING
OF RETAINING WALLS
Learning
g Outcomes:
• After this present you will be able to do the
complete design and detailing of different types of
retaining walls
walls..
1
Cantilever Retaining wall
with shear key
Batter
Drainage Hole
Toe
2
Classification of
Retaining walls
• Cantilever retaining wall-RCC
(Inverted T and L)
• Counterfort retaining wall-RCC
• Buttress wall
wall-RCC
RCC
3
Classification of Retaining
walls
Backfill Backfill
Tile
Gravity RW drain L-Shaped RW
T-Shaped RW
Backfill
Counterfort Buttress
Weep
hole
Counterfort RW Buttress RW
4
Earth Pressure (P)
• Earth pressure is the pressure
exerted by the retaining material
on the retaining wall
wall. This GL
pressure tends to deflect the wall
outward.
• Types of earth pressure : Pa
• Active earth pressure or earth

pressure (Pa) and
• Passive earth pressure (Pp). Variation of Earth pressure
• Active earth pressure tends to

deflect the wall away from the 5
backfill.
Factors affecting earth
pressure
• Earth pressure depends on type of
backfill the height of wall and the
backfill,
soil conditions
Soil conditions: The different soil

conditions are
• Dry leveled back fill

• Moist leveled backfill
• Submerged leveled backfill
• Leveled backfill with uniform
surcharge
• Backfill with sloping surface 6
Analysis for dry back
fills
Maximum pressure at any height, p=kp kaγh GL

Total pressure at any height from top,
pa=1/2[kaγh]h = [kaγh2]/2 h
H
Bending moment at any height GL Pa
M=paxh/3= [kaγh3]/6
M
∴ Total pressure, Pa= [kaγH2]/2
∴Total Bending moment at bottom, kaγH
M = [kaγH3]/6 H=stem height
7
• Where, ka= Coefficient of active earth pressure
• = (1-sinφ)/(1+sinφ)=tan
(1 sinφ)/(1+sinφ)=tan2φ
• = 1/kp, coefficient of passive earth
pressure
• φ= Angle of internal friction
γγ=Unit weigh
g or density y of backfill
• If φ= 30°, ka=1/3 and kp=3. Thus ka is 9 times kp
8
Backfill with sloping surface
• pa= ka γγH at the bottom

GL
and is parallel to inclined
surface of backfill
⎡ cosθ − cos 2 θ − cos 2 φ ⎤

• ka= cosθ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ cosθ + cos θ − cos φ ⎥⎦
2 2
• Where θ=Angle of
surcharge
∴ Total pressure at bottom
=Pa= ka γH2/2 9
Stability requirements of RW
• Following conditions must be

satisfied
f d for
f stability
bl off wall
ll
• It should
h ld nott overturn
t
• It should not slide
• i.e Max. pressure at the toe should

not exceed the safe bearing
capacity of the soil under working
condition
10
Check against overturning
Factor of safety against
overturningg
= MR / MO ≥ 1.55 (=1.4/0.9)
Where,
MR =Stabilising
S bili i moment
or restoring moment
MO =overturning
overturning moment
11
Check against Sliding
• FOS against sliding

• = Resisting force to
g/
sliding/Horizontal force
causing sliding
• = μ∑W/Pa ≥ 1.55
(=1.4/0.9)
Friction μ ∑W
SLIDING OF WALL
12
Design of Shear key
• In case the wall is
unsafe against
sliding
• pp= p tan2 (45

H
+φ/2)
• = p kp
H+a • where pp= Unit
PA passive pressure
on soil
il above
b
shearing plane AB
C
A R pp • p= Earth pressure
a at BC
θ
B ΣμW kaγ(H+a)
θ=45 + φ/2 • R=Total passive
resistance=ppxa
13
Design of Shear key-
key-
Contd.,,
• If ∑W= Total vertical force acting at the key
base
φ= shearing angle of passive resistance
• R=
R Total
T t l passive
i fforce = pp x a
• PA=Active horizontal pressure at key base for
H+a
μ∑W=Total frictional force under flat base
• For equilibrium, R + μ∑W =FOS x PA
14
• FOS= (R + μ∑W)/ PA ≥ 1.55
M i
Maximum pressure at the
h toe
W4 H
x1 W1
h
ΣW
W2
x2 Pa
R
H/3
W3
T
e b/6
x b/2
b
Pmin. Pressure below the

Pmax Retaining Wall
15
• Let the resultant R due to ∑W and Pa
• lie
e at a distance
d sta ce x from
o the
t e toe.
toe
• X = ∑M/∑W,
∑M = sum of all moments about toe.
• Eccentricity of the load = e = (b/2-x) < b/6

∑W ⎡ 6e ⎤
• Minimum pressure at heel= Pmin = ⎢⎣1 − b ⎥⎦
>Zero. b
• For zero pressure, e=b/6, resultant should cut

the base within the middle third.
third
• Maximum pressure at toe= < SBC of soil.
∑ W ⎡ 6e ⎤
Pmax = ⎢1+ ⎥
b ⎣ b⎦ 16
Depth of foundation
• Rankine’s
R ki ’ fformula:
l
2
• Df =
SBC ⎡1 − sin φ ⎤
γ ⎢⎣1 + sin φ ⎥⎦
• Df
SBC 2
• = ka
γ
•
17
Preliminary Proportioning
(T shaped wall)
200
• Stem: Top width 200 mm
to 400 mm
• Base slab width b= 0.4H to
0.6H, 0.6H to 0.75H for
f H
surcharged wall
H/10 –
• Base
B slab
l b thickness=
thi k H/10 tp= (1/3-1/4)b H/14
to H/14
• Toe projection= (1/3-1/4)
(1/3 1/4) b 0.4H
b= 0 4H tto 0.6H
0 6H
Base width
18
Behaviour or structural action
• Behaviour or
structural action
and design of
stem, heel and toe
slabs are same as
that of any
cantilever slab.
19
Dist
Dist.
from
h1 top Every
alternate
Ast/2 h2 bar cut
h1c
Ldt
Ast
h2
Ast/2 Ast
Provided
Ast
C
Cross section
ti C t il
Curtailment
t curve
20
Design of Heel and Toe
1 Heel slab and toe slab should also be

1.
designed as cantilever. and determine
the maximum bending moments at the
junction.
2 Determine
2. D t i the
th reinforcement.
i f t
3. Also check for shear at the junction.
4. Provide enough development length.
21
Design
g of stem
• As(min)=14/fy bd
• 1.34As =
• Development length (Stem
steel)
22
•Check for shear
x x
23
W4 H
x1 W1
h
ΣW
W2
x2 Pa
R
H/3
W3
T
e b/6
x b/2
b
Forces acting
0.75m 0.45m 1.8m
Pmin. on the wall
Pmax 30.16 and the
T/m2
120.6 24.1 pressure
T/m2 97.99
22.6 below the wall
P
Pressure below
b l th
the R
Retaining
t i i W Wallll
24
Design of heel
30.16
120.6 T/m2
T/m2
25
Design of toe slab-
slab-Contd.,
• Ch
Checkk for
f shear:
h att d from
f junction
j ti
(at xx as wall is in compression)
x
d
x Ldt
26
Other deatails
• Construction joint
• Drainage
27
28
Design g of
g and Detailing
Counterfort Retaining
wall
ll
Counterfort Retaining
g wall
• When H exceeds about 6m,
• Stem and heel thickness is more
CF
• More bending and more steel
• Cantilever T type-Uneconomical
Cantilever-T type Uneconomical
• Counterforts-Trapezoidal section
• 1.5m -3m c/c Stem
Base Slab
CRW
30
Parts of CRW
• Same as that of Cantilever Retaining wall
Plus Counterfort
Stem Counterforts
Toe Heel
Base slab
C
Cross section
ti Pl
Plan
31
Design of Stem
• The stem acts as a continuous slab
• Soil pressure acts as the load on the
slab.
• Earth pressure varies linearly over the BF
height
• The slab deflects away from the earth
f
face between
b t the
th counterforts
t f t
• The bending moment in the stem is
maximum at the base and reduces
towards top.
top
p=Kaγh
32
Maximum Bending moments for
stem
• Maximum + B.M= pl2/16

• (occurring mid-way between
counterforts)
• and l
• Maximum - B.M= pl2/12
-
• (occurring at inner face of
counterforts)
f )
+ p
• Where ‘l’
l is the clear distance
between the counterforts
• and ‘p’ is the intensity of soil
pressure
33
Design of Toe Slab
• The base width=b =0.6 H to 0.7 H
• The projection=1/3 to 1/4 of base
width.
• The toe slab is subjected to an upward
soil reaction and is designed as a H
cantilever slab fixed at the front face of
the stem.
stem
• Reinforcement is provided on earth
face along the length of the toe slab.
• In case the toe slab projection is large
i.e. > b/3, front counterforts are
provided above the toe slab and the
slab is designed as a continuous b
horizontal slab spanning between the
front counterforts.
34
Design of Heel Slab
• The heel slab is designed as a continuous

slab spanning over the counterforts and is
subjected to downward forces due to weight of
soil plus self weight of slab and an upward force
due to soil reaction.
• Maximum +ve B.M= pl2/16

• (mid-way between counterforts) BF
• And
• Maximum -ve B.M= pl2/12
• (occurring at counterforts)
35
Design of Counterforts
• The counterforts are subjected
j to
outward reaction from the stem.
• This produces tension along the outer
sloping face of the counterforts.
• The inner face supporting the stem is
in compression. Thus counterforts are
designed as a T-beam of varying
depth.
depth
• The main steel provided along the C T
sloping face shall be anchored properly
at both ends.
ends
• The depth of the counterfort is d
measured perpendicular to the sloping
side.
36
Behaviour of Counterfort
RW
-M
+M Important points
•Loads on Wall
COUNTERFORT •Deflected shape
STEM
•Nature of BMs
•Position of steel
-M
•Counterfort
Counterfort details
HEEL SLAB
TOE +M
37
a. Proportioning
p g of Wall
Components
• Coefficient of active pressure = ka = 1/3

• Coefficient of passive pressure
pressure= kp = 3
• The height of the wall above the base
• = H = 7 + 1.25 = 8.25 m. h1= H
7m
• Base width = 0.6 H to 0.7 H
• (4.95 m to 5.78 m), Say b = 5.5 m
1 25 m
1.25
• Toe projection = b/4 = 5.5/4 = say 1 .2 m
• Assume thickness of vertical wall = 250 mm
• Thickness of base slab = 450 mm b=5.5 m
38
S
Spacing
i off counterforts
f
l = 3.5 (H/γ)0.25 = 3.5 (8.25

25//18
18))0.25 =
2.88 m l
∴ c/c spacing = 2.88 + 0.40 = 3.28 m
say 3 m
∴ Provide counterforts at 3 m c/c.

Assume width of counterfort = 400 mm
∴ clear spacing provided = l = 3 - 0.4 =
2.6 m
39
Details of wall
250 mm
CF: 3m
CF 3 c/c,
/
400 mm
h 78m
h=7.8
h1=7 m H=8.25 m
θ
1.25m 1.2 m 4.05m
T b=5 5 m
b=5.5
40
b. Check Stability of Wall
Dist. off
Di Moment
M
Sr. Description of
Loads in kN e.g. from about
No. loads
T in m T in kN-m
Weight of stem 25x0.25x1x7.8 1.2 + 0.25/2
1 64.59
W1 = 48.75 =1.325
Weight of base 25x5.5x1x0.45

2 5.5/2 =2.75 170.17
slab W2 = 61.88
Weight of earth 18x4.05x1x7.8 1.45 +4.05/2

3 1975.95
over heel slab W3 = 568.62 = 3.475
ΣW
Total ΣW = 679.25
=2210.71
41
250 mm
W1
W3
h1= 7000 H
8250
ΣW
R
PA
PA
Df= 1250 1200 mm 4050 mm
A B C D H/3
450 W2
T kaγH
X e b/2
b/3 Pressure distribution
Cross section of wall-Stability

wall Stability analysis
42
Stability of
walls
• Horizontal earth pressure on full height
off wall
ll
• = Ph = kaγH2 /2 =18 x 8.252/(3 x 2) =
204 19 kN
204.19
• Overturning moment = M0
• = Ph x H/3 = 204.19 x 8.25/3 = 561.52
kN.m.
• Factor of safety against overturning
• = ∑ M / M0 = 2210.71/561.52 = 3.94 >
1 55
1.55
43
∴ safe.
Check for sliding
Total horizontal force tending to slide the

wall
= Ph = 204
204..19 kN
Resisting force = ∑µ
∑µ..W = 0.58 x 679
679..25
= 393
393..97 kN
∴Factor of safety against sliding
= ∑µ
∑µ..W / Ph = 393
393..97
97//204
204..19
= 1.93 > 1.55 ... safe.
safe.
44
Check for pressure distribution at base
Let x be the distance of R from toe (T),

∴x =∑M/∑W
Eccentricity=e = b/
b/22 - x < b/
b/66
∴Whole base is under compression.
compression.
Maximum pressure at toe

= pA = ∑W / b ( 1+6e/b) =
Minimum
u ppressure
essu e at heel
ee
45
IIntensity
t it off pressure att junction
j ti off stem
t with
ith toe
t
i.e. under B
Intensity of pressure at junction of stem with heel

i.e. under C
46
250 mm
H
8250
ΣW
R
PA
1250 1200 mm C 4050 mm
A B D
450
T X e b/2
80.39
166.61
166 61 153.9
153 9 147.8
147 8 143.9
143 9 kN/ 2
kN/m
kN/m2
5500 mm
47
b) Design of Toe slab
• Max. BMB = psf x (moment due to soil pressure -
moment due to wt. of slab TB]
48
Check for Shear
• Critical section for shear: At distance d (=
(
390 mm) from the face of the toe
49
Counterfort RW -M
+M
COUNTERFORT
STEM
-M
HEEL SLAB
TOE +M
50
((c)) Design
g of Heel Slab
80.39
166.61 153.9 147.8 143.9 kN/m2
kN/m2
5500
mm
7.75
kN/m Forces on heel slab
71.26
kN/m
C D
51
R
1250 1200 C 4050
A B
mm mm
450
X e b/2
Area for
4050 stirrups
mm
C D
TOE 3000
2600 HEEL
x1
139
SFD
1
y1
71.28 Shear analysis and
7.75
kN/m kN/m Zone of shear steel
Net down force dia
dia.
52
(d) Design of Stem (Vertical
Slab).
• C
Continuous
ti slab
l b spanning
i b
between
t th
the
counterforts and subjected to earth pressure.
• The intensity of earth pressure
• = ph = ka γh
• Area of steel on earth side near counterforts :
• Maximum -ve ultimate moment,
• Mu = ph l2//12
• Required d
53
( ) Design
(e) D i off Counterfort
C t f t
At any section at any depth h below the top, the
total horizontal earth pressure acting on the
counterfort
= 1/2 kay h2x c/c distance between counterfort
Counterfort acts as a T-
T-beam.
Even assuming rectangular section,
54
The effective depth is taken at
right angle to the reinforcement.
h =7.8 m
d
4.05m θ
55
Design of Horizontal Ties
• Th
The direct
di t pull
ll by
b the
th wallll on counterfort
t f t for
f 1m
height at base
• = kaγh x c/c distance =1/3x18 x 7.8 7 8 x 3 = 140.4
140 4
kN
• Area of steel required
q to resist the direct p
pull
• = 140.4 x 103/(0.5fy) = 583 mm2 per m height.
• Using 8 mm 2-legged stirrups, Ast = 100 mm2
• spacing = 1000 x 100/583 = 170 mm c/c.
• Since the horizontal pressure decreases with h,
th spacing
the i off stirrups
ti can beb increased
i d
56
Design of Vertical Ties
• The maximum pull will be exerted at the end of
heel slab where the net downward force = 71.26
kN/m.
• Total downward force at D

• = 71.26 x c/c distance.
• Required Ast = 1.5 x 213.78 x 103/(0.87 x 415) =
888 mm2
• Using 8 mm 2-legged stirrups , Ast = 100 mm2
• spacing
p g = 1000 x 100/888
/ = 110 mm c/c.
/
• Increase the spacing of vertical stirrups towards

the end C
57
250 mm 0-200mm
STEM COUNTERFORT
7000
12@200 8250 mm
12@200
1250 1200 mm 4050 mm

450
TOE HEEL
16@120 12@200 12@200
Cross section between counterforts

58
250 mm
8-22 1.77m
12@400
#12@200 #8@110-450, VS 8250

#12@
@ 8 - # 22
110-300
#8@170-450, HS
1250 1200 mm
450
#16@120 #12@200 #12@200
Cross section through counterforts

59
STRAIGHT
BARS STEM
Backfill B kfill
Backfill
0.3l
0.25 l
With straight bars

With cranked
bars
Section through stem at the junction of Base slab
slab.
60
Lateral pressure against retaining wall
d
due tto surcharge
h loads
l d
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
SIL211 MEKANIKA TANAH, 3(2-3)
DESIGN AND DETAILING OF RETAINING WALLS
DR. IR. ERIZAL, MAGR.

DEPARTEMEN TEKNIK SIPIL DAN LINGKUNGAN
FAKULTAS TEKNOLOGI PERTANIAN
IPB
DESIGN AND DETAILING
OF RETAINING WALLS
Learning Outcomes:
• After this class students will be able to do the
complete design and detailing of different types of
retaining walls.
2
RETAINING WALL
GL2
Retaining walls are usually

BACK
built to hold back soil SOIL
mass. However, retaining
walls can also be constructed GL1
for aesthetic landscaping
purposes.
Gravity retaining wall
3
with shear key
Batter
Drainage Hole
Toe
4
Photos of Retaining walls
5
Classification of
Retaining walls
• Gravity wall-Masonry or Plain concrete

• Cantilever retaining wall-RCC
(Inverted T and L)
• Counterfort retaining wall-RCC
• Buttress wall-RCC
6
Classification of Retaining walls
Backfill Backfill
Tile
Gravity RW drain L-Shaped RW
T-Shaped RW
Backfill
Counterfort Buttress
Weep
hole
Counterfort RW Buttress RW
7
Earth Pressure (P)
 Earth pressure is the pressure exerted by the

retaining material on the retaining wall. This
pressure tends to deflect the wall outward. GL
 Types of earth pressure :
 Active earth pressure or earth pressure (Pa) and Pa

 Passive earth pressure (Pp).
 Active earth pressure tends to deflect the wall

away from the backfill. Variation of Earth pressure
8
Factors affecting earth pressure
 Earth pressure depends on type of backfill, the
height of wall and the soil conditions
Soil conditions: The different soil conditions are
• Dry leveled back fill

• Moist leveled backfill
• Submerged leveled backfill
• Leveled backfill with uniform surcharge
• Backfill with sloping surface
9
Analysis for dry back fills
Maximum pressure at any height, p=kah GL

Total pressure at any height from top,
pa=1/2[kah]h = [kah2]/2 h
H
Bending moment at any height GL Pa
M=paxh/3= [kah3]/6
M
 Total pressure, Pa= [kaH2]/2
Total Bending moment at bottom, kaH
M = [kaH3]/6 H=stem height
10
 Where, ka= Coefficient of active earth pressure
 = (1-sin)/(1+sin)=tan2
 = 1/kp, coefficient of passive earth pressure
 = Angle of internal friction or angle of repose
 =Unit weigh or density of backfill
 If = 30, ka=1/3 and kp=3. Thus ka is 9 times kp
11
Backfill with sloping surface
 pa= ka H at the bottom and is parallel

GL
to inclined surface of backfill
 ka=  cos  cos 2   cos 2  

cos  
 cos  cos   cos  
2 2
 Where =Angle of surcharge

 Total pressure at bottom
=Pa= ka H2/2
12
Stability requirements of RW
 Following conditions must be satisfied for stability

of wall (IS:456-2000).
• It should not overturn

• It should not slide
• It should not subside, i.e Max. pressure at the
toe should not exceed the safe bearing capacity of
the soil under working condition
13
Check against overturning
Factor of safety against overturning

= MR / MO  1.55 (=1.4/0.9)
Where,
MR =Stabilising moment or restoring
moment
MO =overturning moment
As per IS:456-2000,
MR>1.2 MO, ch. DL + 1.4 MO, ch. IL
0.9 MR  1.4 MO, ch IL
14
Check against Sliding
 FOS against sliding

 = Resisting force to sliding/
 Horizontal force causing
 sliding
 = W/Pa  1.55
(=1.4/0.9)
 As per IS:456:2000
 1.4 = ( 0.9W)/Pa Friction  W
SLIDING OF WALL
15
Design of Shear key
 In case the wall is unsafe
against sliding
 pp= p tan2 (45 +/2)

 = p kp
H  where pp= Unit passive
pressure on soil above
H+a shearing plane AB
PA  p= Earth pressure at BC
C  R=Total passive
A R pp resistance=ppxa
a

B W ka(H+a)
=45 + /2
16
Design of Shear key-Contd.,
 If W= Total vertical force acting at the key base
 = shearing angle of passive resistance
 R= Total passive force = pp x a
 PA=Active horizontal pressure at key base for H+a
 W=Total frictional force under flat base
 For equilibrium, R + W =FOS x PA
 FOS= (R + W)/ PA  1.55
17
Maximum pressure at the toe
W4 H
x1 W1
h
W
W2
x2 Pa
R
H/3
W3
T
e b/6
x b/2
b
Pmin. Pressure below the

Pmax Retaining Wall
18
 Let the resultant R due to W and Pa
 lie at a distance x from the toe.
 X = M/W,
 M = sum of all moments about toe.
 Eccentricity of the load = e = (b/2-x)  b/6

W  6e 
 Minimum pressure at heel= Pmin  1  b  >Zero.
b
 For zero pressure, e=b/6, resultant should cut the base within the
middle third.
 Maximum pressure at toe= W  6e 
  SBC of soil. Pmax  1  b 
b
19
Depth of foundation
 Rankine’s formula:
2
 Df =
SBC 1  sin  
 1  sin  

SBC 2 Df
 = ka
γ

20
Preliminary Proportioning
(T shaped wall)
200
 Stem: Top width 200 mm to 400 mm
 Base slab width b= 0.4H to 0.6H, 0.6H
to 0.75H for surcharged wall
 Base slab thickness= H/10 to H/14 H
 Toe projection= (1/3-1/4) Base width H/10 –

tp= (1/3-1/4)b H/14
b= 0.4H to 0.6H
21
Behaviour or structural action
 Behaviour or
structural action and
design of stem, heel and
toe slabs are same as that
of any cantilever slab.
22
Design of Cantilever RW
 Stem, toe and heel acts as cantilever slabs
 Stem design: Mu=psf (ka H3/6)

 Determine the depth d from Mu = Mu, lim=Qbd2
 Design as balanced section or URS and find steel
 Mu=0.87 fy Ast[d-fyAst/(fckb)]
23
Curtailment of bars
Effective depth (d) is

Proportional to h
Dist.
from Bending moment is
h1 top Every
alternateproportional to h3
Ast/2 h2 bar cut

h1c Ast is αl to (BM/d) and is
Ldt
αl to h2
Ast
h2 Ast1 h12
i.e.  2
Ast/2 Ast Ast 2 h2
Provided
Ast
Cross section Curtailment curve
24
Design of Heel and Toe
1. Heel slab and toe slab should also be designed as cantilever. For this
stability analysis should be performed as explained and determine
the maximum bending moments at the junction.
2. Determine the reinforcement.
3. Also check for shear at the junction.
4. Provide enough development length.
5. Provide the distribution steel
25
Design Example Cantilever retaining wall
Design a cantilever retaining wall (T type) to retain earth for a

height of 4m. The backfill is horizontal. The density of soil is
18kN/m3. Safe bearing capacity of soil is 200 kN/m2. Take the
co-efficient of friction between concrete and soil as 0.6. The
angle of repose is 30°. Use M20 concrete and Fe415 steel.
Solution
Data: h' = 4m, SBC= 200 kN/m2, = 18 kN/m3, μ=0.6, φ=30°
26
Depth of foundation
 To fix the height of retaining wall [H]
200
 H= h' +Df
 Depth of foundation
h1 h
H
 2
SBC  1  sin  
 Df = 1  sin  
   Df
b
 = 1.23m say 1.2m ,
 Therefore H= 5.2m
27
Proportioning of wall
 Thickness of base slab=(1/10 to1/14)H 200
 0.52m to 0.43m, say 450 mm
 Width of base slab=b = (0.5 to 0.6) H H=5200 mm

 2.6m to 3.12m say 3m
tp= 750 mm
 Toe projection= pj= (1/3 to ¼)H 450
 1m to 0.75m say 0.75m b= 3000 mm
 Provide 450 mm thickness for the stem at

the base and 200 mm at the top
28
Design of stem
 Ph= ½ x 1/3 x 18 x 4.752=67.68 kN
 M = Ph h/3 = 0.333 x 18 x 4.753/6
 = 107.1 kN-m
 Mu= 1.5 x M = 160.6 kN-m
 Taking 1m length of wall, h

 Mu/bd2= 1.004 < 2.76, URS Pa
 (Here d=450- eff. Cover=450-50=400 mm)
 To find steel M
 Pt=0.295% <0.96% Df
 Ast= 0.295x1000x400/100 = 1180 mm2
 #12 @ 90 < 300 mm and 3d ok kah
 Ast provided= 1266 mm2 [0.32%]

Or Mu = [kaH3]/6
29
Curtailment of bars-Stem
 Curtail 50% steel from top
 (h1/h2)2 = 50%/100%=½
 (h1/4.75)2 = ½, h1 = 3.36m
Dist.
 Actual point of cutoff from
top
h1 Every
 = 3.36-Ld=3.36-47 φbar = 3.36- Ast/2 h2

alternate
bar cut
0.564 = 2.74m from top. h1c
Ldt
 Spacing of bars = 180 mm c/c < Ast
300 mm and 3d ok h2
Ast/2 Ast
Provid
Ast ed
30
Design of stem-Contd.,
 Development length (Stem steel)
200
 Ld=47 φbar =47 x 12 = 564 mm
 Secondary steel for stem at front

 0.12% GA H=5200 mm
 = 0.12x450 x 1000/100 = 540 mm2
 #10 @ 140 < 450 mm and 5d ok tp= 750 mm
450
 Distribution steel
b= 3000 mm
 = 0.12% GA = 0.12x450 x 1000/100 =
540 mm2
 #10 @ 140 < 450 mm and 5d ok
31
 Check for shear
200
 Max. SF at Junction, xx = Ph=67.68 kN

 Ultimate SF= Vu=1.5 x 67.68 = 101.52 kN H=5200 mm
 Nominal shear stress =ζv=Vu/bd
 = 101.52 x 1000 / 1000x400 = 0.25 MPa x x
 To find ζc: 100Ast/bd = 0.32%,
 From IS:456-2000, ζc= 0.38 MPa b= 3000 mm
 ζv < ζc, Hence safe in shear.
32
Stability analysis
Distance BM about A
Load Magnitude, kN
from A, m kN-m
Stem W1 0.2x4.75x1x25 = 23.75 1.1 26.13
½ x0.25x4.75x1x25 0.75 + 2/3x0.25
Stem W2 13.60
= 14.84 =0.316
B. slab W3 3.0x0.45x1x25=33.75 1.5 50.63
Back fill, 1.8x4.75x1x18
2.1 323.20
W4 = 153.9
Total ΣW= 226.24 ΣMR=413.55
Earth Pre.
PH =0.333x18x5.22/2 H/3 =5.2/3 MO=140.05
=PH
33
W4 H
x1 W1
h
W
W2
x2 Pa
R
H/3
W3
T
e b/6
x b/2
b
Forces acting
0.75m 0.45m 1.8m
Pmin. on the wall
Pmax 30.16 and the
kN/m2
120.6 24.1 pressure
kN/m2 97.99
22.6 below the wall
Pressure below the Retaining Wall
34
Stability checks
 Check for overturning
 FOS = ΣMR/ MO= 2.94 >1.55 safe
 Check for Sliding

 FOS = μ ΣW/ PH= 2.94 >1.55 safe
 Check for subsidence

 X=ΣM/ ΣW= 1.20 m > b/3 and e= b/2 –x = 3/2 – 1.2 = 0.3m <
b/6
 Pressure below the base slab

 PMax=120.66 kN/m2 < SBC, safe
 PMin = 30.16 kN/m2 > zero, No tension or separation, safe
35
0.75m 0.45m 1.8m
30.16 kN/m2
120.6 kN/m2
24.1
97.99
22.6
Pressure below the Retaining Wall
Magnitude, Distance BM, MC,

Load
kN from C, m kN-m
Backfill 153.9 0.9 138.51
0.45x1.8x25
Heel slab 0.9 18.23
= 27.25 Design
Pressure dist.
rectangle
30.16 x 1.8
=54.29
0.9 -48.86 of
Pressure dist. ½ x 24.1 heel
1/3x1.8 -13.01
Triangle x1.8=21.69
slab
Total Load Total ΣMC=94.86
36
Design of heel slab-
Contd., 200
 Mu= 1.5 x 94.86 =142.3 kNm
 Mu/bd2= 0.89 < 2.76, URS
 Pt=0.264% < 0.96%
H=5200 mm
 Ast= 0.264x1000x400/100
 =1056 mm2
x
 #16@ 190 < 300 mm and 3d ok x

b= 3000 mm
 Ast provided= 1058mm [0.27%]
OR Mu=0.87 fy Ast[d - (fyAst/fckb)]

37
Design of heel slab-
Contd., 200
 Development length:
 Ld=47 φbar
 =47 x 16 = 752mm
H=5200 mm
 Distribution steel
 Same, #10 @ 140
 < 450 mm and 5d ok x
Ldt=752
x
38
Design of heel slab-Contd.,
200
 Check for shear at junction (Tension)
 Maximum shear =V=105.17 kN,
 VU,max= 157.76 kN,
 Nominal shear stress =ζv=Vu/bd

 = 101.52 x 1000 / 1000x400 = 0.39 MPa
x
 To find ζc: 100Ast/bd = 0.27%,

x
 From IS:456-2000, ζc= 0.37 MPa
 ζv slightly greater than ζc,
 Hence slightly unsafe in shear.
39
Design of toe slab
Bending
Distance
Load Magnitude, kN moment,
from C, m
MC, kN-m
Toe slab 0.75x0.45x25 = 0.75/2 -3.164
Pressure distribution,
97.99x0.75 0.75/2 27.60
rectangle
Pressure distribution, ½ x22.6
2/3x1=0.75 4.24
triangle x1.0.75
Total Load at Total BM
ΣM=28.67
junction at junction
40
Design of toe slab
200
 Mu= 1.5 x 28.67 =43 kN-m
 Mu/bd2= 0.27< 2.76, URS
 Pt=0.085% Very small, provide 0.12%GA
 Ast= 540 mm2

 #10 @ 140 < 300 mm and 3d ok
Ldt
 Development length:
 Ld=47 φbar =47 x 10 = 470 mm
41
Design of toe slab-Contd.,
 Check for shear: at d from junction (at xx as wall is
in compression) 200
 Net shear force at the section

 V= (120.6+110.04)/2 x 0.35 -
0.45x0.35x25=75.45kN
 VU,max=75.45x1.5=113.18 kN
x
 ζv =113.17x1000/(1000x400)=0.28 MPa d
x Ldt
 pt≤0.25%, From IS:456-2000, ζc= 0.37 MPa
 ζv < ζc, Hence safe in shear.
42
Other deatails
 Construction joint
 A key 200 mm wide x 50 mm deep

 with nominal steel
 #10 @ 250, 600 mm length in two rows
 Drainage
 100 mm dia. pipes as weep holes at 3m c/c at bottom
 Also provide 200 mm gravel blanket at the back of the stem for back
drain.
43
Drawing and detailing
#12 @ 180
#10 @ 140
#12 @ 90
#16 @ 190
#10 @ 140 C/S OF WALL L/S ELEVATION OF WALL

Drawing and detailing
BASE SLAB DETAILS
BOTTOM
STEEL
PLAN OF BASE SLAB
TOP
STEEL
45
Important Points for drawing
Note
1. Adopt a suitable scale such as 1:20
2. Show all the details and do neat drawing
3. Show the development length for all bars at the junction
4. Name the different parts such as stem, toe, heel,
backfill, weep holes, blanket, etc.,
5. Show the dimensions of all parts
6. Detail the steel in all the drawings
7. Lines with double headed arrows represents the
development lengths in the cross section
46
Design and Detailing of
Counterfort Retaining wall
• When H exceeds about 6m,

• Stem and heel thickness is more CF
• More bending and more steel

• Cantilever-T type-Uneconomical Stem
• Counterforts-Trapezoidal section
• 1.5m -3m c/c Base Slab
CRW
47
Parts of CRW
• Same as that of Cantilever Retaining wall Plus Counterfort
Stem Counterforts
Toe Heel
Base slab
Cross section Plan
48
Design of Stem
• The stem acts as a continuous slab
• Soil pressure acts as the load on the slab.
• Earth pressure varies linearly over the height BF
• The slab deflects away from the earth face
between the counterforts
• The bending moment in the stem is
maximum at the base and reduces towards
top.
• But the thickness of the wall is kept constant
and only the area of steel is reduced.
p=Kaγh
49
Maximum Bending moments for stem
 Maximum +ve B.M= pl2/16

 (occurring mid-way between counterforts)
 and
l
 Maximum -ve B.M= pl2/12
 (occurring at inner face of counterforts)
-
 Where ‘l’ is the clear distance between the + p

counterforts
 and ‘p’ is the intensity of soil pressure
50
Design of Toe Slab
 The base width=b =0.6 H to 0.7 H
 The projection=1/3 to 1/4 of base width.
 The toe slab is subjected to an upward soil
reaction and is designed as a cantilever slab fixed H
at the front face of the stem.
 Reinforcement is provided on earth face along
the length of the toe slab.
 In case the toe slab projection is large i.e. >
b/3, front counterforts are provided above the
toe slab and the slab is designed as a continuous b
horizontal slab spanning between the front
counterforts.
51
Design of Heel Slab
 The heel slab is designed as a continuous slab

spanning over the counterforts and is subjected to
downward forces due to weight of soil plus self weight of
slab and an upward force due to soil reaction.
 Maximum +ve B.M= pl2/16

 (mid-way between counterforts) BF
 And
 Maximum -ve B.M= pl2/12
 (occurring at counterforts)
52
Design of Counterforts
• The counterforts are subjected to outward
reaction from the stem.
• This produces tension along the outer sloping
face of the counterforts.
• The inner face supporting the stem is in
compression. Thus counterforts are designed
as a T-beam of varying depth.
• The main steel provided along the sloping C T
face shall be anchored properly at both ends.
• The depth of the counterfort is measured d
perpendicular to the sloping side.
53
Behaviour of Counterfort RW
-M
+M Important points
•Loads on Wall
COUNTERFORT •Deflected shape
STEM
•Nature of BMs
•Position of steel
-M
•Counterfort details
HEEL SLAB
TOE +M
54
55
Dr. Mohammed E. Haque, P.E.
Retaining Walls
Page 1
Common Retaining Walls
Ground Level Ground Level

Back Fill
Back Fill
Stem
Toe Heel
Gravity or Semi-gravity Toe Footing Heel

Retaining wall
Ground Level
Ground Level
Back Fill
Back Fill
Buttress Counterfort
Stem
Stem
Toe Footing Heel Toe Footing Heel

Buttress Retaining wall Counterfort Retaining wall
Retaining Walls
Page 2
First Floor
Ground Level
Stem
Basement Floor
Footing
Basement Wall Foundation
Retaining Walls
Page 3
Back-wall
Bearing Bridge Girder

Plate
Back Fill
Ground Level
Pile Cap
Piles
Bridge Abutment
Retaining Walls
Page 4
External Stability of Cantilever Retaining Wall
1. A Cantilever Retaining Wall must not slide horizontally
Fig 1. Sliding Failure of Cantilever Retaining Wall

Retaining Walls
Page 5
2. A Cantilever Retaining Wall must not overturn.
Fig 2. Overturning Failure of Cantilever Retaining Wall

Retaining Walls
Page 6
3. The resultant of the normal force at the base of footing must be within
middle third of the width of footing.
L/3 L/3 L/3
Middle third of “L”

Retaining Walls
Page 7
4. The foundation must not experience a soil bearing capacity failure.
Fig 4. Bearing Capacity Failure of Cantilever Retaining Wall

Retaining Walls
Page 8
5. The foundation must not experience a deep-seated shear failure.
Fig 5. Deep-seated shear Failure of Cantilever Retaining Wall

Retaining Walls
Page 9
6. The foundation must not experience an excessive settlement.
Excessive settlement
Fig 6. Excessive settlement of Cantilever Retaining Wall

Retaining Walls
Page 10
Lateral Soil Pressure on Retaining Walls
Backfill
γsoil Ka = Coefficient of Active Soil

Pressure
h 2 0
Ka = tan (45 - φ/2)
φ = Angle of Internal Friction for

backfill soil
γsoil = Unit weight of Soil (pcf)
P max = Ka γsoil h
Fig. 1: Soil Pressure on the back of wall (No surcharge)
Typical Angle of Internal Friction for backfill soil

Soil Type φ (Degree)
Gravel and coarse sandy backfill soil 33-36
Medium to fine sandy backfill soil 29-32
Silty sand 27-30
Retaining Walls
Page 11
Backfill
cos β - √(cos2 β - cos2 φ)
Ka = cos β
cos β + √(cos2 β - cos2 φ)
γsoil
h
P max = Ka γsoil h
Fig. 2: Soil Pressure on the back of wall (Sloping Backfill)

Retaining Walls
Page 12
Surcharge, wsc
Backfill
γsoil
h
+
Psc = Ka wsc
P max = Ka γsoil h
Fig. 3: Soil Pressure on the back of wall (with uniform surcharge)
Retaining Walls
Page 13
Q1(a): Analyze the stability of the reinforced cantilever retaining wall as shown in
Figure.
Use the following values:

Concrete unit weight = 150 pcf
Soil unit weight, γsoil =110 pcf
Coefficient of Active Soil Pressure, Ka = 0.33
(Neglect Coefficient of passive Soil Pressure, Kp)
Coefficient of friction between the bottom of footing and soil, µ = 0.5
10’
2’
2’
2’ 1’ 4’
Retaining Walls
Page 14
Solution:
W soil 12’
W wall
FH
2’
1/3(12’)=4’
2’ W Footing
A
Pmax
2’ 1’ 4’
Toe
2.5’
3.5’
5’
Step 1: Calculate lateral soil pressure and overturning moment
P max = Ka γsoil h = 0.33 (110)(12) = 435.6 psf

FH = ½ Pmax h = ½ (435.6)(12)= 2613.6 lb/ft of wall
Sliding Force, FH = 2613.6 lb/ft of wall
Overturning Moment, MOT about toe = 2613.6 x 4 = 10454.4 lb-ft /ft of wall.
Retaining Walls
Page 15
Step 2: Calculate weights, Resisting Moment, Sliding Resisting Force;
W soil = (4 x 10)(110) = 4400 lb./ft of wall
W wall = (1 x 10)(150) = 1500 lb / ft of wall
W Footing = (2 x 7)(150) = 2100 lb / ft of wall
W Total = 4400 + 1500 + 2100 = 8000 lb / ft of wall
Resisting moment , MR about toe = (4400 x 5) + (1500 x 2.5) + (2100 x 3.5)

= 33100 lb-ft/ft of wall
Sliding Resisting Force, FR = µ X W Total = 0.5 (8000) = 4000 lb
Step 3: determining the Factor of Safety (FS) against overturning and sliding.
FS OT = MR / MOT = 33100 / 10454.4 = 3.17 > 2.0 OK
FS Sliding = FR / FH = 4000 / 2613.6 = 1.53 > 1.5 OK

Retaining Walls
Page 16
Soil Pressure under the footing of the Retaining Wall
C.L. C.L. C.L.

c= B/2 c > B/3 c ≤ B/3
e<B/6 e≥B/6
B B B
P= W Total P= W Total P= W Total
fmax fmin fmax

f = fmax = P/A
= P/(Bx1)
fmax = P/A + (P e /Sm) fmax = (2/3)P/c
fmin = P/A - (P e /Sm)
Case I: Load, P with
zero eccentricity (e=0) where
A= 1xB Case III: Load, P with
Sm = 1x(B2)/6 large eccentricity (e≥B/6)
Case II: Load, P with

small eccentricity (e<B/6)
Retaining Walls
Page 17
Q1(b) Calculate the soil pressure under the footing of the retaining wall of Q1(a).
e
C.L. of Footing
B=7’
c= 2.831’ W Total
2’
fmin
Toe fmax
Determine the resultant vertical force, W Total intersects the bottom of the footing:
c = (MR – MOT)/ W Total = (33100 - 10454.4) / 8000 = 2.831 ft. from the Toe.
Eccentricity, e = B/2 – c = (7/2) – 2.831 = 0.6693’ < B/6 (=7/6=1.1667’)

Therefore, Case II is applicable.
Calculate soil pressures, fmax and fmin under the footing:
A= 1xB = 7 sqft.
Sm = 1x(B2)/6 = 72 / 6 = 8.1667 ft3
P= W Total = 8000 lb.
fmax = P/A + (P e /Sm) = (8000/7) +(8000x0.6693/8.1667)
=1142.86 + 655.64 = 1798.5 psf
fmin = P/A - (P e /Sm) = =1142.86 - 655.64 = 487.22 psf
Retaining Walls
Page 18
Groundwater effects
Backfill soil Backfill soil
Groundwater Table
Lateral pressure
due to backfill
Lateral pressure
Groundwater Table Hydrostatic
due to backfill
pressure
(a) Groundwater Table at or below (b) Groundwater Table above the

the bottom of footing bottom of footing
If the groundwater table rises above the bottom of wall footing (Fig b), following three
important changes occur:
1. The effective stress in the soil below the groundwater table will decrease, which
decreases the soil active, passive, and at-rest pressures.
2. Horizontal hydrostatic pressure due to groundwater will act against the wall, and will
be added to lateral earth pressure.
3. The increased hydrostatic pressures (item 2 above) more than offset the decreased
effective stress (item 1 above), and the net effect is a large increase of total
horizontal pressure acting on the wall (Fig b).
4. The effective stress between the bottom of the footing and soil will decrease, which
decreases sliding frictional resistance.
Seismic Design of Earth Retaining Structures
By Atop Lego, M.Tech (Struct.)
SSW (E/Z) AP, PWD; Itanagar
Introduction
The problem of retaining soil is one the oldest in the geotechnical engineering; some of the
earliest and most fundamental principles of soil mechanics were developed to allow rational
design of retaining walls. Many approaches to soil retention have been developed and used
successfully. In the recent years, the development of metallic, polymer, and geotextile
reinforcement has also led to the development of many innovative types of mechanically
stabilized earth retention system.
Retaining walls are often classified in terms of their relative mass, flexibility, and anchorage
condition. The common types of the retaining wall are:
1. Gravity Retaining wall

2. Cantilever Retaining wall
3. Counter fort Retaining wall
4. Reinforced Soil Retaining wall
5. Anchored bulkhead
a. Gravity b. Cantilever c. Reinforced soil

Wall wall wall
d. Anchored
e. Counterfort Retaining
bulkhead
Fig. 1 Common type of Retaining Wall
Gravity Retaining walls (Fig 1 a) are the oldest and simplest type of retaining walls. The gravity
wall retaining walls are thick and stiff enough that they do not bend; their movement occurs
essentially by rigid body translation and or by rotation.
2
The cantilever retaining wall as shown in Fig.1b bends as well as translates and rotates. They
rely on the flexural strength to resist lateral earth pressures. The actual distribution of lateral
earth pressure on a cantilever wall is influenced by the relative stiffness and deformation both the
wall and the soil.
In the present context considering the maximum applicability of free standing gravity retaining
wall the presentation is focused mainly on the seismic design of gravity retaining wall. (For
details of other type the book “Foundation Analysis and Design” by J.E. Bowles;McGraw-Hill
International Edition, 1997 may be referred).
Type of Retaining Wall Failure
To design retaining walls, it is necessary to know how wall can fail. Under static condition the
retaining walls are acted upon by the forces like;
1. body forces related to mass of the wall
2. by soil pressure
3. by external forces such as those forces transmitted by braces etc.
A properly designed retaining wall will achieve equilibrium of those forces including shear
stresses that approach the shear strength of soil. During earth quake, however the inertial forces
and changes in the soil strength may violate the equilibrium and cause permanent deformation of
the wall. Failure whether by sliding, tilting, bending or some other mechanism, occurs when
these permanent deformations becomes excessive. The types of failure of retaining wall are as
shown below in Fig.2.
Weak or liquefied
a. Sliding b. Overturning c. Gross instability

failure Failure failure
Fig.2. Typical failure mechanism of gravity wall
3
Gravity wall usually fail by rigid body mechanism such as sliding and/or overturning or by gross
instability. Sliding occurs when horizontal force equilibrium is not maintained, that is when the
lateral pressure on the back of the wall produces a thrust that exceeds the available sliding
resistance of the base of wall. Overturning failure occurs, when moment equilibrium is not
satisfied. In this situation bearing failure at the base are often involved.
In cantilever retaining wall also, the similar type of failure occurs as that of in the gravity wall. In
addition, the flexural failure mechanism also occurs in cantilever wall.
Static Pressure on Retaining Wall
The seismic behavior of retaining wall depends on the total lateral earth pressure that develops
during the earth shaking. This total pressure includes both the static gravitational pressure that
exist before earthquake occurs and the transient dynamic pressure induced by the earthquake.
Therefore, the static pressure on the retaining wall is of significant in the seismic design of
retaining wall and hence a brief review of static earth pressure is presented.
Calculation of Static Earth Pressure: Rankine Theory
Rankine (1857) developed the simplest procedure for computing the minimum active and
maximum passive earth pressure. For minimum active condition, Rankine expressed the pressure
at a point on the back of a retaining wall as
p a = K aσ v/ − 2c K a (1)
Where Ka is the coefficient of minimum active earth pressure, σ v/ is the vertical effective stress
at the point of interest, and c is the cohesive strength of the soil. When the principal stress
planes are vertical and horizontal (as in case of a smooth vertical wall retaining a horizontal
backfill), the minimum active pressure coefficient is given by the equation:
1 − sin φ  φ
Ka = = tan 2  45 −  (2)
1 + sin φ  2
For the case of the cohesionless backfill inclined at angle β with the horizontal infinite slope
solution can be used to compute K a as:
cos β − cos 2 β − cos 2 φ

K a = cos β (3)
cos β + cos 2 β − cos 2 φ
The pressure distributions on the back of the wall, as indicated by the equation (1), depend on the
relative magnitude of the frictional and cohesive components of the backfill soil strength as
given below in Fig 3.
4
Height of tension
zo
γ, φ , γ, φ=0, γ, φ
c=0 c ,c Failure
Failure Failure surface
z surface surface
Pa Pa Pa
450+φ/2 450 450+φ/2
K a = tan 2 (45 − φ / 2) z o = 2c / γ  2c 
z o =   tan( 45 + φ / 2)
γ 
p a = K a γz p p = γz − 2 c p a = γz tan 2 (45 − φ / 2) − 2c tan( 45 − φ / 2)
Pa = K a γH 2 / 2 2c 2  γH 2  2
P a = γH 2 / 2 − 2cH + Pa =   tan (45 − φ / 2) − 2cH
γ  2 
tan(45 − φ / 2) + 2c 2 / 2
(a). (b). (c).
Fig.4. Minimum Rankine active earth pressure distribution for back fill with various combination of
friction and cohesive strength; (a) Frictional resistance, no cohesion; (b) Cohesive soil, no frictional
resistance; (c) combined cohesion and friction (S.L Cramer)
Although the presence of cohesion indicates that tensile stresses will develop in between the
upper portion of the wall backfill, tensile stresses do not actually develop in the field. The creep,
stress relaxation and low permeability characteristics of the cohesive soil render them
undesirable as backfill materials for the retaining structures. Hence their use as filling materials
should be avoided.
The Rankine theory predicts triangular active pressure distribution oriented parallel to the
backfill surface for homogeneous cohesionless backfill. The resultant active earth pressure PA
acts at a point located at height H/3 above the base of the wall height with the magnitude:
1
PA = K a γH 2 (4)
2
Under maximum passive condition, Rankines theory predicts wall pressure given by the relation
p p = K pσ v1 + 2c K p
5
where K p is the coefficient of maximum earth pressure. For smooth, vertical walls retaining
horizontal backfills K p is calculated from the relation;
1 + sin φ  φ
Kp = = tan 2  45 +  (5)
1 − sin φ  2
and for backfill inclined at β to horizontal
cos β + cos 2 β − cos 2 φ

K p = cos β (6)
cos β − cos 2 β − cos 2 φ
The passive pressure distribution for various backfill strength characteristics are shown in Fig 5.
2c tan (45+φ/2)
2c
γ, φ , γ, φ=0, γ, φ
c=0 c ,c Failure
Failure Failure surface
z surface surface
Pp Pp Pp
450 - φ/2 450 450 - φ/2
K p = tan 2 (45 + φ / 2)
p p = K p γz p p = γz + 2 c p p = γz tan 2 (45 + φ / 2) − 2c tan(45 + φ / 2)
P = K aγH 2
/2 1  γH 2  2
Pa= γH 2 + 2cH Pp =   tan (45 + φ / 2) + 2cH
2
 2 
tan(45 + φ / 2)
(a). (b). (c).
Fig.5. Maximum Rankine passive earth pressure distribution for back fill with various combination of
friction and cohesive strength; (a) Frictional resistance, no cohesion; (b) Cohesive soil, no frictional
resistance; (c) combined cohesion and friction (S.L Cramer)
6
For homogeneous dry backfill Rankine theory predicts a triangular distribution oriented parallel
to the backfill surface. The backfill earth pressure resultant, or the passive thrust Pp , acts at a
point located at H/3 above the base a wall of height H with the magnitude;
1
Pp = K p γH 2 (7)
2
Calculation of Static Earth Pressure: Coulomb Theory
By assuming that the forces acting on the back of the retaining wall resulted from the weight of
the wedge of the soil above a planar failure plane surface coulomb used force equilibrium to
determine the magnitude of the thrust acting on the wall for both minimum active and maximum
passive conditions.
Under minimum active earth pressure conditions, the active thrust on a wall with the geometry
shown in Fig 6 is obtained from the force equilibrium for critical failure surface, the active thrust
on wall retaining a cohesionless soil can be expressed as;
1
Pa = K a γH 2 (8)
2
where,
cos 2 (φ − θ )
Ka = 2
(9)
 sin(δ + φ ) sin(φ − β ) 
cos 2 θ cos(δ + θ )1 + 
 cos(δ + θ ) cos( β − θ ) 
δ is the angle of wall friction between the wall and the soil, β is the angle of slope of filling and
θ is the angle of inner face of wall with the vertical face.
β
Pa
W
W
F
δ
Pa
θ φ
(b)
(a) F
Fig.6. (a) Triangular active wedge bounded by planar backfill surface failure surface and wall, (b) force
polygon for active Coulomb wedge (S.L Cramer)
7
Coulomb theory does not explicitly predict the distribution of active pressure, but it can be
shown to be triangular for linear backfill surface with no loads. In such case, Pa acts at a point
located at H/3 above the height of wall of height H.
For the maximum passive conditions in cohesionless backfill (Fig. 7) Coulomb theory predicts a
passive thrust as
1
Pp = K p γH 2 (10)
2
cos 2 (φ + θ )
where, K p = 2
(11)
 sin(δ + φ ) sin(φ + β ) 
cos 2 θ cos(δ − θ )1 + 
 cos(δ − θ ) cos( β + θ ) 
β
Pa
W
Pp W
F
δ
θ φ
(b)
(a) F
Fig.7. (a) Triangular passive wedge bounded by planar backfill surface failure surface and wall, (b) force
polygon for active Coulomb wedge (S.L Cramer)
The calculation of passive earth pressure coefficient K p by Rankine method should be avoided
when the slope of top surface of the backfilling that β>0. In such situation the Coulombs method
should be followed. Further neither the Coulomb method nor Rankine method explicitly
incorporated the cohesion as an equation parameter in lateral earth pressure computation.
Therefore when cohesive soil are used as filling materials Bell equation should be used in
computation of lateral earth pressure. Readers interested on the topic may refer to the book on
Foundation Analysis and Design by J.E. Bowles (McGraw-Hill International Edition, 1997).
For practical field application of the Coulomb theory coefficient in the annexure attached may
directly be referred which taken from the book by J.E. Bowles mentioned above.
8
Dynamic Response of Retaining Walls
The dynamic response of even simplest type of retaining wall is quite complex. Wall movement
and pressure depends on the response of the soil underlying the wall, the response of the backfill,
the inertial and flexural response of the wall itself, and the nature of the input motions. Most of
the current understanding of the dynamic response of retaining wall has come from the model
test and numerical analyses. These tests and analyses, the majority of which involved gravity
wall indicate that;
1. Wall can move by translation and or by rotation. The relative amounts of translation and
rotation depend on the design of the wall; one or the other may predominate for some wall,
and both may occur for others.
2. Magnitude and distribution of dynamic wall pressure are influenced by the mode of wall
movement (e.g. translation, rotation about the base, or rotation about the top).
3. Maximum soil thrust acting on the wall generally occurs when the wall has translated or
rotated towards the backfill (when the inertial force on the wall is directed towards the
backfill). The minimum soil thrust occurs when the wall has translated or rotated away from
the backfill.
4. The shape of the earth pressure distribution on the back of the wall changes as the wall moves.
The point of application of the soil thrust therefore, moves up and down along the back of the
wall. The position of the soil thrust in highest when the wall moves towards the soil and lowest
when the wall moves outwards.
5. Dynamic wall pressures are influenced by the dynamic response of the wall and backfill and
can increase significantly near the natural frequency of the wall-backfill system. Permanent
wall displacement also increases at frequency of the wall-backfill system. Dynamic response
effect can also cause deflections of different parts of the wall to be out of phase. This effect
can be particularly significant for wall that penetrates into the foundation soil when the backfill
soil moves out of phase with the foundation soils.
6. Increased residual pressures may remain on the wall after an episode of strong shaking has
ended.
[Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering By S.L. Cramer, Pearson Education]
In summarizing, it may be seen that the damage of retaining wall under seismic forces has been
due to the increase in the pressure resulting from the movement of the structure during
earthquake. Therefore, separate evaluation of dynamic earth pressure and stresses on the
retaining structures should be done for retaining wall constructed in the seismic area. The one of
the commonly used method adopted in the evaluation of dynamic seismic coefficient for lateral
earth pressure is discussed in the following pages.
9
Mononobe-Okabe Seismic Coefficient Analysis
The most commonly adopted method for determining the dynamic lateral pressure on retaining
structures was develop by Mononobe (1929) and Okabe (1926). The method was developed for
dry cohesionless materials and was based on the assumption that:
(1) the wall yields sufficiently to produce minimum active pressure
(2) when the minimum active pressure in attained, a soil wedge behind the is at the point of
incipient failure and the maximum shear strength is mobilized along the potential sliding
surface.
(3) the soil behind the wall behaves as a rigid body so that acceleration are uniform
throughout the mass; thus the effect of the earthquake motion can be represented by the
inertia forces k h × W and k v × W where W is the weight of the sliding wedge k h g and
k v g are the horizontal and vertical components of the earthquake acceleration at the base
of the wall.
Wk v
Wk h
W
δ φ
PAE
Fig.8. Forces considered in Mononobe-Okabe Analysis
In effect, the active pressure during the earthquake PAE is computed by the Coulomb theory
except that the additional forces k h × W and k v × W as shown above in Fig.8 are included in the
computation. Determining the critical sliding surface is the usual way and the active pressure
corresponding to this surface lead to the following expression:
1
PAE = γH 2 (1 − k v ) × K AE (12)
2
10
cos 2 (φ − θ − β )
where K AE = 2
(13)
 sin(φ + δ ) sin(φ − θ − i ) 
cos θ cos 2 β × cos(δ + β + θ ) 1 + 
 cos(δ + β + θ ) cos(i − β ) 
kh
θ = tan −1
1 − kv
γ = unit weight of soil
H = height of wall
φ = angle of friction of soil
δ = angle of wall friction
i = slope of ground surface behind the wall
β = slope of back wall to the vertical
k h = horizontal ground acceleration /g
k v = vertical ground acceleration /g
The horizontal component of the force PAE may be expressed as PAEh where
PAEh = PAE cos(δ + β ) (14a)

1
PAEh = γH 2 (1 − k v ) × K AE cos(δ + β ) (14b)
2
For wall with vertical inside face that is β = 0
1
PAEh = γH 2 (1 − k v ) × K AE cos(δ ) (14c)
2
Mononobe and Okabe considered that the total pressure computed by their analytical approach
would act on the wall at the same position as the initial static pressure; that is at the height of H/3
above the base. With the analysis on effect of the vertical components on the dynamic pressure
with varied data; it was also found that in most of earthquakes the horizontal acceleration
components are considerably greater that the vertical components and it seems reasonable to
conclude that in such cases the influence of vertical components k v can be neglected for the
practical purpose.
11
Finally it may be noted that the values of the K AE represent the total maximum earth pressure
developed on the wall. For many purpose it convenient to separate this pressure into two
components – the initial static pressure on the wall and the dynamic pressure increment due to
the base motion. For practical purpose we may write
K AE = K a + ∆K AE (15)
and the dynamic lateral pressure components becomes
1
∆PAE = γH 2 × ∆K AE (16)
2
Methods of determining both active and passive lateral pressure by the Mononobe-Okabe
method, but utilizing the graphical constructions, such as coulomb or Melbye construction
procedure has been described by Kapila (1962), who also showed that using the same general
approach, the passive pressure resistance under seismic conditions may be expressed by the
equations;
1
Pp = γH 2 (1 − k v ) K PE (17)
2
cos 2 (φ + θ − β )
where K PE = 2
(17a)
 sin(φ − δ ) sin(φ + i − θ ) 
cos θ cos 2 β × cos(δ − β + θ ) 1 − 
 cos(δ − β + θ ) cos(i − β ) 
In addition to the qualitative indications of the lateral earth pressure developed during
earthquake, model tests, in which small scale structures are subjected to base motion by means of
shaking tables, have been used done by numbers of investigators for quantitative evaluations of
the magnitude of the dynamic pressures. The general conclusions of the experimental studies by
various investigators are as summarized below:
(1). All the investigators have concluded that the lateral earth pressure coefficients for the
cohesionless backfill computed from the Mononobe-Okabe analysis are in reasonably
good with values developed in small scale (model) structures.
(2). In case of unanchored retaining structures, most of the investigation agree that the
increase in the lateral pressure due to the base excitation are greater at the top of the wall
and the resultant increment acts at the height varying from 0.5H to 0.67H above the base
of the wall.
(3). The increase in the lateral pressure due to dynamic effect may be accompanied by an
outward movement of the wall, the amount of movement increasing with the magnitude
of the base acceleration.
12
(4). After a retaining structures with a granular backfill materials has been subjected to a base
excitation, there is a residual pressure which is substantially greater than the initial
pressure before the base excitation; this residual is also a substantial portion of the
maximum pressure developed during the excitation.
Provision of IS 1893:1984 for Calculation of Dynamic Lateral Pressure
The provision of calculation of lateral dynamic earth pressure in IS: 1893:1984 [which is in
process of revision]; is in the line of the Mononobe-Okabe method as described in the preceding
pages.
i α
α +v
h Normal δ
-
δ h P
Pa Norm
Active Passive Pressure
Fig. 9 Earth Pressure Due to Earthquake on Retaining Wall
As per the provision of IS: 1893:1984 the general conditions encountered for the design of
retaining wall is illustrated in the Fig. 9 above. The active earth pressure exerted against the wall
is given by
1
Pa = wh 2 C a (18)
2
where,
Pa = active earth pressure
w = unit weight of soil
h = height of wall
13
2
 
 
(1 ± α v ) cos (φ − λ − α )
2  1 
Ca = ×  1 
(18a)
cos λ cos 2 α cos(δ + α + λ )  
 sin(φ + δ ) sin(φ − ι − λ  2
1 +   
  cos(α − ι ) cos(δ + α + λ )  
Two values shall be calculated from above equation, one for 1+αv and the other for 1-αv and
maximum of the two shall be the design values. The values of the notations shall be taken as
below:
α v = vertical seismic coefficient – its direction being taken consistently throughout
2
the stability analysis of wall and equal to αh
3
φ = angle of internal friction of soil
αh
λ = tan −1
1± αv
α = angle which earth face of the wall makes with the vertical as shown in Fig.9
i = slope of earth fill as shown in Fig.9
δ = angle of friction between the wall and earth fill
α h = horizontal seismic coefficient
From the total pressure computed from the relation given above subtract the static earth pressure
calculated by putting αh= αv= λ=0 in the expression given above or from the equations available
for calculation of static earth pressure using Coulomb theory. The remainder is the dynamic
increment. The dynamic increment shall be considered separately in addition to the static
pressure and this will be considered to act at the mid-height of the wall. The point of application
of the dynamic increment pressure shall be at mid height of the wall as per the provision of the
code.
Similarly the general conditions encountered in the design of retaining wall for passive pressure
is also illustrate in Fig.9. The passive pressure against the wall shall be given by
1
Pp = wh 2 C p (19)
2
14
2
 
 
(1 ± α v ) cos (φ + α − λ )
2  1 
where, C p = ×  1 
(19a)
cos λ cos 2 α cos(δ − α + λ )  
 sin(φ + δ ) sin(φ + ι − λ  2
1 −   
  cos(α − ι ) cos(δ − α + λ )  
The equation (19) gives the total passive pressure on the face of the wall at the time of the base
acceleration. The static passive pressure calculated based on the Coulomb theory shall be
deducted from the total passive pressure and the remainder shall be the dynamic passive pressure
decrement. The point of application of the dynamic decrement is assumed to act an elevation of
0.66h above the base of the wall.
Effect of Surcharge on Dynamic Pressure
Further the code also provides that the active pressure against the wall due to uniform surcharge
in intensity q per unit area of the inclined earth fill, during the acceleration of the base shall be:
qh cos α
(Pa )q = Ca (20)
cos(α − i )
The point of application of the dynamic increment in active pressure due to uniform surcharge
shall be at an elevation of 0.66h above the base of the wall, while the static component shall be
applied at mid-height of the wall.
The passive pressure against the wall due to uniform surcharge on intensity q per unit area of
the inclined earthfill during the acceleration of the base shall be:
qh cos α
(P ) = Cp (21)
cos(α − i )
p q
The point of application of decrement in the passive pressure due to uniform surcharge shall be
at an elevation of 0.66h above the base of the wall; while the static component shall be applied
at the mid-height of the wall.
Effect of Saturation on Dynamic Lateral Earth Pressure
Further the researcher has also analyzed that the presence of water in the backfill further increase
the dynamic pressure during seismic excitation [H.Bolton Seed and Robert V. Whiteman]. For
saturated earthfill the saturated unit weight of the soil shall be adopted while calculating the
dynamic active earth pressure increment or passive earth pressure decrement using the equation
(18), (19), (20) and (21) as discussed in preceding pages. For submerged earthfill also, the
dynamic increment or decrement in active and passive earth pressure during earthquake shall be
15
found from the expression given in the equation (18), (19), (20) and (21) with the following
modification:
1
(1). The value of δ shall be taken as the value of δ in dry condition
2
(2). The value of λ shall be taken as follows:
ws αh
λ = tan −1 × (22)
ws
−1
1± αv
where ws = saturated unit weight of soil in gm/cc
α h = horizontal seismic coefficient
2
α v = vertical seismic coefficient which is αh
3
(3) Buoyant unit weight shall be adopted
Simplified Method of Determining Dynamic Lateral Earth Pressure Coefficient
The complex calculation of dynamic earth pressure coefficient some time becomes cumbersome
when the immediate solution at site is required. In such situation, for simple cases of vertical
wall and horizontal dry backfills, the methods proposed by Seed [Bolton Seed & V. Whiteman]
can be adopted in determining the Mononbe-Okabe earth pressure effects as below:
A ¾H B C
k hW
1
H
W
1.5
Fig. 10 Empirical Rules for Determining Dynamic Lateral Earth Pressure

16
The following simple rules are adopted in determining the coefficient of the dynamic lateral
Mononbe-Okabe earth pressure coefficient:
1. Maximum dynamic active pressure PAE is equal to the sum of the initial static pressure
and the dynamic increment ∆PAE
Thus PAE = Static pressure + ∆PAE
1
= K a γH 2 + ∆PAE
2
2. For a backfill with angle of friction equal to about 350, the dynamic pressure increment is
3
approximately equal to the inertia force on a soil wedge extending a distance of H
4
behind the crest of the wall
Thus ∆PAE = WOAB × k h
1 3
= × H × H × γ × kh
2 4
1 3
= × γH 2 × k h
2 4
1 1 3
PAE = K a γH 2 + × γH 2 × k h
2 2 4
1  3 
× γH 2  K a + k h 
2  4 
3
Therefore, the dynamic increment of pressure in times the horizontal seismic
4
acceleration coefficient.
3. The dynamic pressure increment, ∆PAE , acts on the wall at a height of 0.6H above the
base.
17
Design Example
Carry out the stability analysis of the retaining wall of concrete M10 as given in Fig. 11 and
calculate the base pressure.
1.00
1
6.00
4.00
Fig. 11 Section of Retaining wall
The retaining wall is located in seismic Zone V. The properties of the backfill materials are as
detailed below:
Unit weight of backfill soil (γ ) = 18kN / m 3
Angle of internal soil friction (φ ) = 30 0
Angle of Wall friction (δ ) = 20 0
Angle of back face of wall with vertical (α ) = 0 0
Adopting Coulomb theory for calculation of static earth pressure the coefficient of active earth
pressure K a = 0.297 (values can also be directly read from the table appended)
Calculation of Horizontal and Vertical Seismic Coefficient
Since the relevant code dealing with the provision of seismic design of retaining wall is still
under revision the data provided in the IS: 1893:2002 Part I is referred for relevant seismic data.
18
The calculation of the horizontal seismic coefficient is calculated as
Z I Sa
αh = × ×
2 R g
where, α h = Horizontal seismic coefficient
Z = Seismic Zone factor which is taken as 0.36 for seismic Zone V
I = Importance factor which is taken as 1.00 for the retaining wall
R = Response reduction factor taken as 1.50 for unreinforced concrete wall
Sa
= Spectral acceleration coefficient or flexibility factor
g
The solid retaining wall is almost rigid and no differential displacement shall take place in the
wall during seismic acceleration. Hence the wall is taken as zero period structure and the spectral
acceleration coefficient of the wall is taken as 1.00. Putting the values we have
0.36 1.00
αh = × × 1.00 = 0.12
2 1.50
2
The vertical acceleration coefficient α v = × 0.12 = 0.08
3
Calculation of active pressure coefficient under seismic condition:
Adopting the method prescribed in IS: 1893: 1984 the dynamic active pressure coefficient is
given by the equation:
2
 
 
(1 ± α v ) cos 2 (φ − λ − α )  1 
Ca = × 1 
cos λ cos α cos(δ + α + λ ) 
2
 sin(φ + δ ) sin(φ − ι − λ  2 
1 +   
  cos(α − ι ) cos(δ + α + λ )  
Putting the values of soil properties and seismic coefficients we calculate
αh
λ = tan −1
1± αv
λ = (Corresponding to + α v ) = 6.34
19
Cos (φ − λ − α ) = Cos (30 − 6.34 − 0) = 0.91
Cos (δ + α + λ ) = Cos (20 + 0 + 6.34) = 0.896
Cosλ = Cos 6.34 = 0.993
Cosα = Cos (0) = 1.00
Sin(φ + δ ) = Sin(30 + 20) = 0.766
Sin(φ − i − λ ) = Sin(30 − 0 − 6.34) = 0.401
Cos (α − i ) = Cos (0 − 0) = 1.00
2
 
 
Ca =
(1 + 0.08) × (0.91)
2
×  1 
0.993 × (1.00) 2 × 0.896   0.766 × 0.401 12 
1 + 
  1.00 × 0.896  
2
 1 
C a = 1.00 ×  = 0.40
1 + 0.58 
By Empirical method:
3 3
Ca = K a + k h = 0.297 + × 0.12 = 0.387 [The values are almost comparable]
4 4
Calculation static earth pressure
Active pressure = 0.297 × 18 × 6.00 = 32.07 kN / m
H
Height of action from the base of the wall = = 2.00m
3
Dynamic pressure = 0.40 × 18 × 6.00 = 43.20kN / m
Dynamic increment ∆E = 43.20 − 32.07 = 11.13kN / m
Height of action from the base of the wall 0.5 H = 3.00m
Self weight of wall
Section 1 = 1 × 6.00 × 20.00 = 120.00kN / m

20
1
Section 2 = × 6.00 × 3.00 × 20.00 = 180.00kN / m
2
Stability analysis
Calculation of overturnig moments

Lever arm
Vertical Overturnig
Horizontal from the
SL NO Description Weight moment
Force (kN) base of
(kN) (kNm)
Wall (m)
Static condtion
1 Active pressure 32.07 2.00 64.14
Seismic condition
2 Sectio 1 120.00 14.40 3.00 43.20
3 Section 2 180.00 21.60 2.00 43.20
4 Dynamic pressure 11.13 3.00 33.39
Total 300.00 79.20 183.93
Calculation of Restoring moments about the toe of wall

Vertical Lever arm Restoring
SL NO Description Weight from the toe moment
(kN) of wall (kNm)
Static condtion
1 Sectio 1 120.00 2.50 300.00
2 Section 2 180.00 2.00 360.00
Total 300.00 660.00
660
Factor of safety against overturning = 3.50 >1.2 [The section can further be reduced]
183.93
Coefficient of frictional of the soil and wall at base tan φ = tan 30 = 0.57 ≈ 0.50
0.50 × 300
Factor of safety against sliding = = 1.89 > 1.10 OK
79.20
Net moment = 660 − 183.93 = 476.07 kNm
Vertical load = 300kN
B M 4 476.07
Eccentricity e = − = − = 0.41m
2 P 2 300
21
P  6e  300  6 × 0.41 
Base Pressure f = 1 ±  = 1 ± 
B B 4  4 
f max = 121.12kN / m 2 [Should not be more than allowable bearing capacity of soil]
f min = 28.87 kN / m 2 [No tension exist hence Ok]
References:
1. Steven L. Cramer(1996): Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering; Prentice-Hall International

Series
2. H. Bolton Seed and Robert V. Whiteman: Design of Earth Retaining Structures for Dynamic
Load; University of California, Berkeley
3. Joseph E. Bowles: Foundation Analysis and Design, (Fifth Edition); McGraw-Hill Publication,
New York
4. BIS New Delhi: IS: 1893: 1984 Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures
5. BIS New Delhi: IS: 1893(Part I):2002 Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures
Part I: General Provisions and Buildings

RETAINING WALL PROBLEMS
P1. CANTILEVER RETAINING WALL

Ouestion
For the retaining wall and the profile shown below, calculate:
a. The safety factor against overturning,
b. The safety factor against sliding (minimum required F.S. =1.5)
Do not consider the passive resistance of the fill in front of the wall.
c. If the overturning safety is not satisfactory, extend the base to the right and satisfy the
overturning stability requirement.
If the sliding is not satisfactory, design a shear key (location, thickness, depth) under the
base slab to satisfy the sliding stability. Take advantage of passive resistance of the
foundation soil. Calculate the vertical stress starting from the top level of the base but
consider the passive resistance starting from the bottom level of the base slab (i.e. in the
sand). Use a factor of safety of 2.0 with respect to passive resistance.
0.5m q=30kPa
SURCHARGE
GRANULAR
7m BACKFILL
c=0 =300
=18kN/m3
1m
1m
=20 kN/m3 FILL 1m BASE SLAB
5m
MEDIUM DENSE SILTY SAND
c=0, =320, =20kN/m3, tan=0.5(base friction) , conc=24kN/m3
1
Solution:
0.5m q=30kPa
GRANULAR
V4 BACKFILL
c=0
7m =300
=18kN/m3
H1
1m V5 H2
V1
V2
1m
=20 kN/m3 FILL 1m
V3
5.0m
10kPa 48kPa
Ka=tan2(45-/2)
For granular backfill⇒Ka=tan2(45-30/2)=0.333
Active pressure, pa=(q+z)Ka-2cKa
z=0⇒ pa=30x0.333=10 kN/m2
z=8⇒ a=(30+18x8)0.333=58 kN/m2
Force(kN/m) Arm,about toe(m) Moment(kN.m/m)

V1=0.5x7x24=84 1.25 105
V2=0.5x7x1/2x24=42 1.67 70
V3=1x5x24=120 2.5 300
V4=0.5x7x1/2x18=31.5 1.83 57.75
V5=3x7x18=378 3.5 1323
 V=655.5 Mr=1855.75
H1=10x8=80 4 320
H2=(58-10)x8x1/2=192 8/3 512
H=272.0 Mov=832
2
a)
∑ Mr 1855.75
(F.S.)ov    2.23
∑ Mov 832
(F.S.)ov=2.232.0 O.K.
c=0(at the base) do not consider

b)
∑ V. tan   (2 / 3cB)  Pp
(F.S.) sliding 
∑H
(F.S.) sliding ∑ V. tan x
∑ H 272
(F.S.)sliding=1.20<1.5 NOT O.K. DESIGN BASE KEY
c)
Base key design:

Passive resistance at the base key;
FILL, =20kN/m3 1m
P1 D
P2
65D 65
Kp=tan2(45+32/2)=3.25
z=0⇒pp=1x20x3.25=65 kPa
z=D⇒pp=(1x20+20xD)x3.25=65+65D kPa
Pp=P1+P2=65D+1/2x65D2
Use F.S.=2.0 w.r.t. passive resistance⇒ Pp=1/2(65D+1/2x65D2)
∑ V. tan   Pp 655.55x0.5  1/ 2(65D  1/ 2x65D 2 )

(F.S.) sliding    1.5
∑H 272
3
Then, 65D+32.5D2=160.5 ⇒ D=1.43m
If passive resistance (with a F.S. of 2.0) is subtracted from the driving horizontal
forces, (i.e. used in the denominator)
Use F.S.=2.0 w.r.t. passive resistance⇒ Pp=1/2(65D+1/2x65D2)
(F.S.) sliding ∑ V. tan 

  H-Pp
Then, D=1.07m
Take D=1.43m as it is on safe side.
4
P2. GRAVITY RETAINING WALL
Ouestion
A gravity retaining wall is shown below. Use =2/3  and Coulomb active earth pressure
theory. Determine
a. The factor of safety against overturning
b. The factor of safety against sliding
c. Calculate base pressures for both cases;
- considering the passive pressure, and
- neglecting it.
1=18.5 kN/ m3
1=32
5m 5.7 m
c1’=0
0.3 m 75
 1.5 m
0.77 m 0.60 m 1.53 m
0.8 m
0.3 m 2=18.5 kN/m3

 2=24
3.5 m C2’=30 kN/m3
Soil properties: I) 1=18.5 kN/m3 , 1=320, c1= 0
II) 2=18.0 kN/m3 , 2=240, c2= 30 kN/m2


concrete=24 kN/m3
5
Note: In Coulomb’s active earth pressure theory, the forces to be considered are only
Pa(Coulomb) and weight of the wall i.e. the weight of the soil above the back face of the
wall is not taken into account.




Coulomb active forces;
1
Pa  H 2 K a where
2
H =Height of the wall

Ka = Coulomb’s active earth pressure coefficient
sin 2 (   )
Ka 
sin(   ).sin(   ) 2
sin 2  .sin(   ).(1  )
sin(   ).sin(   )
With horizontal backfill; =0°

With vertical retaining wall; =90°
: friction between the wall and adjacent soil
6
Solution:
1=18.5 kN/ m3
3
c=24 kN/ m
1=32
5.7 m
PAV c1’=0
5m PA
= 2/3=21.3
=21.3
2 15 PAH
3
1
75 H/3=2.17 m
 1.5 m
0.77 m 0.60 m 1.53 m 0.8 m
4 2=18.5 kN/m3
0.3 m 0.3 m 2=24
3.5 m  c2’=30 kN/m3
For =00
=750 ⇒ Ka=0.4023 (use eqn. 1)
=320
=(2/3)x32=21.30
1 1
Pa= ..H 2 .Ka  x18.5x6.52 x0.4023  157.22 kN / m
2 2
Ph  Pa .cos(15  ) 157.22 x cos 36.3 126.65 kN / m
Pv  Pa .sin(15  ) 157.22 x sin 36.3  93.15 kN / m
7
Force Moment arm about pt. A Moment
(kN/m) (m) (kN.m/m)
1
1) ( x1.53x5.7)x24  104.65 2.18 228.14
2
2) (0.6x5.7)x24  82.08 1.37 112.45
1
3) ( x0.77x5.7)x24  52.67 0.81 42.66
2
4) (3.5x0.8)x 23.58  67.20 1.75 117.60
Pv= 93.15 2.83 263.61
V=399.75 Mresisting =764.46
Moverturning= Ph x H/3 = 126.65x 2.17 = 274.83 kN.m/m
∑ M r  764.46 
a) (F.S.)overt.=   2.78 > 2.0 O.K.
∑ Mo 274.83
Note: if there is cohesionless soil at the base (c=0)
ignore this term
if passive pressure is considered

2
∑ V. tan   ( .c2 .B)  Pp
3
b) (F.S.)sliding=
∑H
=(2/3)x 






 - Pp is ignored

 2 2
 399.75x tan( x24)  ( x30x3.5)
(F.S)  3 3  1.46
sliding
126.65
8
c. Pressure on soil at toe and heel
-If Pp is ignored
Mnet=764.46-274.83=489.63 kN.m/m
x
M net

489.63
 1.22m e
B
x
3.5
 1.22  0.53m V
V 399.75 2 2 x
qmax=217.99 kN/ m2 / m (toe) A
max 399.75  6 x0.53 

qmin  1
3.5  3.5  B/2 B/2
qmin=10.44 kN/ m2 / m (heel)
-If Pp is considered
Kp = (1+sin24)/(1-sin24)=2.37
pp @z=0 = Kpz)+ 2c(Kp)0.5=2x30x2.370.5=92.40 kPa
pp @z=1.5 = Kpz)+ 2c(Kp)0.5=2.37x18.5x1.5+ 92.40=65.80+92.40=155.20 kPa
Mres (due to Pp)=92.4x1.52 x0.5+0.5x65.80x(1/3)x1.52=128.63 kN.m/m
Mres=764.46+128.63 = 893.09 kN.m/m

V
x
Mnet=893.09-274.83=618.26 kN.m/m
A
x
M net

618.26
 1.55m e
3.5
 1.55  0.20m
V 399.75 2
B/2 B/2
qmax=153.37 kN/ m2 / m (toe)
max 399.75  6 x0.20 

qmin  1
3.5  3.5 
qmin=75.05 kN/ m2 / m (heel)
9
P3. REINFORCED EARTH WALL
Ouestion:
A reinforced earth wall is to be constructed as shown in the figure below. The material that
will be used as backfill shall have the following properties,  =17 kN/m3, =300, c=0. The
strips will be galvanized steel and will have a width of 75mm. The yield stress for strip
material is fy=3x105 kN/m2.
a. Design the reinforcements (i.e. determine the length and thickness) by using a factor of
safety of 3.0 for both tie-breaking and pull-out.
b. Find the factor of safety alo ng sliding on the base and calculate the base pressures for
the foundation soil.
- Design life for structure 50 yrs.

- Corrosion=0.025 mm/yr
- Use Rankine Earth Pressure Theory and take the friction angle between soil and
reinforcement as 200
q=20 kN/m2
2.0 m
1st reinforcement
Sv =0.75m
6.0 m 4 Sh = 1.00m
6.0 m 6.4 m 12
16
10
Solution:
2.0 m
6.67 kPa
1
Lwedge Le
6.0 m
6.0 m 6.4 m
16
0
45+/2=60
76.93 kPa
=300 ⇒ Ka = 1/3
a) Design of reinforcement
As far as the tie breaking is concerned, bottom reinforcement (16) is the most critical one
since the lateral pressure is maximum at that level.
sv pa=(z+q)Ka-2c(Ka)0.5
t
w
w.t.f y
(F.S.) breaking   3.0
Tmax
T  S v .S hz  q) K a
1
Tmax  0.75x1.0x (12x17  20)x  56 kN
3
11
0.075 x t x3x10 5 ⇒ t  7.46 mm
(F.S.) breaking   3.0
56
Corrosion rate ⇒ 0.025mm/yr. x 50 =1.25mm
t=7.46+1.25 = 8.71mm
USE tdesign =9mm
 As far as tie pull-out is concerned,
v=(z+q)
vtan 


t
w
Le
Frictional resistance is Friction angle

available on both surface between soil and
(top and bottom) reinforcement
2(z  q) tan   L e w 2 tan   L e w

(F.S.) pullout    3.0
(z  q)K a S v S h K a S v Sh
2x0.075xL e x tan 20 ⇒ L e  13.7m

(F.S.) pullout   3.0
1
x0.75x1.0
3
Since first reinforcement (1) is the most critical one when the pull-out criterion is
concerned,
L wedge  2 ⇒ L wedge  4.72m
tan(45-/2)=
12.4  0.75
 Total tie length L=Lwedge+Le=13.7+4.72=18.42m for upper 6m of the wall
 For lower 6m of the wall , L=20.42m
12
b) (F.S.)sliding and Base Pressure
18.42m
q=20 kPa
6.67 kPa
6.0m
W1
H1
6.4m H2
W2
76.93 kPa
A
20.42m
Forces (kN/m) Moment arm, about A (m) Moment (kN.m/m)

W1=18.42x6.0x17=1878.8 11.21 21061
W2 = (18.42+2)x6.4x17 = 2221.7 10.21 22684
Load = 20x18.42 = 368.4 11.21 4130
Fv = 4469 Mr = 47875
H1 = 6.67x12.4 = 82.7 12.4 /2 512.7
H2 = (76.93-6.67)x12.4x(1/2) = 435.7 12.4 /3 1800
Fh = 518 Mov = 2313
(FS)sliding = (Fv . tan   Fh
In gravity or cantilever retaining walls, at the base of the wall, we would use tan δ for soil-wall
friction. However in this problem, we see that, at the bottom of the wall, there is soil-soil
interface, therefore we should use the friction angle of the soil in the F.s. sliding equation. (If
two soils have different internal friction angles, the lower value should be used.
13
(FS)sliding = (4469 x tan30) / 518
= 4.98
X = Mnet / Fv = (47875 – 2313) / 4469 =10.2 m
e = B/2 – X = (18.42 + 2)/2 – 10.2 = 0.01 ~ 0 ⇒ no eccentricity
qmax = Fv / B = 4469 / 20.42

= 218.85 kN/m2 / m
14

Retaining Wall Specification

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International Journal of Civil and Structural Engineering Research ISSN 2348-7607 (Online)

Design of Cantilever Retaining Wall with 4m

II. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

1. The design procedure: All design parameters are shown in table 1.

Parameter Notation Value

Fig.1 The primary dimension of the wall

c. Length of toe = = = 1.067 m

Fig.2 the assumed dimension of the wall

Fig.3. loads and earth pressures acting on the wall

1.2 the loads and earth pressures acting on the wall:

1= 0.33 * 50 = 16.5 kpa

2= ( q + γ H ) ka = ( 50 + (17.5 * 4 ) 0.33 = 39.6 kpa

b. Checking the factor of safety against overturning:

Force KN Arm m Moment around point O OKN.m

W4 = 109.179 2.3335 254.78

W5 = 86.65 2.3335 202.19

TABLE 2. The overturning moments

Force KN Arm m Moment around point O

= 46.2 1.33 61.446

F.S = = = 2.8 1.5 the wall is safe against overturning.

c. Checking the pressure under the base of the wall:

Fig.4. the pressure distribution under the wall

max= = 142.3 kpa

min= = 46.977 kpa

1.4 Design of stem reinforcement:

Fig. 5. Shear force on the steam.

= (16.5 * 3.6 * ) + ((37.29 – 16.5) 0.5 * 3.6 * ) = 151.83kn.m

= M * 1.6 = 151.83 * 1.6 = 242.928 KN.m

= 0.75 (0.85 * 0.85 * ( ))

= 0.75 (0.85 * 0.85 * ( ) ) = 0.021

As = b d = 0.0084 * 1000 * 315 = 2646mm2

No .of bars = = = 8.4 = 9 /m

The Secondary longitudinal reinforcement

Use , Ab = 78.5 mm2

Transverse temperature and shrinkage reinforcement

Asmin= * 3600 * 0.002 = 2520mm2

No .of bars = = 32.08

2= * h * 1.2 = 17.5 x 3.6 x 1.2 = 75.6 kpa

3 = * t * 1.2 = 25 * 0.4 * 1.2 = 12 kpa

1= max* 1.6 = 142.3 * 1.6 = 227.68 kpa

2= min * 1.6 = 46.977 * 1.6 = 75.1632 kpa

Fig.6. the pressures on the base

The ultimate shear force on the base:

The shear resistance:

= 0.17 * 0.85 * * 1000 * 1 * 0.315 = 208.5 KN

Fig. 7 the net pressure on the base

b. The reinforcement of the heel:

M = (11.84 * 1.733) * ( )+ (0.5 * 1.733 * 82.6) x ( * 1.733)

M = 17.77 + 82.69 = 100.46KN.m

As = b d = 0.0054 * 1000 * 315 = 1701 mm2

No .of bars = = = 5.41

Fig. 8 The pressure on the heel

c. The shear force on the toe:

= 215.68kpa, = 179.88kpa and L = 0.752m

M = [(164.82 * 1.067) * ] + [(0.5 * 1.067 * 50.86) * * 1.067)] = 112.5KN.m

Mu= M * 1.6 = 180KN.m

As = b d = 0.0061 * 1000 * 315 = 1921.5mm2

Fig .9 Pressure on the toe

The secondary reinforcement .

Asmin= 0.002 x b x t = 0.002 x 3200 x 400 = ⁄ = 1280 mm2

The spacing S = * 1000 = 61.7 mm

top and bottom.

Fig.10 The reinforcement of the cantilever R.W

Page (177) Ahmed S. Al-Agha