AS SOCIOLOGY

TOPIC 2: SOCIOLOGY AND VALUES

Y.A

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 TOPIC 2: SOCIOLOGY AND VALUES
- One of the main reasons that sociologists have advocated the use of science is because

the key features embedded in science are objectivity, neutrality, and value-freedom. The

main concept here is that science simply allows the data to speak for itself.
- Bierstedt claimed that objectivity will in turn lead to conclusions that are independent

of any subjective elements and preferences of the researcher, whether they even be race,

colour, creed, religion, or nationality.

- However, while Bierstedt can ironically be claimed for his embedding patriarchal values

in his definition by addressing researchers in the male gender, nevertheless it is

important to understand whether objectivity is a possibility in sociological research.

- Speaking historically, the co-founders of sociology such as Comte and Durkheim

believed in an objective sociology if and only if it applied the scientific methodology.

- Furthermore, Marx also viewed sociology as objective and scientific, while Weber

digressed, believing that complete objectivity was not possible. For Weber, a researcher

may embed their values when selecting a topic for research, such as homelessness or

crime, however, once the topic has been selected, he argued that a sociologist can be

objective and avoid making subjective value judgments.

- Yet for all their claims, critics point out that functionalists, such as Durkheim, generally

hold politically conservative views which are value laden. Clearly they believe that

social institutions work for the benefit of society and base their research on such

academic values.
- For example, Durkheim let his personal ideological preferences known in his research

claiming that inheritance of wealth should be abolished.

- On the other end of the spectrum, Marxists and feminists also come predisposed with

their own ideological leanings - from demanding proletarian revolutions to the

imperative equality of women.

- Thus while the demand for value freedom may seem an ideal state of research, there are

fundamental complications to it.

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- An analysis of Weber’s writings also reveal his own ideological preferences infiltrating

his research. For example he argued that bureaucratic organisations stifle human

freedom.
- It is such analyses of major figures in sociology that have led contemporary sociologists

to argue that complete objectivity and value-freedom in sociological research is not

possible.
- However, in Weber’s defence, he did recognise that values will infiltrate sociological

research. Of course, when choosing a topic of research, he noted that ‘value relevance’

will play a part in what topic they select. The point is if a researcher believes that

homelessness is important to society or crime rate analysis will benefit society, then

Weber recognises that being value loaded is in some sense acceptable.

- Weber himself chose to study the advent of capitalism because he saw that as an

important development in Western society.

- Townsend considered poverty as a serious problem in society and thus chose to study

it. Similarly Marxists view class inequalities as critical to improving society while

feminists address societal dilemmas such a domestic violence, rape, and housework

through their research.

- Thus when selecting a topic, value relevance will influence research. However, Weber

added that once the research topic has been selected, it is possible for researchers to be

objective in their methods of data collection and analysis.

- According to Gouldner, researchers operate on certain domain assumptions, which are

assumptions and perspectives a researcher holds about the nature of social life and

human behaviour, which will influence their research.

- He noted that how a sociologist views the world, domain assumptions, will influence

their methods and conclusions in research thus operating on a starting point which is

arguably influenced by pre-existing values. For example, being positivist or

interpretivist or collecting quantitative or qualitative data are domain assumptions in

their own right.

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- Positivists tend to append Gouldner’s work by adding that if a researcher does use

scientific methodology then there is no reason why their research cannot be objective. A

researcher can specify procedures that are reliable and can be falsified, thus being

objective.
- To this, Hammersley noted that while certain scientific methodology can be seen to

produce objectivity, there are still variables that may reduce the reliability of the study,

namely not the methods of the researcher but rather the standardisation of the

behaviour of the subjects being studied.

- As per the norm, from a positivist viewpoint, Durkheim noted that limiting research to

directly observable phenomena can limit ambiguity and researchers can then focus on

‘facts’ to come to objective conclusions.

- To this, Hammersley argued that variables such as cultural variations and

misunderstanding of cultural behaviours can lead to false conclusions.

- Another problem posed to value free and objective research is ‘selectivity’. Case in

point, when designing questionnaires or analysing and interpreting data, researchers

use their own judgments in what is important and what is not. Thus the criticism is that

very often, the results are not speaking for themselves.

- From a theoretical standpoint, interpretivists criticise the use of methodologies

producing quantitative data as they argue that researchers impose their own views of

the world thus distorting and misinterpreting the world they seek to study. There is too

much detachment between the researcher and the social world.

- They advocate that embedding oneself in everyday activity provides valid knowledge

of the social world.

- By witnessing reality, researchers can understand the meanings and motives behind the

actions of social members.

- Douglas argued that researchers must study any and all social phenomena on its own

terms and preserve its integrity.

- However, this phenomenological approach is also criticised as being limited to the

interpretation from the eyes of the researcher. No two sociologists will see the world the

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 same way thus severely reducing the validity of the study. The values of the researcher

will still be influencing the conclusions.

- It is recognising such difficulties that sociologists such as Gouldner have rejected the

possibility of a value-free sociology. In his text ‘Anti-Minotaur: The Myth of a Value

Free Sociology’, Gouldner argued that facts and values cannot be separated in sociology.
- Rejecting Weber’s notion that values should be kept out of research, Gouldner argued

that when conducting research, sociologists should in fact make clear what their values

are so that others can see whether the researchers values have clouded the results or

not.
- From a post-modern perspective, Lyotard argues that objective knowledge is simply an

impossibility. He argued that there is no sure-fire method of distinguishing true from

untrue knowledge, as knowledge simply reflects the viewpoints and values of different

social groups. For postmodernists, no one set of values can be viewed as being superior

to another and therefore all views must be entertained. As Hammersley noted that

postmodernists provide a sustained criticism to any and all forms of objective

knowledge.
- However, for Hammersley, this rather dim view of knowledge should be overcome and

while the attainment of true knowledge may be difficult, we should still preserve the

quest for authentic knowledge.

- One way of doing so is reconceptualising how we define objectivity by minimising

criticisms such as values of the researcher and issues of validity. This could be done so,

ironically, by instituting a code of ‘values’ such as a commitment to truth, for

intellectual sobriety, and any and all forms of knowledge, even at the cost of reputation

and livelihood. If a nurse, lawyer or other professionals can do so, then why not a

sociologist. A professional code of ethics for sociologists, might just fulfil academic

needs.
- On the other hand, sociologists like Carspecken argue that rather than limiting values,

we should promote them and advocates that sociologists should be value loaded in

their attempts to change and better the world.

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- In fact he even argued that even values can be evaluated such as someone saying

poverty is present everywhere thus it must be a natural feature of societies. Even such

values can be evaluated.

- In conclusion, these arguments are useful as they allow researchers to find a common

ground between what qualifies as ‘good’ research and what does not. Even if

Carspecken is correct that values are integral to research, this does not invalidate

empirical testing of theories.

- Sociology can make claims about the truth of the world. But it can also accept that

sociological knowledge can be used for the good of society.

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