Digestion and Gas Exchange Booklet

AQA A Level Biology
Exchange Systems (3.3.1-3):

Gas Exchange and Digestion
Name: ______________________
Lesson My Marks Total Exam Homework Date

Question Checked
Marks
Lesson 1 – Size and Surface Area
Lesson 2 – Digestion and Absorption of

Carbohydrates
Lesson 3 – Digestion and Absorption of

Proteins
Lesson 4 – Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
Lesson 5 – Gas Exchange in Fish and Insects
1
Lesson 6 – Gas Exchange in Humans
Lesson 7 – Effects of Lung Disease in Humans
End Of Topic Test
Specification Section
3.3.1 Surface area to volume ratio
Content Opportunities for skills development

The relationship between the size of an organism or structure PS 1.1
and its surface area to volume ratio.
Students could use agar blocks containing indicator to
Changes to body shape and the development of systems in determine the effect of surface area to volume ratio and
larger organisms as adaptations that facilitate exchange as this concentration gradient on the diffusion of an acid or alkali.
ratio reduces.
MS 4.1
Students should be able to appreciate the relationship
between surface area to volume ratio and metabolic rate. Students could be given the dimensions of cells with different
shapes from which to calculate the surface area to volume ratios
of these cells.
3.3.2 Gas exchange

Adaptations of gas exchange surfaces, shown by gas exchange: AT j
across the body surface of a single-celled organism Students could dissect mammalian lungs, the
gas exchange system of a bony fish or of an
in the tracheal system of an insect (tracheae, tracheoles and spiracles) insect.
across the gills of fish (gill lamellae and filaments including the counter- AT d
current principle)
Students could use an optical microscope to:
by the leaves of dicotyledonous plants (mesophyll and stomata).
examine prepared mounts of gas exchange
Structural and functional compromises between the opposing needs for surfaces of a mammal, fish and insect, or
efficient gas exchange and the limitation of water loss shown by terrestrial temporary mounts of gills
insects and xerophytic plants.
examine vertical sections through a
The gross structure of the human gas exchange system limited to the alveoli, dicotyledonous leaf.
bronchioles, bronchi, trachea and lungs.
AT b
The essential features of the alveolar epithelium as a surface over which gas
exchange takes place. Students could use three-way taps, manometers
and simple respirometers to measure volumes of
Ventilation and the exchange of gases in the lungs. The mechanism of air involved in gas exchange.
breathing to include the role of the diaphragm and the antagonistic interaction
between the external and internal intercostal muscles in bringing about MS 2.2
pressure changes in the thoracic cavity.
Students could be given values of pulmonary
2
Students should be able to: ventilation rate (PVR) and one other measure,
requiring them to c
interpret information relating to the effects of lung disease on gas exchange
and/or ventilation
interpret data relating to the effects of pollution and smoking on the incidence
of lung disease
analyse and interpret data associated with specific risk factors and the
incidence of lung disease
evaluate the way in which experimental data led to statutory restrictions on the
sources of risk factors
recognise correlations and causal relationships.
3.3.3 Digestion and absorption
During digestion, large biological molecules are hydrolysed to smaller PS 1.1

molecules that can be absorbed across cell membranes. Students could:
Digestion in mammals of:

● design and carry out investigations into
the effect of a pH or bile salts on the rate
● carbohydrates by amylases and membrane-bound disaccharidases of reaction catalysed by a digestive
enzyme
● lipids by lipase, including the action of bile salts
● use Visking tubing models to investigate
● proteins by endopeptidases, exopeptidases and membrane-bound the absorption of the products of
dipeptidases. digestion.
Mechanisms for the absorption of the products of digestion by cells lining
the ileum of mammals, to include:
● co-transport mechanisms for the absorption of amino acids and of

monosaccharides
● the role of micelles in the absorption of lipids.
Lesson 1 – Surface Area and Size
3
Practice Questions – you will need a ruler!
4
5.
Remember: Surface area of a sphere = 4
4 3
π r2 and Volume of a sphere = πr
3
5
Surface Area and Metabolic Rate
All organisms need to exchange substances with the environment to survive. They need to take in oxygen and nutrients and
remove carbon dioxide and urea. Temperature and water levels also need to be kept constant, so heat and water also need to
be exchanged. We can compare surface area to volume ratios for organisms even without calculating them by thinking about
shape or size. In terms of organisms the larger the organism gets the lower its SA:V becomes.
An organism’s metabolic rate is the amount of energy expended by

that organism in a time period - usually daily. The metabolic demand
is therefore how much oxygen and nutrients an organism needs to
take in daily to respire enough to maintain the metabolic rate.
As a general rule, the greater the mass of an organism the higher

that organism’s metabolic rate, this is because organisms with high
metabolic rates require more efficient delivery of oxygen to cells as
more respiration is needed.
The need for more efficient delivery of oxygen (and nutrients) to

cells is why multicellular organisms have evolved more complex
mass transport and exchange systems.
• The rate of exchange of substances depends on the surface area in contact with the surroundings.
• As organisms get bigger their surface area/volume ratio gets smaller so larger organisms have more difficulty in
getting the oxygen and nutrients they need from the environment.
Example: A microscopic worm has smooth skin through which all the oxygen it requires can diffuse in, a straight gut
with sufficient surface to absorb nutrients, and a single kidney for excretion. If you increase its length and width ten
times then its weight is increased a thousand times, so that to use its muscles as efficiently it will need a thousand
times more nutrients and oxygen per day and will excrete a thousand times more waste products.
To survive it would need to develop lungs, a circulatory system, a folded digestive system and increased kidney size.
● Have large SA:V so surface are is large

enough to absorb substances required. ● Have small SA:V so cannot absorb enough substances
to supply large volume through small outer surface.
● Diffusion distance is short to get from
outside to the centre of the organism so ● Diffusion distance is large to get from outside to all
diffusion from environment is fast.
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cells in the centre of the organism so diffusion through
● Advantage: can exchange materials directly
outer surface is too slow to supply cells efficiently.
with their environment as all of cell has
surface exposed to the outside ● Advantage: Lose less energy as heat, so can survive
more easily in cold environments.
● Disadvantage: Lose heat energy and water
quickly, cannot survive extreme heat or cold ● Disadvantage: some cells will have no surfaces exposed
to the outside so need internal mass transport systems.
In hot environments need adaptations to cool down.
Small animals have a lower metabolic rate, because they

have a greater SA:V but they lose heat more easily. This
means need more energy and a higher metabolic rate to
maintain a constant internal temperature. So, per unit of
body mass metabolic rate is actually higher in small
animals compared to larger ones.
Organisms will therefore evolve and develop adaptations

to increase or decrease their surface area to match their
metabolic demands. This means that organisms with
similar volumes in different environments may need to
have different surface areas.
Adaptations to maintain temperature and water
Adaptation
Environment Challenge Behavioural Physical
Cold Heat Loss Small mammals with large SA:V Adapted animals will have a streamlined,
Environment will lose heat easily so they need compact body shape giving a smaller SA:V.
to eat large amounts of high
Small mammals with larger SA:V may have thick
energy foods such as nuts and
layers of fur to insulate and reduce heat loss.
seeds to help maintain body
temperature. They may also
Example:
hibernate during the coldest
months.
Hot Desert Overheating Large organisms such as hippos Large organisms with low SA:V often have large
spend much of the day in the ears which increase their surface area allowing
water to help lose heat. them to lose more heat. E.g Elephants.
Organisms may be nocturnal so Example:

that they are most active in
cooler temperatures.
Hot/Dry Water Loss Organisms may be nocturnal so Small mammals with a high SA:V have kidney
Desert that they are most active in structure adaptations so that they produce less
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cooler temperatures. urine to compensate for water lost through
evaporation.
Recall Questions
1. What is surface area? How do you calculate it?

2. What is volume? How do you calculate it?
3. What is surface area to volume ration and how do you calculate it?
4. How do unicellular/very simple organisms get oxygen and other substances?
5. Do unicellular organisms have a high or low SA:V?
6. Give two reasons why diffusion is too slow in multicellular organisms for them to exchange substances.
7. How do multicellular organisms get oxygen and other substances?
8. Name four substances that all organisms must exchange with their environment
9. Do large animals have a higher or lower SA:V than small animals?
10. Will the rate of heat loss at a given temperature be greater for an animal with a high or low SA:V?
11. Explain how an animal’s shape can help control its temperature.
12. Give two adaptations a small organism could have to survive in a cold environment.
13. Give two adaptations a large organism could have to survive in a hot environment.
Exam question practice: Answer these on this sheet, use the answers to your practice questions to help you
Q1. The diagram below shows two model cells.
(b) Describe how the surface area to volume ratio changes as the length of the side of the
model cell increases.
You should include calculations in your answer.
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(3)
(c) Explain why a bacterium can rely on diffusion for gas exchange, but animals need a
transport system.
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(3)
Q2. (a) Describe the relationship between size and surface area to volume ratio of organisms.
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(b) Explain why oxygen uptake is a measure of metabolic rate in organisms.
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(1)
Q3. A zoologist investigated the relationship between body mass and rate of oxygen uptake in four
species of mammal. The results are shown in the graph.
(i) The scale for plotting body mass is a logarithmic scale. Explain why a logarithmic
scale was used to plot body mass.
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(1)
(ii) Describe the relationship between body mass and oxygen uptake.
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(1)
(iii) The zoologist measured oxygen uptake per gram of body mass. Explain why he
measured oxygen uptake per gram of body mass.
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(2)
Q4.
(a) Flatworms are small animals that live in water. They have no specialised gas exchange or
circulatory systems.
The drawing shows one type of flatworm.
(i) Name the process by which oxygen reaches the cells inside the body of this
flatworm.
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(1)
(ii) The body of a flatworm is adapted for efficient gas exchange between the water and
the cells inside the body.
Using the diagram, explain how two features of the flatworm’s body allow efficient
gas exchange.
1. ____________________________________________________________
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2. ____________________________________________________________
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(2)
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Q5. Ecologists calculated the percentage of bird species that have become extinct on six islands in the
last one hundred years.
The ecologists noted that the species of birds surviving on the coldest islands had a larger body
size than those surviving on warmer islands.
Explain how a larger body size is an adaptation to a colder climate
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(2)
Q6. Tubifex worms are small, thin animals that live in water. They have no specialised gas exchange or
circulatory system. The figure below shows a tubifex worm.
(a) Name the process by which oxygen reaches the cells inside the body of a tubifex worm.
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(1)
(b) Using the information provided, explain how two features of the body of the tubifex worm
allow efficient gas exchange.
1. _________________________________________________________________
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2. _________________________________________________________________
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(2)
(d) Species of tubifex worm that live in ponds, lakes and rivers cannot survive in seawater.
Use your knowledge of water potential to explain why they cannot survive in seawater.
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(2)
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Q7. Weddell seals are diving mammals that live in cold environments. A Weddell seal is shown in
Figure 1.
(i) Explain how the body shape of a Weddell seal is an adaptation to living in a cold
environment.
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Homework
1. Complete all exam questions in lesson 1

2. Complete recall questions for lesson 2 as prep work before next lesson
3. Complete the following tasks:
adaptations air spaces distance enzyme excrete folds heat metabolic single size
slower small surface area toxic
All organisms require substances (such as oxygen and water) for ____________ processes, including respiration.
They also need to __________ waste products (such as carbon dioxide) as a build up can result in _________ effects.
In addition, all organisms need to exchange _______ with their environment as they often have an optimum
temperature that ensures __________-controlled reactions proceed at an effective rate.
As the _______ of an organism increases the overall surface area also increases suggesting that the rate of diffusion
should speed up... but (and it's a big 'but') the ratio of surface area to volume of the organism rapidly decreases,
resulting in a much _________ rate of diffusion to the centre of the organism. This is because cells nearer the centre
of the organism get further away from the outside, resulting in a greater ___________ over which substances and
heat must diffuse. As a result, _________-celled organisms are generally very ________ and often have ________ in
their cell membrane so that there is a greater surface area:volume ratio, and multi-cellular organisms have
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developed ____________ that increase the surface area:volume ratio and therefore allow substances and heat to
reach all cells.
Answer the exam questions
Q1. The graph shows the surface area to volume ratio of cubes of different size.
(a) Elephant seals are mammals that live in water that has a
temperature of between 0 °C and 4 °C. Elephant seals are very large.
Use the graph to explain the advantage of a large size to elephant
seals. [2]
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(b) (i) Describe how single-celled organisms exchange respiratory gases. [1]
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(ii) This method of gas exchange is only possible in very small organisms. Explain why. [2]
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Q2. The figure shows a small flatworm that lives in freshwater. This flatworm lacks specialised gas exchange
surfaces and has no blood circulatory system. It secretes mucus, which enables it to move over the surfaces on which
it lives
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Flatworm viewed Flatworm viewed
from above from side
Use the information to suggest and explain one advantage to the flatworm of
(i) its body shape [1]
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(ii) a branched intestine. [2]
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Lesson 2 – Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Key Words
Absorption Movement of digested food molecules through the wall of the intestine into the blood or lymph
Active Site A group of amino acids that makes up the region of an enzyme into which the substrate fits in order
to catalyse a reaction.
Carbohydrases Type of digestive enzyme which hydrolyse carbohydrates, ultimately to monosaccharides.
Enzyme A protein that acts as a catalyst and so lowers the activation energy needed for a reaction.
Ileum A long muscular tube where food is further digested. Enzymes are produced by its walls and by glands
that pour their secretions into it. Inner walls are folded into villi which gives them a large surface area.
Where products of digestion are absorbed into the bloodstream.
Lactase Produced by the epithelial lining and is a membrane-bound disaccharidase which breaks down lactose
into the monosaccharides glucose and galactose.
Maltase Produced by the epithelial lining and is a membrane-bound disaccharidase which breaks down maltose
into glucose.
Membrane-bound An enzyme which is not released into the lumen of the ileum but is part of the cell-surface membranes
disaccharidase of the epithelial cells that line the ileum. E.g. maltase
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Microvilli Tiny finger-like projections from the cell-surface membrane of some animal cells.
Pancreas A large gland situated below the stomach. It produces a secretion called pancreatic juice, which
contains proteases to hydrolyse proteins, lipase to hydrolyse lipids and amylase to hydrolyse starch.
Pancreatic amylase Produced by the pancreas and released into the small intestine where it continues the hydrolysis of
starch to maltose.
Salivary amylase Produced by the salivary glands and released into the mouth and starts hydrolysing starch in food to
maltose.
Salivary glands Situated near the mouth. They pass their secretions via a duct into the mouth which contain salivary
amylase which hydrolyses starch into maltose.
Sucrase Produced by the epithelial lining and is a membrane-bound disaccharidase which breaks down sucrose
into the monosaccharides glucose and fructose.
Notes
During digestion, a series of enzymes will hydrolyse large insoluble molecules (e.g proteins) an into smaller soluble
ones (e.g amino acids) which can then be absorbed into the blood to be transported around the body and used.
Abs
orption of nutrients happens in the small intestine which has particular features which allow it to maximise the
movement of substances through cells into the blood:
● Internal walls are folded into projections called villi (~1mm in length)
● Villi have thin walls (one cell thick) to help keep the diffusion pathway short
● Villi have lots of capillaries to help maintain the concentration

gradient by constantly transporting absorbed nutrients away.
● Villi contain muscles and can move which helps them to mix
the contents of the ileum so that villi always have new material
next to them to absorb nutrients. This helps to maintain the
concentration gradient.
The epithelial cells that line the ileum have further adaptations
for efficient digestion:
o Microvilli (folded membrane) which increase the
surface area for diffusion further
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o Many mitochondria to provide energy for active transport
o Carrier proteins for active transport
o Channel proteins for facilitated diffusion
Because enzymes are specific to one substrate some enzymes are responsible for breaking down polymers into
sections which then require another enzyme to break them down further into their monomers. The enzymes for
digestion are made in different organs of the digestive system and released to mix with food in different places.
Epithelial cells can have enzymes in their membranes to help with this (membrane bound enzymes) and also carrier
proteins for specific molecules.
Absorption and Digestion of Carbohydrates
Organ Produces Helps to Digest Diagram
Salivary Amylase enzyme Breaks glycosidic bonds

Glands in saliva (mouth) in starch to form maltose
Pancreas Pancreatic Breaks glycosidic bonds

amylase released to hydrolyse starch to
into the small form maltose
intestine
Small Membrane Breaks glycosidic bonds

Intestine bound to hydrolyse
(Ileum) disaccharidases disaccharides into
in cell membrane monosaccharides e.g
of epithelial cells sucrase catalyses
breakdown of sucrose
into glucose and fructose
There are three membrane-bound disaccharidases:
The monosaccharide products are then small enough to be

transported across the epithelial cell membrane through
specific transporter proteins.
Glucose and galactose are actively transported using sodium

ions through co-transporter proteins.
Fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion through a

different transporter protein.
Recall Questions
1. How is the small intestine adapted for absorption of nutrients?

2. What are carbohydrates broken down into during hydrolysis?
3. What is the role of amylase?
4. Where is amylase produced?
5. How are epithelial cells in the ileum involved in the digestion of carbohydrates?
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6. What are the three disaccharide enzymes?
7. Explain how monosaccharides are absorbed across the ileum epithelium
8. How are ileum epithelial cells adapted for absorption of carbohydrates?
Exam Questions
Q1. The epithelial cells that line the small intestine are adapted for the absorption of glucose. Explain how.
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Q2. (a) Most blood glucose comes from starch and disaccharides in the diet.
Describe a test you could use to check if food in the diet contained starch.
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(b) Explain how digestion of starch in the gut (small intestine) leads to an increase in the
concentration of glucose in the blood. Details of co-transport are not required.
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(c) Suggest a method you could use to estimate the concentration of glucose in several
different solutions that all turned brick red with Benedict’s reagent in 3 minutes.
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Q3. The diagram represents part of the human digestive system. The organs are labelled AF .
(a) Give the letter of the organ that produces amylase.
(1)
(b) Give the letter of the organ that produces maltase.
(c) Maltose is hydrolysed by the enzyme maltase.
Explain why maltase catalyses only this reaction.
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Q4.
(a) Describe how you would test a sample of food for the presence of starch.
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(b) The concentration of glucose in the blood rises after eating a meal containing
carbohydrates.
The rise is slower if the carbohydrate is starch rather than sucrose. Explain why.
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Q5. (a) Describe the role of the enzymes of the digestive system in the complete breakdown of starch.
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(b) Describe the processes involved in the absorption of the products of starch digestion.
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Q6. Lactose is a disaccharide found in milk. In the small intestine, it is digested into glucose and
galactose by the enzyme lactase. Molecules of lactase are located in the plasma membranes of cells
lining the small intestine.
(a) What evidence in the paragraph suggests that galactose is a monosaccharide?
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(b) (i) Name one other digestive enzyme that is located in the plasma membranes of cells
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(ii) Give an advantage of lactase and other digestive enzymes being located in the
plasma membranes of cells lining the small intestine, rather than being secreted into
the lumen of the small intestine.
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(c) The absorption of galactose from the small intestine is reduced if the absorbing cells are
treated with a respiratory inhibitor, such as cyanide. Suggest an explanation for this.
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(2)
Homework

3. Label the diagram from memory, add as much detail as possible!
Lesson 3 – Digestion and Absorption of Proteins

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Key Words
Complimentary Describes the relationship between the active site of an enzyme and the substrate molecule – the way in
which they fit together.
Dipeptidases A type of protease which hydrolyse the bond between the two amino acids of a dipeptide. Dipeptidases
are membrane-bound, being part of the cell-surface membrane of the epithelial cells lining the ileum.
Endopeptidases A type of protease which hydrolyses the peptide bonds between amino acids in the central region of a
protein molecule forming a series of peptide molecules.
Exopeptidases A type of protease which hydrolyses the peptide bonds on the terminal amino acids of the peptide
molecules formed by endopeptidases. They progressively release dipeptides and single amino acids.
Lumen The cavity of the intestines
Pancreas A large gland situated below the stomach. It produces a secretion called pancreatic juice, which contains
proteases to hydrolyse proteins, lipase to hydrolyse lipids and amylase to hydrolyse starch.
pH A figure expressing the acidity or alkalinity of a solution on a logarithmic scale on which 7 is neutral,
lower values are more acidic and higher values are more alkaline. Equivalent to -log10[H+].
Proteases Type of digestive enzyme which hydrolyse proteins, ultimately into amino acids.
Stomach A muscular sac with an inner layer that produces enzymes. Its role is so store and digest food, especially
proteins.
Villi Folded finger-like projections of the ileum wall, about 1mm long, which are increase the surface area of
the ileum and therefore accelerate the rate of absorption.
Notes
Digestion of proteins
Peptidases or proteases are enzymes which breakdown proteins in a series of hydrolysis reactions. Protein digestion
happens in the small intestine and the stomach. Hydrochloric acid in the stomach creates the optimum pH for the
enzyme pepsin which is secreted by cells which line the stomach. Other peptidases are made and secreted by the
pancreas into the small intestine e.g trypsin. Other peptidases are membrane-bound and found within cells that line
the small intestine e.g dipeptidases. The single amino acids are then absorbed into the bloodstream through the
ileum epithelium.
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There are three different types of protease enzyme that work on breaking bonds in different sections of proteins:
Either the internal bonds, terminal bonds or single peptide bonds holding dipeptides together.
Enzyme Action
Endopeptidases
Endo = internal/inside
Hydrolyse peptide bonds within a large

protein (polypeptide) to create smaller
polypeptide chains.
Endopeptidases create more terminal ends

for exopeptidases to then work on.
Exopeptidases
Exo = external/outside
Hydrolyse terminal peptide bonds

(between amino acids on the ends of a
polypeptide chain) to remove individual
amino acids and create smaller
polypeptide chains.
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Dipeptidases
A type of exopeptidase. These are often

located on the membrane of epithelial cells
They work specifically on dipeptides to

hydrolyse the peptide bond holding them
together. This creates two single amino
acids which can then be transported
through membrane into the epithelial cell.
Absorption of Amino Acids
Amino acids are absorbed in a similar way to glucose and galactose, through active co-transport with sodium ions.
Sodium ions are actively transported out of the ileum cells so that they diffuse back in down their concentration
gradient with amino acids.
Recall Questions
1. What is a hydrolysis reaction?

2. What is the product of complete hydrolysis of proteins?
3. What is the role of protease enzymes?
4. What is the role of endopeptidases?
5. Describe the action of exopeptidases
6. Where are dipeptidases found?
7. How are sodium ions involved in the absorption of amino acids?
Exam Questions
Q1. The figure below shows the processes involved in absorbing amino acids into a capillary from the
small intestine.
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(i) Name processes A, B and C. In each case, give the evidence for your answer.
A Process _______________________________________________________
Evidence ______________________________________________________
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B Process _______________________________________________________
Evidence ______________________________________________________
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C Process _______________________________________________________
Evidence ______________________________________________________
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(ii) Explain how process B creates the conditions for process A to occur.
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Q2. The diagram shows an epithelial cell from the small intestine.
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(a) (i) Name organelle Y.
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(1)
(ii) There are large numbers of organelle Y in this cell. Explain how these organelles
help the cell to absorb the products of digestion.
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(2)
(b) This diagram shows the cell magnified 1000 times. Calculate the actual length of the cell
between points P and Q. Give your answer in µm. Show your working.
Answer ____________________ µm
(2)
(c) Coeliac disease is a disease of the human digestive system. In coeliac disease, the
structures labelled Z are damaged.
Although people with coeliac disease can digest proteins they have low concentrations of
amino acids in their blood.
Explain why they have low concentrations of amino acids in their blood.
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Q3. The diagram shows one method by which amino acids are absorbed from the small intestine into the
blood. They are co-transported into the epithelial cell with sodium ions (Na+) at point X on the diagram.
Normally, the concentration of sodium ions inside the epithelial cell is low.
Source: adapted from M. ROWLAND,

Biology (University of Bath Science 16-19) (Nelson Thornes) 1992.
Dinitrophenol (DNP) prevents respiration. When treated with DNP, the sodium-potassium pump
at Y no longer works. As a result, the concentration of sodium ions in the cell rises and amino
acid absorption stops.
(i) Explain why pump Y will not work in the presence of DNP.
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(ii) Explain why sodium ions and amino acids are not absorbed from the lumen of the small
intestine in the presence of DNP.
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(iii) By what mechanism would amino acids leave the epithelial cell at point Z?
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Q4. (a) Endopeptidases and exopeptidases are involved in the hydrolysis of proteins.
Name the other type of enzyme required for the complete hydrolysis of proteins to amino
acids.
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(1)
(b) Suggest and explain why the combined actions of endopeptidases and exopeptidases are
more efficient than exopeptidases on their own.
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(2)
Q5. Describe the structure of proteins.

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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
28
___________________________________________________________________ (5)
(b) Describe how proteins are digested in the human gut.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________ (4)
Q6. Trypsin is a protease. It is produced in an inactive form inside some of the cells of the pancreas.
(a) Name the part of a pancreatic cell that produces the inactive form of trypsin.
___________________________________________________________________
(1)
(b) Suggest the advantage of producing trypsin in an inactive form inside cells in the
pancreas.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(c) After the inactive form of trypsin enters the small intestine, another enzyme removes a
short chain of amino acids from the end of the inactive trypsin molecules. This leads to
the formation of the active form of trypsin.
(i) Name the type of bond hydrolysed when the short chain of amino acids is removed.
______________________________________________________________
(1)
(ii) Sometimes trypsin can become activated inside a pancreatic cell. A competitive
inhibitor in the cell then binds to the trypsin and stops it working.
Explain how the competitive inhibitor stops trypsin working.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________ (3)
Homework

29
Lesson 4 – Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
Key Words
Absorption Movement of digested food molecules through the wall of the intestine into the blood or lymph
Bile salt Produced by the liver and split up lipids into tiny droplets called micelles.
Chylomicrons A structure formed when triglycerides associate with cholesterol and proteins, which are adapted for the
transport of lipids. Start forming in the endoplasmic reticulum and continuing in the Golgi apparatus.
Emulsification The process by which lipids are split up into tiny droplets called micelles by bile salts, which are produced
by the liver. It increases the surface area of the lipids so that the action of lipases is sped up.
Exocytosis The outward bulk transport of materials through the cell-surface membrane. How chylomicrons move
out of the epithelial cells by this process.
Lacteals Lymphatic capillaries that are found in the centre of each villus, where chylomicrons pass into and then
enter the bloodstream.
Lipases Type of digestive enzyme which hydrolyse lipids (fats and oils) into glycerol and fatty acids.
Lumen The cavity of the intestines
Micelles Tiny structures (4-7nm in diameter) formed when monoglycerides and fatty acids remain in association
with the bile salts that initially emulsified the lipid droplets. They break down as they come into contact
with the epithelial cells lining the villi of the ileum and release the monoglycerides and fatty acids which
diffuse across the cell membrane into the epithelial cells.
Microvilli Tiny finger-like projections from the cell-surface membrane of some animal cells.
Monoglyceride A single glycerol molecule attached to one fatty acid
Villi Folded finger-like projections of the ileum wall, about 1mm long, which are increase the surface area of
the ileum and therefore accelerate the rate of absorption.
Notes
Digestion of Lipids
Lipases are enzymes which hydrolyse the

ester bonds in triglycerides to form fatty
acids and monoglycerides. Lipases are
made in the pancreas and secreted into
the small intestine.
Bile salts are produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder which releases them into the small intestine. Bile
salts help to break down large fat globules by emulsifying them into smaller droplets. This helps to speed up the
action of lipases by increasing the surface area of lipids that can be exposed to the enzyme.
30
Once the lipid has been broken down by lipase the monoglycerides and the fatty acids stay attached to the bile salts
and form smaller structures called micelles (4-7nm wide) – these help in the absorption of fatty acids and
monoglycerides into the blood stream.
Absorption of Lipids
1. Micelles hit epithelial cells and breakdown allowing

monoglycerides and fatty acids to diffuse across membrane
because they are lipid-soluble.
2. Monoglycerides and fatty acids are transported to the ER

where they recombine to form triglycerides again.
3. Inside the golgi they bind with cholesterol and proteins and
are packaged to form chylomicrons.
4. Chylomicrons travel in a vesicle to the cell membrane and

are exocytosed from epithelial cell.
5. Chylomicrons enter lymphatic capillaries called lacteals which

transport them away from the small intestine to adipose, cardiac, and
skeletal muscle tissue, where the triglycerides can be hydrolysed and
fatty acids used by the tissues.
Absorption Summary
Recall Questions
1. What are lipids broken down into during hydrolysis?

2. What is the role of lipase?
3. Where are lipase enzymes made and where do they act?
4. Describe how bile enters the small intestine/
5. How do bile salts help the digestion of lipids?
6. What is a micelle?
7. How are the products of lipid digestion absorbed?
31
Exam Questions
Q1.
(a) Dietary recommendations are that lipid intake should make up 30% of energy intake. The
recommended energy intake for most women aged 19-49 is 8100 kJ day .The energy
–1
content of lipid is 37.8 kJ g . Calculate the recommended lipid intake per day for these
–1
women. Show your working.
Answer ____________________ g
(2)
In humans, triglycerides are the main form of dietary lipids. They are digested in the gut and the
products of digestion are absorbed by the small intestine.
(b) Describe a biochemical test that could be performed on a sample of food to determine
whether it contained triglycerides.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(c) The diagram shows the events that occur in the absorption of monoglycerides and fatty
acids. These molecules enter the epithelial cells of the small intestine by diffusion. Once
inside they are reassembled into triglycerides in organelle Q. The triglyceride molecules
are formed into chylomicrons in organelle T. Chylomicrons are made from many
triglyceride molecules surrounded with protein molecules. The chylomicrons leave the cell
and enter vessel S.
32
(i) Explain the importance of the structures labelled P.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________ (1)
(ii) Name
R; ____________________________________________________________
S. ____________________________________________________________
(2)
(iii) Describe the role played by organelle U in the formation of chylomicrons.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(2)
(iv) Suggest how the chylomicrons leave the epithelial cell. Give a reason for your
answer.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(2)
Q2. Lipase is an enzyme that hydrolyses triglycerides.

A student investigated the hydrolysis of triglycerides in milk by human lipase at 20 °C.
He recorded the pH of a sample of milk before and after adding lipase. He used a pH meter to
record pH.
33
His results are shown in the graph.
(a) Suggest one advantage of using a pH meter rather than a pH indicator in this experiment.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(1)
(b) Explain why the pH decreases when the lipase is added to the milk.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(1)
(c) Suggest why the pH remained constant after 2 minutes.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(d) The student carried out his experiment at 20 °C. He then repeated the experiment at 15
°C.
Draw a line on the graph to show the results you would expect at 15 °C.
(2)
Q3. The diagram outlines the digestion and absorption of lipids.
34
(a) Tick ( ) the box by the name of the process by which fatty acids and glycerol enter the
intestinal epithelial cell.
Active transport
Diffusion
Endocytosis
Osmosis
(1)
(b) Explain the advantages of lipid droplet and micelle formation.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
35
(3)
(c) Name structure Q in the diagram above and suggest how it is involved in the absorption of
lipids.
Name _____________________________________________________________
How it is involved ____________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(4)
Q4. Scientists investigated the effect of lipase and a 3% bile salts solution on the digestion of
triglycerides. The graph below shows their results.
(a) Describe what curve Y shows about the effect of lipase and bile salts on the pH of the
mixture.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
36
___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(b) The concentration of lipase did not change during the course of the investigation.
Explain why.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(1)
(c) One of the scientists decided to repeat the investigation at a temperature 10°C below the
original temperature.
Describe how you would expect his plotted curve to be different from curve Z.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________ (1)
Homework

Complete the sentences using the words in bold:
absorption amylase amylase bile chylomicrons diffusion duodenum emulsified

endothelium epithelium Golgi hydrochloric salts acid hydrolysis ileum insoluble lipase
liver lymphatic maltase micelles microvilli monoglycerides pancreas protease
protease proteases saliva salivary glands soluble stomach surface area water
The function of digestion is to breakdown large, __________ molecules into small, _________ molecules. Physical
breakdown, by the teeth, allows for ingestion and provides a large __________ ______ for chemical digestion.
Chemical breakdown, by enzymes, causes ___________ of polymers into monomers.
Carbohydrases break down carbohydrates. Starch is digested to glucose in two stages:
● __________ breaks down starch into maltose
● __________ breaks down maltose into glucose
___________ break down proteins. There are three important protease enzymes:
● Endopeptidases break down proteins into large polypeptides
● Exopeptidases break down polypeptides into dipeptides
● Dipeptidases break down dipeptides into amino acids
37
Lipases break down lipids. Lipids are first ____________ by bile salts (the process of splitting large droplets into small
_________, small spheres of lipid). Micelles have a larger surface area for lipase action, which hydrolyses
triglycerides into _____________ and fatty acids.
The human digestive system comprises a long tube, the alimentary canal or digestive tract, which extends from the
mouth to the anus, together with several associated glands: the ________ _______, the ________ and the _______.
1. The teeth and tongue in the mouth physically break up the food into small pieces with a larger surface area,
and form it into a ball. The salivary glands secrete ________, which contains water to dissolve soluble
substances, mucus for lubrication and salivary amylase to digest starch. The food is swallowed down the
oesophagus.
2. The oesophagus is a simple tube which connects the mouth to the ___________. No digestion takes place
here.
3. The stomach is an expandable bag. The stomach wall has glands that secrete gastric juice, which contains:
____________ ______ to kill bacteria, mucus to lubricate and __________ enzymes.
4. The first 30cm of the small intestine is called the ____________. Almost all the digestion takes place here,
due to two secretions: pancreatic juice and bile. Pancreatic juice is secreted by the pancreas into the
duodenum through the pancreatic duct. Pancreatic juice contains numerous ___________, ___________
and __________ enzymes. Bile is secreted by the liver, stored in the gall bladder, and released into the
duodenum through the bile duct. Bile doesn’t contain any enzymes, but it does contain _______ _______ to
aid lipid digestion, and it is alkaline to neutralise the stomach acid.
5. The rest of the small intestine is called the _________. This is the site of final digestion and ____________.
There are numerous glands secreting enzymes and mucus. To maximise the rate of absorption the ileum has:
● has a huge surface area. It is over 6m long and the mucosa has large circular folds, villi and the epithelial
cells have __________
● a network of blood capillaries in each villus, so between the lumen of the gut and the blood there is just
one layer of ___________ and one layer of ___________ lining the capillaries
38
0. The large intestine is the site of __________ absorption
Monosaccharides and amino acids are absorbed into the body as previously discussed. Lipids are absorbed as
follows: micelles release monoglycerides and fatty acids at the epithelial membrane to be absorbed by simple lipid
__________. The triglycerides are then reformed in the SER and transported to the _______, which produces
___________ from triglycerides and lipoproteins. The chylomicrons are exported from the epithelial cell by
exocytosis and the chylomicrons are finally absorbed into the lacteals in the villi to be transported around the body
in the ____________ system.
Answer the questions
1. What reaction breaks down polymers into monomers?

2. What two enzymes are required to breakdown starch into glucose?
3. What three enzymes are required to breakdown proteins into amino acids
4. What collection of molecules secreted by the liver is required to emulsify lipids?
5. What enzyme is secreted by the stomach? What is the optimum pH for this enzyme?
6. The hydrochloric acid secreted by the stomach denatures proteins. What enzyme secreted by the
salivary glands is denatured?
7. What enzymes are secreted by the pancreas? What is the optimum pH for these enzymes?
8. Give three features of the small intestine increase the surface area for absorption.
9. Through what mechanism are amino acids and glucose absorbed by the epithelial cells of the small
intestine?
10. What is the name given to the small spheres of lipids that aid absorption in the small intestine?
Lesson 5 – Gas Exchange in Fish and Insects
Countercurrent Describes how the flow of water over the fill lamellae and the flow of blood within them are in
flow opposite directions. Allows a diffusion gradient to be maintained all the way across the gill lamellae.
Gill Located within the body of the fish, behind the head.
Gill filaments Make up the gills of a fish – they are stacked up in a pile.
Gill lamellae At right angle to gill filaments, which increase the surface area of the gills.
Spiracle Tiny pores that allow gases to enter and leave the tracheae (and water vapour to leave as well). They
are opened and closed by a valve.
Tracheae A large internal network of tubes in insects with supported rings to prevent them collapsing.
Tracheoles These tubes extend from the tracheae and extend throughout all the body tissues of the insect to
allow atmospheric air to be brought directly to respiring tissues.
Key Words
Notes
39
Insects:
Structure –
Insects that have evolved to live on land have

microscopic air-filled pipes called trachea. The
tracheae divide into smaller tubes called tracheoles
which continue to divide until they penetrate into
individual body cells. This means that gases are
directly exchanged between cells and the atmosphere
– there is no need to transport them.
Air enters the trachea through pores on the surface

of the exoskeleton called spiracles. CO2 and O2 will
diffuse in/out of the spiracles down their
concentration gradient.
Adaptations –
Structure Reason it increases diffusion
Tracheoles have thin walls Shortens diffusion distance of gases to cells
Tracheoles are highly branched Increases surface area for gas exchange
Fluid in the ends of trachea where it joins tissues

● Gas exchange from air to liquid occurs in the tracheole
which allows gases to diffuse to tissues faster
● Tracheal fluid can be withdrawn into the body fluid to

increase the surface area of the tracheole exposed to air
Muscles can pump body and force air in/out Maintains concentration gradient for gases
Spiracles can be closed/not open all the time This prevents water loss – keeps organism waterproof
Ventilation –
Through contracting muscles between each body segment, the insect can compress the tracheae and so pump gases
in and out of its body – this is a type of ventilation. Pumping raises pressure in the body and forces air out of the
spiracles down the pressure gradient. This can be done to increase the removal of carbon dioxide when energy
demands increase and respiration levels are highest e.g during intense movement.
Fish:
Structure -
40
Each gill is made of lots of thin plates called gill filaments which are attached to a bony gill arch, these create a large
surface area for water to flow over. The gill filaments are covered in lots of tiny folds called lamella which further
increase the surface area of the gills. The lamellae have lots of blood capillaries and a thin layer of cells.
Gas exchange happens at the lamellae. Water flows over them in an opposite direction to the blood (countercurrent
flow).
Concurrent Flow Countercurrent Flow
• Water and blood flow over and through the • Water and blood flow over and through the
lamellae in the same direction. lamellae in opposite directions to each other.
• At first there is a very large concentration gradient • Blood always flows next to water that has a higher
as water has a much higher oxygen concentration, oxygen concentration, so diffusion happens along
so diffusion occurs. the full length of the lamellae.
• As they flow along the lamellae the concentration • The blood absorbs more and more oxygen as it
gradient decreases until equilibrium is reached moves along.
and no more oxygen diffuses into the blood
• Even when the blood is highly saturated there is still
• Less oxygen would be absorbed into the blood a concentration gradient so more oxygen can flow
overall because diffusion only happens in the first into the blood.
part of the lamellae
41
Adaptations
Thin epithelium/walls of lamellae Shortens diffusion distance of gases from water to blood
Large number of filaments and lamellae Increases surface area for gas exchange
Countercurrent flow system where blood Maintains concentration gradient as water always next to blood with
and water flow in opposite directions lower concentration of oxygen
Large number of capillaries around Circulation constantly removes oxygenated blood to maintain steep
lamellae concentration gradient
Ventilation by operculum Ensures constant fresh water flow over gills to replace lost oxygen
and maintain steep concentration gradient
Ventilation
The internal gills are protected by an operculum and therefore need to be actively ventilated. The fish takes water in
through its buccal cavity which then flows through the pharynx and over the gill plates, leaving via the opercular
openings on each side of the fishes head.
The rows of gill filaments have many folds called

lamellae. The folds are kept supported and moist by
the water that is continually pumped through the
mouth and over the gills.
This also ensures fresh water with oxygen is always

passing over the gills to maintain the concentration
gradient as oxygen diffuses into the blood.
1. mouth opens, operculum shuts

2. water enters cavity due to decreased
pressure / increased volume;
3. mouth closes, operculum opens
4. results in increased pressure /
decreased volume
5. Increased pressure forces water out
over gills
Recall Questions
1. How is air supplied to respiring tissues in an insect?

2. Where does air enter the tracheal system in an insect?
42
3. Describe and explain two adaptations of an insects gas exchange system.
4. The ends of tracheoles in insects are filled with tracheal fluid. What is the function of this fluid?
5. How can insects increase ventilation?
6. When an insect is active, what changes occur in the insect to increase their oxygen supply?
7. Most bony fish have 5 pairs of gills which are covered by a bony flap, known as the …? What is the function
of this bony flap?
8. Describe the structure of gills in fish
9. Describe ventilation in fish
10. Explain why the countercurrent flow in fish gills creates more efficient gas exchange than a concurrent flow
would.
11. Give two adaptations of the gills for gas exchange.
Exam Questions
Q1. (a) (i) Name the structure through which gases enter and leave the body of an insect.
______________________________________________________________ (1)
(ii) Name the small tubes that carry gases directly to and from the cells of an insect.
______________________________________________________________
(1)
(b) Explain how oxygen moves into the gas exchange system of an insect when it is at rest.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(3)
(c) Abdominal pumping takes place during vigorous activity in insects. This causes regular
squeezing of the tubes of the gas exchange system.
A scientist investigated the effect of abdominal pumping on the pressure in the tubes and
the volume of carbon dioxide released by the insect. Her results are shown below.
43
Describe and explain these results.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________(3)
Q2. Figure 1 shows the stages of development of an insect called a damselfly.
(a) The adult damselfly uses a tracheal system for gas exchange.
Explain three ways in which an insect’s tracheal system is adapted for efficient gas
exchange.
1. _________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
3. _________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(3)
(b) The damselfly larva is a carnivore that actively hunts prey. It has gills to obtain oxygen
from water.
Some other species of insect have larvae that are a similar size and shape to damselfly
44
larvae and also live in water. These larvae do not actively hunt prey and do not have
gills.
Explain how the presence of gills adapts the damselfly to its way of life.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________ (2)
(c) A scientist measured the size of each gill lamella of the gills of 40 damselfly larvae.
His results are shown in the table.
Mean width / mm 1.61

(± uncertainty / mm) (± 0.19)
Mean width / mm 6.12

(± uncertainty / mm) (± 0.41)
Calculate the mean surface area of one side of one gill lamella. Assume that a gill lamella
is rectangular and give your answer to an appropriate number of significant figures.
Include the percentage error (uncertainty) of surface area in your answer.

Show your working.
Mean surface area = ____________________
Percentage error (uncertainty) of surface area = ____________________

(3)
(d) A student used an optical microscope to observe part of a damselfly larva gill.
Figure 2 shows the drawing the student produced.
45
Suggest two ways the student could improve the quality of her scientific drawing of this
gill.
1. _________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(2)
Q3. Many insects release carbon dioxide in short bursts even though they produce it at a constant rate.
The diagram shows how this is achieved in one particular insect.
46
(a) Using information from the diagram, suggest what stimulates the spiracles to open.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(1)
(b) Explain what causes the oxygen concentration in the tracheae to fall when the spiracles
are closed.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(c) The insect lives in dry conditions. Suggest an advantage of the pattern of spiracle
movements shown in the diagram.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________(2)
47
Q4.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(1)
(b) Describe the features of fish gills that give them a large surface area.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(2)
The graph shows the relationship between gill surface area and body mass for three species of fish.
48
(b) (i) Describe the relationships between gill surface area, mass and swimming speed
shown in the diagram.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(1)
(ii) Explain the relationship between gill surface area and swimming speed.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________ (2)
Q5. The electron micrograph shows a section through a fish gill. The directions of flow of water and of
blood are indicated by arrows.
(a) Calculate the minimum distance that a molecule of oxygen would have to travel from the
water to a red blood cell. Give your answer in micrometres and show your working.
49
Answer ____________________ µm. (2)
(b) Explain how the relationship between the direction of flow of water and of blood shown in
the micrograph is useful to a fish.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(3)
Q3. Describe and explain how fish maintain a flow of water over their gills.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(4)
Q4. Explain two ways in which the structure of fish gills is adapted for efficient gas exchange.
1. _________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(2)
50
Q5.
(a) Describe and explain how the countercurrent system leads to efficient gas exchange
across the gills of a fish.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(3)
(b) Amoebic gill disease (AGD) is caused by a parasite that lives on the gills of some species
of fish. The disease causes the lamellae to become thicker and to fuse together.
AGD reduces the efficiency of gas exchange in fish. Give two reasons why.
1. _________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(c) The table below shows some features of gas exchange of a fish at rest.
Volume of oxygen absorbed by the gills from each dm3 of water / cm3 7
Mass of fish / kg 0.4
Oxygen required by fish / cm3 kg–1 hour–1 90
(i) Calculate the volume of water that would have to pass over the gills each hour to
supply the oxygen required by the fish. Show your working.
____________________ dm3
(2)
51
Q6. A biologist investigated the effect of water temperature on the rate of ventilation of gills in a species
of fish. She kept four fish in a thermostatically controlled aquarium and measured the mean ventilation
rate by counting movements of their gill covers.
Her results are shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1
In this investigation, the biologist also monitored the concentration of oxygen in the water in the
aquarium. The concentration of oxygen in water changes with temperature of the water. Figure
2 shows how it changes.
Figure 2
(a) Suggest a difficulty of counting movements of gill covers as a method of measuring rate of
ventilation in fish.
___________________________________________________________________
52
___________________________________________________________________
(1)
(b) The biologist concluded that there was a correlation between rate of ventilation of the gills
and temperature of the water. A scatter diagram can be used to look for a correlation but,
in this investigation, it was not the appropriate graph for her data.
Explain why.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(1)
(c) (i) Describe the relationship between temperature of water, oxygen in water and rate of
ventilation.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(1)
(ii) Use Figure 1 and Figure 2 to explain the advantage to the fish of the change in its
rate of ventilation.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(3)
Homework

50 80 cell chitin diffuses extracted higher lamellae one-way quickly same

same spiracles surface area thousands tracheae tracheoles tubes wax
53
Insects are relatively small but they are also very active, so they need to respire ___________. They have a
waterproof exoskeleton, which is rigid for protection and covered in ______ to prevent insects drying out. Insects
improve their rate of gas exchange by using a network of ________ that carry air directly to the cells. Openings in the
insect’s exoskeleton, called __________, lead to a network of tubes called__________, which branch into many
smaller ____________. The tracheae and tracheoles are held open by rings of hard ________ (a polysaccharide). The
tracheoles penetrate deep into the insects tissues, carrying air directly to every ______. At the ends of the tracheoles
oxygen __________ directly into the cells, and carbon dioxide diffuses out, down their concentration gradients.
Fish have developed specialised gas-exchange organs called gills. Each gill has four gill arches which have
____________ of filaments attached. The filaments in turn are covered in feathery ___________ each only a few
cells thick containing blood capillaries. This structure gives a large __________ ______ and a short distance for
diffusion. Water flows over the filaments and lamellae, and oxygen can diffuse down its concentration gradient
(carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction). Because fish have a _____-_____ flow of water over their gills
they can also use another mechanism to improve their efficiency of gas exchange: a counter current system. If water
and blood flow past each other in the ________ direction (concurrent flow) then the oxygen concentration in the
water and blood quickly becomes the ________, so no further diffusion can take place, and only ____% of the
oxygen can be ____________ from the water. In the countercurrent system the blood flows towards the front of the
fish in the gill lamellae while the water flows towards the back. This means that there is always a ___________
concentration of oxygen in the water than in the blood, so oxygen continues to diffuse into the blood along the
whole length of the lamellae. Using this system fish gills can extract about ____% of the dissolved oxygen from the
water.
1.
54
2.
55
3.
56
4. The diagram shows the gas exchange system of an insect at rest and during flight.
[2]
57
Lesson 6 – Gas Exchange in Humans
Key Words
Alveoli Minute air-sacs with a diameter of between 100µm and 300µm at the end of the bronchioles. They are
lined with epithelium. Between the alveoli there are some collagen and elastic fibres.
Bronchi Two divisions of the trachea each leading to one lung. Amount of cartilage reduces as they get smaller.
Also produce mucus to trap dirt particles and cilia that move this towards the throat.
Bronchioles A series of branching subdivisions of the bronchi whose walls are made up of muscle (which constricts to
control the flow of air in and out of the alveoli) lined with epithelial cells.
Diaphragm A sheet of muscle that separates the thorax from the abdomen.
Expiration A largely passive process when external intercostal muscles relax, internal intercostal muscles contract, ribs
move downwards and inwards and the diaphragm muscles relax, decreasing the volume of the thorax,
which increases the pressure.
Intercostal Lie between the ribs. Two sets – internal whose contraction leads to expiration and external whose
muscles contraction leads to inspiration.
Inspiration An active process when external intercostal muscles contract, internal intercostal muscles relax, ribs are
pulled upwards and outwards and the diaphragm muscles contract causing it to flatten, increasing the
volume of the thorax, which reduces the pressure.
Lungs A pair of lobe structures made up of a series of highly branched tubules called bronchioles, which end in
tiny air sacs called alveoli.
Rib cage the bony frame formed by the ribs round the chest
Trachea A flexible airway that is supported by rings of cartilage which prevent it collapsing as the air pressure inside
falls when breathing in. Its walls are made up of muscle, lined with ciliated epithelium and goblet cells.
Ventilation The process in which air is constantly moved in and out of the lungs to maintain diffusion of gases across
the alveolar epithelium. Also known as breathing.
Notes
Structure –
In mammals gas exchange takes place in the
lungs, these are highly adapted to have a very
large surface area in contact with the
bloodstream to sustain a high rate of gas
exchange required to maintain a high metabolic
rate (see pg. 5). If you compare the lungs of a
mammal to those in reptiles and amphibians,
you can see these differences:
58
Air flows in through the mouth and nose then down the
trachea (windpipe). The trachea then splits into two
bronchi which branch off further into smaller tubes
known as bronchioles. Bronchioles end in small air sacs
known as alveoli. Alveoli are surrounded by capillaries;
this is where gas exchange takes place.
The diaphragm, ribs and intercostal muscles help move

air in and out of the lungs (ventilation).
Each lung is surrounded by a membrane and the space

(pleural cavity) is filled with pleural fluid. This lubricates
the lungs and helps the lungs adhere to the walls of the
thoracic cavity by water cohesion. This allows the lungs
to expand with the chest during inhalation.
The lungs are made up of specialised tissues and cells

which help the lungs to carry out their function:
Feature Found Function
Cartilage Trachea and Provides strength to trachea and bronchus; holds the airway open – prevents
Bronchus collapse of airway when air pressure falls
Surfactant Coats surface of Phospholipid layer which maintains moisture but reduces surface tension to stop
lungs alveoli collapsing when air pressure falls.
Smooth Lining trachea - Can contracts to constrict (narrow) the airways

Muscle bronchioles
Goblet Cell Lining trachea - Secrete mucus which traps particles of dust and bacteria which are breathed into
s bronchioles the lungs.
Ciliated Lining trachea - Beat regularly to move mucus up the airways towards the mouth to be removed.
epithelial bronchioles Helps keep the airways clear and prevent infections. Contain lots of mitochondria
cells to provide energy required to move cilia.
Elastin Lining of all Allows lung tissue to stretch when breathing in and filling up the lungs, recoil
(protein) airways and when breathing out to help force air out of the lungs. Allows alveoli to return to
alveoli original shape after exhaling
Squamous Lining alveoli Gives a short diffusion distance pathway for oxygen and carbon dioxide in the
epithelium alveoli, cell layer only 0.05-0.3µm wide.
Adaptations
59
Alveolar epithelium and capillary Shortens diffusion distance of gases from alveoli to blood – only has to
endothelium are very thin (only one diffuse through two cells.
cell thick)
Large number of alveoli Increases surface area for gas exchange
Capillaries that surround the alveoli Red blood cells are slowed down to squeeze through one at a time
are very narrow (7-10µm) increasing the time for diffusion.
Large number of capillaries around Circulation constantly removes oxygenated blood to maintain steep
alveoli concentration gradient
Constant ventilation of air in and out Ensures concentration of oxygen in alveoli is higher and concentration of
of lungs carbon dioxide is lower than blood and therefore maintains steep
concentration gradient
Ventilation
Inhalation/Inspiration Exhalation/Expiration
Diaphragm contracts (moves down) Diaphragm relaxes (moves up)
60
External intercostal muscles contract pulling ribcage External intercostal muscles relax, ribcage moves in and
moves up and out. down.
Increases the volume of the thoracic cavity which Decreases volume of the thoracic cavity which
reduces the air pressure because there is more space. increases the air pressure because there is less space.
Air moves into the trachea down the pressure gradient Air moves out of the trachea down the pressure
(high to low) gradient
Active process – requires energy Normal expiration (not forced) is a passive process.
(In forced expiration the internal intercostal muscles

contract to pull the ribcage in and down even more)
Summary
Oxygen and carbon dioxide both move down their pressure gradient then their diffusion gradient as they enter/leave
the lungs:
Oxygen down pressure gradient Oxygen down diffusion gradient
Gases
Gases Alveolar Capillary in
Trachea Bronchi Bronchioles Alveoli Blood
epithelium endothelium
in air blood
Carbon dioxide down pressure gradient Carbon dioxide down diffusion gradient
Recall Questions
1. Describe the structures air passes through into the lungs

2. Describe the role of surfactant in alveoli
3. Describe the mechanism of inspiration
4. Why do alveolar walls contain elastic fibres?
5. Which tissue type comprises alveolar walls?
6. The trachea is lined with ciliated epithelial tissue and goblet cells. Describe the functions of these.
7. The trachea and bronchi are lined with cartilage. Describe why.
8. Describe the roles of smooth muscle and elastic tissue in the airways
9. Describe how alveoli are adapted to reduce diffusion distances
10. Describe how air enters the lungs
11. Describe the process of exhalation.
12. Why is inhalation an active process?
13. Describe the pathway of oxygen from the air into the blood (do not describe ventilation)
Exam Questions
Q1. (a) The diagram shows the structure of the human gas exchange system.
61
Name organs
P ____________________
Q ____________________
(1)
(b) Explain how downward movement of the diaphragm leads to air entering the lungs.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________ (2)
Q2.
Q3. The graph shows airflow into and out of the lungs during a normal breath.
62
(a) (i) How will the concentration of carbon dioxide in the airflow differ at times A and B?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(1)
(ii) Describe the role of diffusion in producing this difference.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(2)
(b) Use information from the graph to sketch a curve on the axes below to show how the
volume of air in the lungs changes during inspiration.
(2)
(c) The intercostal muscles are between the ribs. In normal breathing, describe the part
played by the intercostal muscles
(i) during inspiration;
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________ (3)
63
(ii) during expiration.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(1)
Q4. (a) Describe the structure of the human gas exchange system and how we breathe in and out.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(6)
(b) Mucus produced by epithelial cells in the human gas exchange system contains
triglycerides and phospholipids.
Compare and contrast the structure and properties of triglycerides and phospholipids.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________ (5)
64
(c) Mucus also contains glycoproteins. One of these glycoproteins is a polypeptide with the
sugar, lactose, attached.
Describe how lactose is formed and where in the cell it would be attached to a
polypeptide to form a glycoprotein.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(4)
Q5. A person was sitting at rest and breathing normally. A recording was made of the changes in the
volume of air in his lungs over a ten-second period. The diagram shows this recording.
(a) Describe the part played by muscles in bringing about the change between 3 and 4
seconds.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(1)
(b) Describe how an increase in lung volume leads to air entering the lungs.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(1)
65
Q6. Describe and explain how the lungs are adapted to allow rapid exchange of oxygen between air in
the alveoli and blood in the capillaries around them.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(5)
Q7. Describe how oxygen in the air reaches capillaries surrounding alveoli in the lungs. Details of
breathing are not required.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(4)
Q8. (a) Describe the pathway taken by an oxygen molecule from an alveolus to the blood.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
66
___________________________________________________________________ (2)
(b) Explain how one feature of an alveolus allows efficient gas exchange to occur.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(2)
Homework


aerobic capillaries carbon dioxide cartilage ciliated closer constant contracts
decreases diaphragm dome entrance exchange exercise expiration flattened
flattens in and down increases inspiration intercostals muscles lung oxygen pH ratio
relaxes surfactant thin thorax tidal volume touching tube up and out ventilation
ventilation rate
The respiratory system in mammals is made up of:
● The mouth and nose - ____________ to the rest of the respiratory system
● The trachea - connects the mouth and nose to the lungs; a tough ________, surrounded by c-shaped rings of
____________ to prevent kinking, also lined with ____________ epithelial cells and goblet cells to trap dust
and pathogens and waft back to the mouth in a sea of mucus
● The bronchi - two branches from the trachea that transfer air to and from each _________; these are similar
in structure to the trachea
● The bronchioles - increasingly smaller branches from the bronchi that transfer air to and from the alveoli;
these start with a similar structure to the bronchi but lose the cartilage lining and ciliated epithelial cells the
___________ they get to the alveoli
● The alveoli - the site of ____________ of the gases oxygen and carbon dioxide; they are tiny sacs, lined with
_____________ epithelial cells and surrounded by a dense network of ______________
67
The primary function of the lungs and breathing is to supply ______________ for ____________ respiration.
Removal of __________ ___________, one of the waste products of respiration, is also a vital function of breathing.
Carbon dioxide produces an acid solution and as it accumulates the _____ of the cells and blood is lowered that
could interfere with enzymatic function.
Efficient gas exchange in the lungs is achieved by a number of adaptations:
● The millions of alveoli in the lungs have a combined area of approximately 70m², thereby significantly
increasing the surface area to volume ________ of the Human body. To prevent the walls of the alveolus
from sticking together a substance called ___________ is secreted by cells in the alveolar walls, which
consists of phospholipids that reduces the surface tension of the water.
● A short distance for diffusion is achieved by the alveolar epithelial cells and capillary endothelial cells being
very ________. The capillaries are also _____________ the alveoli so the oxygen and carbon dioxide have to
travel through very little or no tissue fluid.
● The constant movement of blood through the capillaries, as well as breathing movements, ensure that a
steep concentration gradient in maintained. The flow of air in and out of the lungs is called ____________
and has two stages: ____________ and ____________. Lungs are not muscular and cannot ventilate
themselves, but instead the whole __________ moves and changes size, due to the action of two sets of
muscles: the ___________ _________ and the ______________.
During inspiration:
• The diaphragm _________ and _________
• The external intercostal muscles contract, pulling the ribs ___ ____ _____
• The volume of the thorax ______________ and pressure in the lungs decreases
• Air is pushed in to equalise the pressure.
During normal expiration:
• The diaphragm _________ and forms a _________ shape
• The external intercostal muscles relax, pulling the ribs ___ ____ _______
• The volume of the thorax ______________ and the pressure in the lungs increases
68
• Air is pushed out to equalise the pressure.
Answer the questions:

1. Label the parts of the respiratory system on the diagram below. [13]
2. Explain how the lung and capillary structure is adapted for gas exchange. [6]
1. ...................................................................................................................................................... .................................
.........................................................................................................................
2. ...................................................................................................................................................... .................................
.........................................................................................................................
3. ...................................................................................................................................................... .................................
.........................................................................................................................
4. ...................................................................................................................................................... .................................
.........................................................................................................................
5. ...................................................................................................................................................... .................................
.........................................................................................................................
6. ......................................................................................................................................................
69
Lesson 7 – Effects of Lung Disease in Humans
Notes
Lung Function
Ventilation rate (how many breaths per minute) and tidal volume (the volume of air in each breath) can tell you
about how the lungs are functioning. There is always a certain volume of air that remains in the lungs to make sure
they never fully deflate (residual volume). You can measure lung function using a spirometer and work out breathing
rate (number of breaths per minute), tidal volume and ventilation rate from a spirometer trace:
The health and function of a person’s lungs can be measured by looking at their:
● Forced expiratory volume (FEV1) – the maximum volume of air that can be breathed out in 1 second.
● Forced vital capacity (FVC) – the maximum volume of air it is possible to breathe forcefully out of the lungs
Lung Diseases
Lung disease can affect both ventilation and gas exchange. All lung diseases reduce the rate of gas exchange in
alveoli. Less oxygen diffuses into the bloodstream, the body cells receive less oxygen which reduces the rate of
aerobic respiration is reduced. This means less energy is released, so lung disease patients offer suffer with tiredness
or weakness in muscles.
There are two types of lung disease which affect ventilation in different ways:
● Restrictive diseases:
70
o E.g Fibrosis
o make it difficult to fully breathe in (affects elastic tissue). Severely reduces FVC as breathing in is
difficult but FEV1 is less affected because breathing out is still normal.
● Obstructive diseases
o E.g Asthma
o make it difficult to breathe out as airways are blocked. FVC and FEV1 are both much lower than
normal.
Disease + Causes Effects Diagram
Tuberculosis (TB) Reduced rate of gas exchange because:
● Damaged alveoli have a smaller surface

Caused by a bacteria inhaled by area.
droplet infection. The macrophages
build a wall around the bacteria in ● Scar tissue is thicker, so diffusion rate is
the alveoli forming small hard reduced as diffusion distance between
lumps called tubercules. The alveoli and blood is increased.
bacteria remain alive but dormant.
● Elasticity is reduced so lungs cannot
expand and hold as much air as normal.
Eventually the infected tissue dies
damaging the alveoli. As a result of
the immune system response
Tidal volume = decreased
fibrosis also occurs (see below).
Ventilation rate = increased
Symptoms:
persistent cough (cough up mucus and

blood), shortness of breath and fatigue.
Pulmonary Fibrosis (PF) Reduced rate of gas exchange because:
● Scar tissue is thicker so diffusion rate is

Formation of scar tissue in the reduced as diffusion distance between
lungs after an infection or alveoli and blood is increased.
breathing in substances like
asbestos. ● Elasticity is reduced so lungs cannot
expand and hold as much air as normal.
Symptoms:
Dry cough, shortness of breath, chest pain,

fatigue and weakness.
71
Asthma Reduced rate of gas exchange because:
Airways constrict severely reducing air flow

in and out of the lungs so less O2 diffuses
Airways become inflamed due to
into blood.
an allergic reaction to inhaled
substances such as pollen or dust.
FEV1 = severely reduced
Smooth muscle lining the

bronchioles contracts and lots of
Symptoms:
mucus is produced.
Wheezing, tight chest, shortness of breath.
(Can be relieved by inhalers which cause
bronchiole muscle to relax)
Emphysema Reduced rate of gas exchange because:
● Damaged alveoli have a smaller surface

Disease caused by foreign particles area.
(from smoking or long term
exposure to air pollution) being ● Loss of elastin means alveoli cannot
trapped in the alveoli. This causes recoil as well and less air is expelled.
inflammation, phagocytes arrive
and they produce an enzyme which
breaks down the elastin in the
walls of the alveoli.
FEV1 = severely reduced
Symptoms:
Shortness of breath and wheezing,
Recall Questions
1. What is the ventilation rate?

2. Why does the ventilation rate increase during exercise?
3. What is tidal volume?
4. What is total lung capacity?
5. What is breathing rate?
6. What is FVC?
7. A person with fibrosis scar tissue will have a reduced tidal volume, explain why
8. Why is ventilation rate increased in a person with TB?
9. Explain why the rate of gas exchange in someone with fibrosis is lower than a healthy person.
10. Explain what happens to FEV1 during an asthma attack?
Exam Questions
Q1. The graph shows how pulmonary ventilation changes during a period of exercise.
72
(a) Describe how pulmonary ventilation changed during the period of exercise.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(1)
(b) After 4 minutes of exercise, the breathing rate was 20 breaths per minute. Explain how
you could use this information and the graph to calculate tidal volume.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(c) When a person starts to breathe out, the percentage of oxygen in the air first exhaled is
the same as the percentage of oxygen in the atmospheric air. Explain why.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(2)
Q2. (a) Describe how air is taken into the lungs.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
73
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(3)
The volume of air breathed in and out of the lungs during each breath is called the tidal volume.
The breathing rate and tidal volume were measured for a cyclist pedalling at different speeds.
The graph shows the results.
(b) Describe the two curves.
(i) Tidal volume
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(ii) Breathing rate
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
74
______________________________________________________________
(2)
(c) Calculate the total volume of air breathed in and out per minute when the cyclist is cycling
at 20 km h–1. Show your working.
____________________ dm3
(2)
Q3. Read the following passage

Several diseases are caused by inhaling asbestos fibres. Most of these
diseases result from the build up of these tiny asbestos fibres in the lungs.
One of these diseases is asbestosis. The asbestos fibres are very small and
enter the bronchioles and alveoli. They cause the destruction of phagocytes
5 and the surrounding lung tissue becomes scarred and fibrous. The fibrous
tissue reduces the elasticity of the lungs and causes the alveolar walls
to thicken. One of the main symptoms of asbestosis is shortness of breath
caused by reduced gas exchange.
People with asbestosis are at a greater risk of developing lung cancer. The time
10 between exposure to asbestos and the occurrence of lung cancer is 20–30 years.
Use information in the passage and your own knowledge to answer the following questions.
(a) Destruction of phagocytes (lines 4–5) causes the lungs to be more susceptible to
infections. Explain why.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(b) (i) The reduced elasticity of the lungs (lines 6–7) causes breathing difficulty. Explain
how.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(2)
(ii) Apart from reduced elasticity, explain how changes to the lung tissue reduce the
efficiency of gas exchange.
75
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(4)
(c) (i) Doctors did not make the link between exposure to asbestos and an increased risk
of developing lung cancer for many years. Use information in the passage to explain
why.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(1)
(ii) Give one factor, other than asbestos, which increases the risk of developing lung
cancer.
______________________________________________________________
(1)
Q4. Miner’s lung is a disease caused by breathing in dust in coal mines. The dust causes the alveolar
epithelium to become thicker. People with miner’s lung have a lower concentration of oxygen in their
blood than healthy people.
(a) (i) Describe the path by which oxygen goes from an alveolus to the blood.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________ (2)
(ii) Explain why people with miner’s lung have a lower concentration of oxygen in their
blood.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(1)
(b) In healthy lungs, a gradient is maintained between the concentration of oxygen in the
alveoli and the concentration of oxygen in the lung capillaries.
(i) Describe how ventilation helps to maintain this difference in oxygen concentration.
______________________________________________________________
76
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(2)
(ii) Give one other way that helps to maintain the difference in oxygen concentration.
______________________________________________________________
(1)
Q5.
(a) Describe how oxygen in the air reaches capillaries surrounding alveoli in the lungs.
Details of breathing are not required.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(4)
Forced expiratory volume (FEV) is the greatest volume of air a person can breathe out in 1
second.
Forced vital capacity (FVC) is the greatest volume of air a person can breathe out in a single
breath.
The figure below shows results for the volume of air breathed out by three groups of people, A,
B and C. Group A had healthy lungs. Groups B and C had different lung conditions that affect
breathing.
77
Time breathing out / s
(b) Calculate the percentage drop in FEV for group C compared with the healthy people.
Answer = ____________________
(1)
(c) Asthma affects bronchioles and reduces flow of air in and out of the lungs.
Fibrosis does not affect bronchioles; it reduces the volume of the lungs.
Which group, B or C, was the one containing people with fibrosis of their lungs? Use the
information provided and evidence from the figure above to explain your answer.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(3)
Q6. Scientists investigated the effect of stopping smoking on the forced expiratory volume of people.
The forced expiratory volume (FEV1) is the greatest volume of air that a person can breathe out in 1
second.
The scientists recruited a large number of people who smoked. Some of these smokers
stopped smoking at the start of the investigation whilst others continued to smoke.
The scientists:
78
• measured the FEV1 of each person and calculated the mean FEV1
• re-measured the FEV1 of each person after one year and calculated the mean FEV1 of the
smokers and the mean FEV1 of the people who had stopped smoking
• repeated this at the end of five years.
The graph shows the scientists’ results.
(b) Use the data shown in the graph to compare the change in FEV1 of people who continued
to smoke with those who stopped smoking.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(c) Smoking causes changes in the lungs and airways of smokers.

Suggest two changes in the lungs of people who continue to smoke that could explain the
change in their FEV1.
1. _________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________ (2)
Q7. Alpha-1-antitrypsin is a protein that reduces the activity of enzymes that can damage lung tissue.
Cigarette smoke contains hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide reduces the activity of alpha-1-
antitrypsin. Scientists investigated the effect of different concentrations of hydrogen peroxide on the
activity of alpha-1-antitrypsin. The graph shows their results.
79
(a) (i) Hydrogen peroxide reacts with two amino acids in alpha-1-antitrypsin. Explain how
this reduces activity of the protein.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________ (2)
(ii) Explain the results shown in the graph.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________ (2)
(b) Long-term smokers are often short of breath. Use this information to explain why.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(2)
Homework

2. Answer the questions below
3. Revise for End of Topic Test
80

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AQA A Level Biology

Exchange Systems (3.3.1-3):

Lesson My Marks Total Exam Homework Date

Lesson 1 – Size and Surface Area

Lesson 2 – Digestion and Absorption of

Lesson 3 – Digestion and Absorption of

Lesson 4 – Digestion and Absorption of Lipids

Lesson 5 – Gas Exchange in Fish and Insects

Lesson 7 – Effects of Lung Disease in Humans

End Of Topic Test

3.3.1 Surface area to volume ratio

Content Opportunities for skills development

3.3.2 Gas exchange

Adaptations of gas exchange surfaces, shown by gas exchange: AT j

recognise correlations and causal relationships.

3.3.3 Digestion and absorption

Content Opportunities for skills development

During digestion, large biological molecules are hydrolysed to smaller PS 1.1

Digestion in mammals of:

● co-transport mechanisms for the absorption of amino acids and of

Lesson 1 – Surface Area and Size

An organism’s metabolic rate is the amount of energy expended by

As a general rule, the greater the mass of an organism the higher

The need for more efficient delivery of oxygen (and nutrients) to

● Have large SA:V so surface are is large

Small animals have a lower metabolic rate, because they

Organisms will therefore evolve and develop adaptations

Adaptations to maintain temperature and water

Environment Challenge Behavioural Physical

Organisms may be nocturnal so Example:

1. What is surface area? How do you calculate it?

Q1. The diagram below shows two model cells.

You should include calculations in your answer.

(b) Explain why oxygen uptake is a measure of metabolic rate in organisms.

Explain how a larger body size is an adaptation to a colder climate

1. Complete all exam questions in lesson 1

temperature that ensures __________-controlled reactions proceed at an effective rate.

reach all cells.

Answer the exam questions

................................................................................................................................................................. ............... .........

from above from side

(i) its body shape [1]

(ii) a branched intestine. [2]

................................................................................................................................................................. ................ .........

Lesson 2 – Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrases Type of digestive enzyme which hydrolyse carbohydrates, ultimately to monosaccharides.

● Villi have lots of capillaries to help maintain the concentration

Absorption and Digestion of Carbohydrates

Organ Produces Helps to Digest Diagram

Salivary Amylase enzyme Breaks glycosidic bonds

Pancreas Pancreatic Breaks glycosidic bonds

Small Membrane Breaks glycosidic bonds

There are three membrane-bound disaccharidases:

The monosaccharide products are then small enough to be

Glucose and galactose are actively transported using sodium

Fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion through a

1. How is the small intestine adapted for absorption of nutrients?

(a) Give the letter of the organ that produces amylase.

(b) Give the letter of the organ that produces maltase.

(c) Maltose is hydrolysed by the enzyme maltase.

Explain why maltase catalyses only this reaction.

(a) What evidence in the paragraph suggests that galactose is a monosaccharide?

1. Complete all exam questions in lesson 2

to kill bacteria, mucus to lubricate and enzymes.