sensors

Article
A Micromachined Piezoresistive Pressure Sensor with
a Shield Layer
Gang Cao 1 , Xiaoping Wang 1 , Yong Xu 2 and Sheng Liu 3, *
1 School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology,
Wuhan 430074, China; caogang@hust.edu.cn (G.C.); xpwang@finemems.com (X.W.)
2 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA;
yxu@eng.wayne.edu
3 School of Power and Mechanical Engineering, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
* Correspondence: victor_liu63@126.com; Tel.: +86-138-7125-1668

Academic Editor: Vittorio M. N. Passaro

Received: 19 May 2016; Accepted: 20 July 2016; Published: 13 August 2016

Abstract: This paper presents a piezoresistive pressure sensor with a shield layer for improved
stability. Compared with the conventional piezoresistive pressure sensors, the new one reported
in this paper has an n-type shield layer that covers p-type piezoresistors. This shield layer aims to
minimize the impact of electrical field and reduce the temperature sensitivity of piezoresistors.
The proposed sensors have been successfully fabricated by bulk-micromachining techniques.
A sensitivity of 0.022 mV/V/kPa and a maximum non-linearity of 0.085% FS are obtained in a pressure
range of 1 MPa. After numerical simulation, the role of the shield layer has been experimentally
investigated. It is demonstrated that the shield layer is able to reduce the drift caused by electrical
field and ambient temperature variation.

Keywords: silicon pressure sensor; shield layer; stability

1. Introduction
Micromachined silicon piezoresistive pressure sensors are receiving much attention due to
their wide applications in the industrial control, automobile, aerospace, and biomedical fields [1–3].
Since the 1960s when the first piezoresistive pressure sensor was invented, many efforts have
been made to improve the performance of silicon pressure sensors. Particularly, the stability of
pressure sensors in harsh environments such as those encountered in the automotive, industrial, and
military applications, is of great interest. French, Li and Guo et al. [4–8] developed pressure sensors
based on a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) wafer. The oxide insulation layer prevents leakage between
piezoresistors and the substrate, leading to a very low temperature coefficient of gauge factor (TCGF).
Mehregany et al. [9] and Wu et al. [10] reported pressure sensors fabricated from silicon carbide,
targeting applications in high-temperature and high-impact environments. Aryafar et al. [11]
introduced a novel pressure sensor to reduce the thermal drift of sensitivity by implanting a polysilicon
resistor in the pressure sensor. Peng et al. [12] fabricated a pressure sensor with an enhanced
sensitivity by applying via etching technology. Lin et al. [13] and Godovitsyn et al. [14] proposed
a surface micromachined pressure sensor by using polysilicon as a membrane and piezoresistors.
Waber et al. [15] achieved a low hysteresis pressure sensor using a flip-chip bonded on copper springs.
However, there are several disadvantages of the studies mentioned above, such as the high cost of SOI
and silicon carbide wafers, low sensitivity of polysilicon piezoresistors, complex fabrication processes
and so on. These limit the widespread use of these pressure sensors. Furthermore, intrinsic or extrinsic
electrical fields can also cause sensor drift. This issue has not been adequately addressed.

Sensors 2016, 16, 1286; doi:10.3390/s16081286 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2016, 16, 1286 2 of 13

This paper reports a bulk micromachined silicon pressure sensor with a shield layer, aiming
to reduce the electrical field and temperature impact on the sensor performance. Hoa et al. [16]
investigated the influence of polysilicon as an electrical shield on the stability and reliability of
piezoresistive pressure sensors. The electrical shield was made by polysilicon deposited on the
insulation layer, and then connected to the supply voltage of the sensor. They concluded that the
shield layer can stabilize the charge state around the piezoresistor, thereby improving the stability
and reliability of the device. Although the benefit of the electrical shield is explicit, the additional
polysilicon layer of the electrical shield may cause non-linearity and hysteresis problems. In order
to avoid this disadvantage, the shield layer proposed in this paper is an n-type sheet in the silicon
formed by phosphorus ion implantation above p-type piezoresistors. This additional layer improves
the sensor stability by changing the dopant distribution and shielding the piezoresistors from electrical
field interference.

2. Sensor Design and Fabrication

The pressure sensor with a shield layer and the corresponding equivalent electrical circuit are
schematically shown in Figure 1a,b, respectively. As shown in Figure 1a, four p-type piezoresistors
are placed at the centers of the diaphragm edges where the maximum stress occurs. The width
and length of the piezoresistors are 15 µm and 75 µm, respectively. The lateral dimension of the
sensing diaphragm is 1000 µm × 1000 µm and the thickness is 40 µm. In order to obtain a maximum
sensitivity, all the longitudinal axes of the piezoresistors are aligned to the <110> direction. The
n-type shield layer covers the piezoresistors and is directly connected to the highest potential of
the sensor. The four piezoresistors are connected as a semi-closed Wheatstone-Bridge (Figure 1b).
For comparison a conventional pressure sensor was fabricated, of which the piezoresistors are not
covered by a shield layer. The simplified fabrication process of the pressure sensors is shown in
Figure 2 and described below:

(a) Fabrication starts on a 500 µm double-side polished n-type (100) silicon wafer with a resistivity
of 7.5 Ω·cm. First, 20 nm oxide is thermally grown at 1050 ◦ C as ion implantation screen.
(b) P-type heavy boron implantation is carried out using photoresist mask to form the interconnection
and lead-out structure at an energy of 80 keV with a dose of 1 × 1016 cm−2 . After annealing, the
doping concentration of this area is very high to maintain an ohmic contact with aluminum.
(c) Piezoresistors are formed by boron ion implantation at an energy of 130 keV. In order to make
the piezoresistors of the two types of sensors have the same resistance value, the implantation
dose of the sensor with a shield layer is 1.57 × 1014 cm−2 , which is higher than 3 × 1013 cm−2 ,
the dose for the sensor without a shield layer.
(d) N-type shield layer is formed by phosphorus ion implantation at an energy of 37 keV with a dose
of 1.4 × 1014 cm−2 . This process is not needed for the sensor without a shield layer.
(e) Substrate connection is formed by heavy phosphorus ion implantation at an energy of 60 keV
with a dose of 8 × 1015 cm−2 . After all the implantations are finished, a drive-in process is
performed at 1050 ◦ C.
(f) A cavity is formed by silicon anisotropic wet etching (75 ◦ C, 45% KOH solution) at backside of
the wafer. The diaphragm size and thickness are controlled by the cavity size and etching depth.
(g) After passivation, contact holes are opened at certain positions by reactive ion etching (RIE). Then
a layer of 1 µm-thick aluminum is sputtered on the wafer and subsequently patterned to form a
semi-closed Wheatstone-Bridge circuit.
(h) Pyrex® 7740 glass (Insaco Inc., Quakertown, PA, USA) is bonded to the backside of the wafer
under a vacuum environment. Finally, the wafer is diced into 2 mm × 2 mm pieces.
Sensors 2016, 16, 1286 3 of 13
Sensors 2016, 16, 1286 3 of 13
Sensors 2016, 16, 1286 3 of 13

(a) (a) (b) (b)

Figure Figure 1. (a) Structure of the designed pressure sensor with a shield layer. (b) Equivalent circuit of
Figure 1. (a)1.Structure
(a) Structure of the
of the designed
designed pressure
pressure sensorwith
sensor withaashield
shieldlayer.
layer. (b)
(b) Equivalent
Equivalent circuit
circuitofof the
the pressure
the pressure sensor
sensor with awith a shield layer.
shield
pressure sensor with a shield layer. layer.

Figure Figure 2. Process flow of the pressure sensor with a shield layer (a–h).
2. Process flowofofthe
thepressure
pressure sensor
Figure 2. Process flow sensorwith
witha ashield layer
shield (a–h).
layer (a–h).

Figure 3a,b shows micrographs of the two types of sensors fabricated. The red square marks the
diaphragm. Note that piezoresistors and the shield layer are difficult to observe under the optical
Sensors 2016, 16, 1286 4 of 13
Sensors 2016, 16, 1286 4 of 13
Figure 3a,b shows micrographs of the two types of sensors fabricated. The red square marks the
diaphragm. Note that piezoresistors and the shield layer are difficult to observe under the optical
microscope.
microscope. AA cross
cross mark
mark (+) is placed
(+) is placed on
on the
the upper-left
upper-left corner
corner of
of the
the chip
chip to
to identify
identify the
the sensor
sensor with
with
aa shield layer.
shield layer.

(a) (b)
Figure 3. (a) Pressure sensor with a shield layer. (b) Pressure sensor without a shield layer.
Figure 3. (a) Pressure sensor with a shield layer. (b) Pressure sensor without a shield layer.

3. Electrical Field Stability Simulation

3. Electrical Field Stability Simulation
In many applications such as a tire pressure monitoring system (TPMS), pressure sensors may
In many applications such as a tire pressure monitoring system (TPMS), pressure sensors may
operate in harsh electromagnetic environments [17]. Both internal and external electrical fields can
operate in harsh electromagnetic environments [17]. Both internal and external electrical fields can
affect the operation of pressure sensors. The internal electrical field is generated by charges associated
affect the operation of pressure sensors. The internal electrical field is generated by charges associated
with the SiO2-Si system: fixed oxide charges, oxide trapped charges, mobile oxide charges and
with the SiO2 -Si system: fixed oxide charges, oxide trapped charges, mobile oxide charges and interface
interface trapped charges. The charge concentration varies from 1010 to 1012 cm−2 depending on
trapped charges. The charge concentration varies from 1010 to 1012 cm−2 depending on oxidation
oxidation ambient, oxidation temperature, and cooling conditions [18]. For the piezoresistors, there
ambient, oxidation temperature, and cooling conditions [18]. For the piezoresistors, there is no
is no difference between the external and internal electrical fields. Therefore, in order to simplify the
difference between the external and internal electrical fields. Therefore, in order to simplify the models,
models, only external electrical field is considered in this paper.
only external electrical field is considered in this paper.
According to the process flow described above, process models are established for both types of
According to the process flow described above, process models are established for both types of
pressure sensors using TCAD software to simulate the dopant distribution. To simplify these models,
pressure sensors using TCAD software to simulate the dopant distribution. To simplify these models,
some processes such as wet etching, anodic bonding are not included. Figure 4a,b presents the result
some processes such as wet etching, anodic bonding are not included. Figure 4a,b presents the result
of the simulation. Figure 4a shows the cross section of the pressure sensor without a shield layer. The
of the simulation. Figure 4a shows the cross section of the pressure sensor without a shield layer.
p-type piezoresistor is implanted in the n-type silicon substrate. The doping level of the p-type
The p-type piezoresistor is implanted in the n-type silicon substrate. The doping level of the p-type
piezoresistor is much higher than that of the substrate. There is a p-n junction where the net doping
piezoresistor is much higher than that of the substrate. There is a p-n junction where the net doping
level is very low between the piezoresistor and the substrate，which defines the junction depth of
level is very low between the piezoresistor and the substrate, which defines the junction depth of
the piezoresistor. Figure 4b is the cross section of the pressure sensor with a shield layer. Compared
the piezoresistor. Figure 4b is the cross section of the pressure sensor with a shield layer. Compared
with Figure 4a, the p-type piezoresistor is covered by the n-type shield layer. Therefore, there are two
with Figure 4a, the p-type piezoresistor is covered by the n-type shield layer. Therefore, there are two
p-n junctions in the vertical direction, reducing the thickness of the piezoresistor. In order to emulate
p-n junctions in the vertical direction, reducing the thickness of the piezoresistor. In order to emulate
the external electrical field, a metal gate is added on the oxide above the piezoresistor in each model.
the external electrical field, a metal gate is added on the oxide above the piezoresistor in each model.
When voltages are applied to the metal gates, electrical fields are induced in pressure sensors. In the
When voltages are applied to the metal gates, electrical fields are induced in pressure sensors. In the
electrical field stability simulations, 0 V, 5 V, 10 V, 15 V and 20 V voltages are applied to the metal
electrical field stability simulations, 0 V, 5 V, 10 V, 15 V and 20 V voltages are applied to the metal gate
gate in sequence. At each metal gate voltage, a DC sweep from 0 V to 5 V is carried out for the
in sequence. At each metal gate voltage, a DC sweep from 0 V to 5 V is carried out for the piezoresistor
piezoresistor to obtain an I-V curve.
to obtain an I-V curve.
Figure 5a,b presents the results of the I-V characteristics of the pressure sensors without and
Figure 5a,b presents the results of the I-V characteristics of the pressure sensors without and with
with a shield layer. Figure 5a clearly shows that the I-V curves of the piezoresistor are functions of
a shield layer. Figure 5a clearly shows that the I-V curves of the piezoresistor are functions of the gate
the gate voltages if there is no shield layer. The piezoresistor current decreases from 0.44 mA to 0.41 mA
voltages if there is no shield layer. The piezoresistor current decreases from 0.44 mA to 0.41 mA when
when the gate voltage increases from 0 V to 20 V. In other words, the resistance of the piezoresistor
the gate voltage increases from 0 V to 20 V. In other words, the resistance of the piezoresistor increases
increases by 7.4%, from 11.36 kΩ to 12.20 kΩ. The modulation by the electrical field can be clearly
by 7.4%, from 11.36 kΩ to 12.20 kΩ. The modulation by the electrical field can be clearly observed. On
observed. On the contrary, the shield layer minimizes the impact of the electrical field on
the contrary, the shield layer minimizes the impact of the electrical field on piezoresistors as shown
piezoresistors as shown in Figure 5b. Anderås observed this phenomenon in single crystalline silicon
Sensors 2016, 16, 1286 5 of 13

Sensors 2016, 16, 1286 5 of 13

in Figure 5b. Anderås observed this phenomenon in single crystalline silicon nanofilms [19]. It is
nanofilmsthat
reported [19]. It interface
the is reported ofthat the interface
the oxide of theisoxide
and silicon and silicon
in inversion when is in
theinversion when
metal gate the metal
is applied to
gate
an is applied to
appropriate an appropriate
voltage. voltage. If the
If the piezoresistor piezoresistor
directly contacts directly
with thecontacts with
interface, thethe interface,
inversion the
layer
inversion
could layer
reduce could reduce
the thickness of the the thicknessand
piezoresistor of accordingly
the piezoresistor
increaseand accordingly
the resistance. increaseif the
However,
resistance. However,
piezoresistor is covered if by
theapiezoresistor is covered
shield layer, the inversionbylayer
a shield layer, the Therefore,
is separated. inversion layer is separated.
the resistance will
Therefore,
remain the resistance will remain unchanged.
unchanged.

(a)

(b)
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Simulated
Simulated dopant
dopant distribution
distribution of
of pressure
pressure sensors
sensors (a)
(a) without
without aa shield
shield layer
layer and
and (b)
(b) with
with aa
shield layer.
shield layer.
Sensors 2016, 16, 1286 6 of 13
Sensors 2016, 16, 1286 6 of 13

(a)

(b)
Figure 5.
Figure 5. Simulated
Simulated I-V
I-V characteristics
characteristics of pressure sensors
of pressure sensors without
without (a) and with
(a) and with (b)
(b) aa shield
shield layer
layer at
at
different gate
different gate voltages.
voltages.

4. Temperature Stability Simulation

4. Temperature Stability Simulation
Sheet resistances of piezoresistors in these two models are approximately 1062 Ω/square and
Sheet resistances of piezoresistors in these two models are approximately 1062 Ω/square and
986 Ω/square, respectively. Due to the existence of the shield layer, the thickness of the shielded
986 Ω/square, respectively. Due to the existence of the shield layer, the thickness of the shielded
piezoresistor is smaller than that of the unshielded piezoresistor. Thus, the dopants of the shielded
piezoresistor is smaller than that of the unshielded piezoresistor. Thus, the dopants of the shielded
piezoresistor are more concentrated than in the unshielded piezoresistor. It is also worth noting that
piezoresistor are more concentrated than in the unshielded piezoresistor. It is also worth noting that
the shielded piezoresistor has a higher doping level.
the shielded piezoresistor has a higher doping level.
The temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) represents the temperature stability of the
piezoresistor. Tufte and Stelzer discussed TCR in silicon [20]. The results presented in their work
indicate that TCR of the piezoresistor is dependent on the doping concentration of the piezoresistor.
Sensors 2016, 16, 1286 7 of 13

The temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) represents the temperature stability of the
piezoresistor. Tufte and Stelzer discussed TCR in silicon [20]. The results presented in their work
indicate that TCR of the piezoresistor is dependent on the doping concentration of the piezoresistor.
Sensors 2016, 16, 1286 7 of 13
Boukabache and Pons discussed the doping effects on the thermal behavior of silicon resistor as
well Boukabache
[21]. They showed
and Ponsthat a heavy
discussed the doping couldon
doping effects reduce the TCR
the thermal of theofsilicon
behavior siliconresistor.
resistor asFigure
well 6a,b
[21]. the
presents They showed
plots that
of net a heavy
doping doping could
concentration reduce
along thethe TCRofofpressure
depth the silicon resistor.
sensors Figureand
without 6a,bwith a
presents
shield the plots of net
layer respectively, doping
which areconcentration along
extracted from the depth
Figure 4a,b. of
Aspressure
shown sensors
in Figurewithout
6a, theand with
piezoresistor
a shieldby
uncovered layer respectively,
a shield which from
layer extends are extracted from Figure
the boundary of the4a,b. As shown
substrate in Figure
and oxide 6a, µm
to 1.43 the deep,
piezoresistor uncovered by a shield layer extends from the boundary 17 of3 the substrate and oxide to
−
and the highest level of the doping concentration is about 3 × 10 cm . As a comparison, the vertical
1.43 μm deep, and the highest level of the doping concentration is about 3 × 1017 cm−3. As a
range of the piezoresistor covered by a shield layer is from 0.32 µm deep to 1.58 µm deep, as shown in
comparison, the vertical range of the piezoresistor covered by a shield layer is from−0.32 μm deep to
Figure
1.586b.
μmThedeep,highest
as shownlevel of the6b.doping
in Figure concentration
The highest is about
level of the doping 1 × 1018 cm
concentration
3 . These differences
is about 1 × 1018 cm−3.
make the piezoresistors
These differences make exhibit different temperature
the piezoresistors sensitivities.
exhibit different temperature sensitivities.

(a)

(b)
Figure 6. Dopant concentration versus depth without (a) and with (b) a shield layer.
Figure 6. Dopant concentration versus depth without (a) and with (b) a shield layer.
Sridhar and Foster have given a method to calculate TCR based on doping concentrations [22].
Sridhar
The and Foster
piezoresistor have as
is treated given a method
a number topiezoresistor
of thin calculate TCR based
layers on doping
stacking concentrations
together. In every thin [22].
The piezoresistor
piezoresistorlayer,
is treated as a number
the doping of thinispiezoresistor
concentration uniform. The layers stacking together.
sheet resistance In every
of piezoresistor is thin
defined as:
Sensors 2016, 16, 1286 8 of 13

piezoresistor layer, the doping concentration is uniform. The sheet resistance of piezoresistor is
defined as:
1
R( T ) = (1)
G(T )
where G(T) is sheet conductance, and is given by:

G(T ) = ∑ q · µ p (T, Ntoti ) · p(T, Nneti ) · [ Di − Di−1 ] (2)

i

where q is electronic charge, µ p ( T, Ntoti ) is the hole mobility as a function of temperature T and total
active impurity concentration Ntoti at the depth Di , Di − Di–1 , is the thickness of the piezoresistor
layer, and p ( T, Nneti ) represents the hole concentration at temperature T and net active concentration
Nneti at the depth Di . Ntoti and Nneti of shielded and unshielded piezoresistors can be obtained from
Figure 6a,b, respectively. µ p ( T, Ntoti ) and ( T, Nneti ) are given by Equations (3) and (4):
 
−2.23
1.36 · 108 · Tn ( T )
µ p ( T, Ntoti ) = 54.3 · Tn ( T )−0.57 + 
 
   (3)
 Ntoti −0.146

1+ 17 2.4 · 0.88 · Tn ( T )
2.35·10 · Tn ( T )

Ni 2
p( T, Nnet ) = Nnet + (4)
Nnet
where Tn (T) = T/300, Ni is intrinsic carrier concentration, which is defined as:

Eg (0) 4.9 · 10−4 · T

Ni = 3.39 · 1015 · T 3/2 · exp(− ) · exp( ) (5)
2k0 T 2k0 · ( T + 655)

where Eg (0) is the band gap of silicon at T = 0 K, which is 1.169 eV; k0 is Boltzmann’s constant. R(T)
can be fitted to a second order polynomial in temperature T:
h i
R( T ) ≈ R0 · 1 + α · ( T − 273) + β · ( T − 273)2 (6)

where R0 is the sheet resistance at room temperature (273 K), α and β are the first and second order
TCR respectively. R0 , α and β are numerically computed using MATLAB, and the results are shown
in Table 1.

Table 1. TCR computation results by using MATLAB.

Sheet Resistance R0 TCR

Pressure Sensor
(Ω/square) α (ppm/◦ C) β (ppm/◦ C)
With Shield Layer 970 1342 0.15
Without Shield Layer 1057 1612 3.18

As the results in Table 1 illustrate, the first and second order TCRs of the pressure sensor with
the shield layer is smaller than those without the shield layer. This indicates that the shield layer is
effective in enhancing the pressure sensor’s temperature stability.

5. Packaging and Testing

For experimental characterization, the pressure sensors are packaged as shown in Figure 7.
The five pads of each pressure sensor are wire bonded to five legs of the package respectively. After
being coated with soft silicone gel, the pressure sensors are coupled to a fixture as shown in Figure 8a
which can then be placed in a controlled environment. The testing apparatus is shown in Figure 8b.
Sensors 2016, 16, 1286 9 of 13

The pressure is regulated by a pressure controller (GE Druck PACE5000, Burlington, VT, USA) and the
Sensors 2016,
temperature is16, 1286
controlled by a temperature cycling chamber (CEEC-WSJ-60C, CEPREI, Guangzhou, 9 of 13
Sensors 2016, 16, 1286 9 of 13
China). The output of the pressure sensors is measured by an Agilent E34401A multimeter (Santa Clara,
Clara, CA, USA). An Agilent E3631A is used to provide 5 V DC voltage to power the Wheatstone
CA, USA).
Clara, CA,
bridge.
AnUSA).
Agilent E3631AE3631A
An Agilent is usedistoused
provide 5 V DC
to provide 5 Vvoltage to power
DC voltage the Wheatstone
to power bridge.
the Wheatstone
bridge.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 7. (a) Top view and (b) bottom view of a packaged pressure sensor.
Figure 7. (a) Top view and (b) bottom view of a packaged pressure sensor.
Figure 7. (a) Top view and (b) bottom view of a packaged pressure sensor.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 8. (a) A custom-made fixture and (b) testing apparatus for pressure sensor characterization.
Figure 8. (a) A custom-made fixture and (b) testing apparatus for pressure sensor characterization.
Figure 8. (a) A custom-made fixture and (b) testing apparatus for pressure sensor characterization.
The impact of electrical field on the piezoresistor was tested first. The resistance of the
The impact isofmeasured
piezoresistors electrical as field
the ongatethe piezoresistor
voltage increaseswas fromtested
0 V tofirst.
20 V.TheTheresistance of theare
testing results
The impact
piezoresistors is of electrical
measured as field
the gateon the
voltage piezoresistor
increases from was
0 V tested
to 20
summarized in Table 2. It clearly shows that the resistance of the unshielded piezoresistor stronglyV.first.
The The
testing resistance
results are of the
summarized
piezoresistors in
depends onisthe Table
measured2. It clearly
gate voltage. as the shows
Thegate that the
voltage
resistance resistance
increases
increases of
about the
from unshielded
12.4% 0V to 20
when piezoresistor
theV. The
gate strongly
testing
voltage results are
increases
depends
from 0 on
summarized V in
tothe20 gate
Table voltage.
V, slightly
2. It clearlyThe than
larger resistance
shows thethatincreases
simulation about 12.4%
results.
the resistance Itof
may when
the the gate
beunshielded
caused voltage
by the increases
difference
piezoresistor ofstrongly
the
from
depends 0Vontothe
insulation20layer
V, slightly
gate between larger
voltage. theThe than the simulation
simulation
resistance model andresults.
increases It may
the actual
about be The
one.
12.4%caused bythe
the gate
insulation
when difference
between of the
the
voltage metal
increases
insulation layer between is the simulation modelinand thethe actual one. The insulation between the metal
from gate
0 V and
to 20theV,silicon
slightly set as silicon
larger than the oxide simulation simulation.
results.However,
It may be thecaused
real sensors
by theuse silicon of
difference
gate and the
nitride, silicon
whose is set asconstant
dielectric silicon oxide
is larger in the
thansimulation.
that of siliconHowever,
oxide. the real sensors
Therefore, use silicon
the density of the
the insulation layer between the simulation model and the actual one. The insulation between the
nitride,
chargeswhose
on the dielectric
metal gateconstant is larger
is higher than than that of silicon
the simulation one. oxide. Therefore,
The higher densitytheofdensity of thecan
the charges
metal gate on
charges andthe the silicon
metal gate isisset as silicon
higher oxide
than field.
the in the simulation.
simulation one. The However,
higher densitytheofreal
the sensors
charges use silicon
introduce a higher strength electrical The resistance increases more when electricalcan field
nitride, whose
introduce
strengthagets dielectric
higher strength
higher. constant
On the electricalis
contrary,larger
field. than
theThe that
resistance
resistance of silicon
increases
of the oxide.
shieldedmore Therefore, the
when the remains
piezoresistor density
field of the
electricalconstant
charges onthe
strength
when thegate
gets metal
higher. gate is higher
On changes.
voltage the contrary, than the simulation
the resistance of the one.
shieldedThepiezoresistor
higher density of the
remains charges can
constant
introduce
when theagate
higher strength
voltage changes. electrical field. The resistance increases more when the electrical field
strength gets higher. On the Table 2. Resistance
contrary, of the piezoresistors
the resistance vs. gate voltage.
of the shielded piezoresistor remains constant
Table 2. Resistance of the piezoresistors vs. gate voltage.
when the gate voltage changes. Gate Voltage (V)
Resistance (Ω) ◦ ◦
Next, the pressure sensitivity of fabricated
0 pressure sensors
5 Gate is 15 at −40 20C, 55 C, and
10 characterized
Voltage (V)
◦ Resistance (Ω)
125 C. The Unshielded
output data, including the calculated
Piezoresistor 05464 sensitivity
55833 and non-linearity
106015 156081of the pressure
206147 sensors,
Unshielded
ShieldedPiezoresistor
Piezoresistor 5464
5043 5833
5042 60155042 6081
5043
are listed in Tables 3 and 4. Figure 9a,b shows the output curves of the pressure sensors at different 6147
5042
Shielded
temperatures. ThePiezoresistor
testing results show5043 5042 of pressure
that both types 5042 sensor5043 have a high5042
sensitivity and a
low non-linearity. As shown in Tables 3 and 4, the sensitivity of the pressure sensor without a shield
Sensors 2016, 16, 1286 10 of 13

layer is 0.016 mV/V/kPa at 125 ◦ C and increases to 0.025 mV/V/kPa at −40 ◦ C. The sensitivity drift
is 56%. As a comparison, the sensitivities of the pressure sensor with a shield layer are 0.016 mV/V/kPa
Sensors 2016, 16, 1286 10 of 13
at 125 ◦ C and 0.022 mV/V/kPa at −40 ◦ C, respectively. The sensitivity drift is 37%. A lower sensitivity
drift Next,
reveals that
the the shield
pressure layer plays
sensitivity an important
of fabricated rolesensors
pressure in the temperature stability.
is characterized at −40 C, 55 C, and
125 C. The output data, including the calculated sensitivity and non-linearity of the pressure sensors,
2. Resistance of the piezoresistors vs. gate voltage.
are listed in Tables 3 andTable
4. Figure 9a,b shows the output curves of the pressure sensors at different
temperatures. The testing results show that both types of pressure sensor have a high sensitivity and
Gate Voltage (V)
a low non-linearity. As shown
Resistance in Tables 3 and 4, the sensitivity of the pressure sensor without a shield
(Ω)
0 5
layer is 0.016 mV/V/kPa at 125 °C and increases to 0.025 mV/V/kPa 10 at −4015°C. The sensitivity
20 drift is
Unshieldedthe
56%. As a comparison, Piezoresistor
sensitivities of5464 5833sensor 6015
the pressure with a shield6081layer are
61470.016 mV/V/kPa
Shielded
at 125 °C and 0.022 Piezoresistor
mV/V/kPa 5043
at −40 °C, respectively.5042 5042
The sensitivity 5043
drift is 37%. A5042
lower sensitivity
drift reveals that the shield layer plays an important role in the temperature stability.

(a)

(b)

Figure
Figure 9.
9. Characteristics of the
Characteristics pressure
of the sensor
pressure with with
sensor (a) and
(a)without (b) a shield
and without (b) alayer at different
shield layer at
temperatures.
different temperatures.

Table 3. Outputs of pressure sensor with a shield layer versus temperature (T) and pressure (P).

P Sensitivity Non-Linearity
0.11 MPa 0.2 MPa 0.6 MPa 1 MPa
T (mV/V/kPa) (%FS)
−40 °C 14.20 24.23 68.71 112.98 0.022 0.085%
55 °C 8.68 16.80 52.81 88.70 0.018 0.023%
125 °C 6.00 13.12 44.67 76.14 0.016 0.013%
Sensors 2016, 16, 1286 11 of 13

Table 3. Outputs of pressure sensor with a shield layer versus temperature (T) and pressure (P).

P
Sensitivity Non-Linearity
T 0.11 MPa 0.2 MPa 0.6 MPa 1 MPa
(mV/V/kPa) (%FS)

−40 ◦ C 14.20 24.23 68.71 112.98 0.022 0.085%

55 ◦ C 8.68 16.80 52.81 88.70 0.018 0.023%
125 ◦ C 6.00 13.12 44.67 76.14 0.016 0.013%

Table 4. Outputs of pressure sensor without a shield layer versus temperature (T) and pressure (P).
Sensors 2016, 16, 1286 11 of 13

P
Table 4. Outputs of0.11
pressure Sensitivity Non-Linearity
T MPa sensor0.2 without
MPa a shield layer versus
0.6 MPa temperature
1 MPa (T) and pressure (P).
(mV/V/kPa) (%FS)
P Sensitivity Non-Linearity
◦ 0.11 MPa 15.81 0.2 MPa27.04 0.6 MPa76.92 1 MPa 126.80(mV/V/kPa)
T −40◦ C 0.025 0.043%
(%FS)
55 C 13.59 22.35 61.28 100.22 0.019 0.054%
−40 125
°C ◦ C 15.81 11.61 27.04 18.93 76.92 51.47 126.80 84.01 0.025 0.016 0.043%
0.005%
55 °C 13.59 22.35 61.28 100.22 0.019 0.054%
125 °C 11.61 18.93 51.47 84.01 0.016 0.005%
The TCRs of pressure sensors with and without a shield layer are investigated at the same time.
TableThe TCRs of
5 shows thepressure
measured sensors with and
resistance andwithout a shield
extracted TCRslayerof twoaretypes
investigated at the sameIttime.
of piezoresistors. can
Table 5 shows
be observed thethe
that measured resistance
shield layer and extracted
effectively TCRs
reduces the of order
first two types
and of piezoresistors.
second order TCRs It can be
of the
observed thatFigure
piezoresistor. the shield layerthe
10 shows effectively
measuredreduces the form
data in the first of
order
a lineand second order TCRs of the
graph.
piezoresistor. Figure 10 shows the measured data in the form of a line graph.
Table 5. Test data and calculated TCRs.
Table 5. Test data and calculated TCRs.
Measured Resistance (Ω) Measured TCRs
Pressure Sensor
Measured Resistance (Ω) ◦ Measured TCRs
Pressure Sensor −40 ◦ C 25 ◦ C 85 ◦ C 125 C α (ppm/◦ C) β (ppm/◦ C)
−40 °C 25 °C 85 °C 125 °C α (ppm/°C) β (ppm/°C)
Shielded Piezoresistor 4542 4980 5655 6135 1576 5.4
Shielded Piezoresistor
Unshielded Piezoresistor 4542
4109 4980
5124 5655
6572 6135
7572 1576
3656 5.4
10.0
Unshielded Piezoresistor 4109 5124 6572 7572 3656 10.0

Figure 10.
Figure 10. Temperature
Temperature sensitivity of shielded
sensitivity of shielded and
and un-shielded
un-shielded piezoresistors.
piezoresistors.

The resistance of the shielded piezoresistor increases more slowly than the un-shielded one as
The resistance of the shielded piezoresistor increases more slowly than the un-shielded one as the
the temperature increases, indicating a smaller temperature sensitivity. The temperature stability
temperature increases, indicating a smaller temperature sensitivity. The temperature stability difference
difference between experiment and simulation can be caused by a number of factors. First, the actual
doping profiles cannot precisely match the simulation ones shown in Figure 6. The actual doping
profile is not only affected by the implant energy and dose, but also depends heavily on the thickness
of the implantation screen oxide and the annealing process. Second, the leakage of the p-n junctions
between the piezoresistors and the substrate may affect the temperature characteristics of the
Sensors 2016, 16, 1286 12 of 13

between experiment and simulation can be caused by a number of factors. First, the actual doping
profiles cannot precisely match the simulation ones shown in Figure 6. The actual doping profile is
not only affected by the implant energy and dose, but also depends heavily on the thickness of the
implantation screen oxide and the annealing process. Second, the leakage of the p-n junctions between
the piezoresistors and the substrate may affect the temperature characteristics of the piezoresistor.

6. Conclusions
A bulk-micromachined pressure sensor with improved stability has been successfully developed.
The improvement is achieved by an n-type shield layer fabricated above p-type piezoresistors.
The n-type layer can shield the electrical field and change the dopant distribution of the pressure
sensor. Therefore, piezoresistors covered by the shield layer are less sensitive to the electrical field and
temperature than uncovered ones. Both simulation and experimental results show that the resistance
of piezoresistors not covered by the shield layer is a function of the metal gate voltage, however,
the shield layer can make the piezoresistor insensitive to the metal gate voltage. Furthermore, both
simulation and experimental results reveal that the first order and second order TCRs of shielded
piezoresistors are smaller than the ones of un-shielded piezoresistors. The pressure sensor with a
shield layer exhibits a sensitivity of 0.022 mV/V/kPa and a maximum non-linearity of 0.085%FS. The
sensitivity drift of the pressure sensor with a shield layer is 37% in a temperature range from −40 ◦ C
to 125 ◦ C, which is lower than the one without a shield layer.

Acknowledgments: The supports of the National High Technology Research and Development Program
(863 Program) under Grant 2013AA041105 of Ministry of Science and Technology of PR China are
highly appreciated.
Author Contributions: All authors contributed extensively to the study presented in this manuscript.
Gang Cao designed the pressure sensors and carried out the simulations. Xiaoping Wang performed the
experiment and analyzed the measurements. Sheng Liu and Yong Xu supervised the work and contributed with
valuable discussions and scientific advice. All authors contributed in writing this manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Eaton, W.P.; Smith, J.H. Micromachined pressure sensor: Review and recent developments.
Smart Mater. Struct. 1997, 6, 530–539. [CrossRef]
2. Parmanik, C.; Saha, H.; Gangopadhyay, U. Design optimization of a high performance silicon MEMS
piezoresistive pressure sensor for biomedical applications. J. Micromech. Microeng. 2006, 16, 2060–2066.
[CrossRef]
3. Bistué, G.; Elizalde, J.G.; Garca-Alonso, I.; Olaizola, S.; Castao, E.; Gracia, F.J.; Garca-Alonso, A. A
micromachined pressure sensor for biomedical applications. J. Micromech. Microeng. 1997, 7, 244–246.
[CrossRef]
4. French, P.J.; Muro, H.; Shinohara, T.; Nojiri, H.; Kaneko, H. SOI pressure sensor. Sens. Actuators A Phys. 1992,
35, 17–22. [CrossRef]
5. Guo, S.; Eriksen, H.; Childress, K.; Fink, A.; Hoffman, M. High temperature smart-cut SOI pressure sensor.
Sens. Actuators A Phys. 2009, 154, 255–260. [CrossRef]
6. Li, X.; Liu, Q.; Pang, S.; Xu, K.; Tang, H.; Sun, C. High-temperature piezoresistive pressure sensor based on
implantation of oxygen into silicon wafer. Sens. Actuators A Phys. 2012, 179, 277–282. [CrossRef]
7. Niu, Z.; Zhao, Y.; Tian, B. Design optimization of high pressure and high temperature piezoresistive pressure
sensor for high sensitivity. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 2014, 85, 015001. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
8. Du, L.; Zhang, M.; Zhao, Z.; Li, L.; Liu, C.; Fang, Z.; Wu, S.; Sun, X.; Wang, X. A SOI-MEMS atmosphere
pressure sensor and its low stress packaging. In Proceedings of the 9th IEEE International Conference
on Nano/Micro Engineered and Molecular Systems (NEMS), Waikiki Beach, HI, USA, 13–16 April 2014;
pp. 454–457.
9. Mehregany, M.; Zorman, C.A.; Rajan, N.; Wu, C.H. Silicon carbide MEMS for harsh environments.
Proc. IEEE 1998, 86, 1594–1609. [CrossRef]
Sensors 2016, 16, 1286 13 of 13

10. Wu, C.; Mehregany, M.; Zorman, C.A. Fabrication and testing of bulk micromachined silicon carbide
piezoresistive pressure sensors for high temperature applications. IEEE Sens. J. 2006, 6, 316–324.
11. Aryafar, M.; Hamedi, M.; Ganjeh, M.M. A novel temperature compensated piezoresistive pressure sensor.
Measurement 2015, 63, 25–29. [CrossRef]
12. Peng, C.-T.; Lin, J.-C.; Lin, C.-T.; Chiang, K.-N. Performance and package effect of a novel piezoresistive
pressure sensor fabricated by front-side etching technology. Sens. Actuators A Phys. 2005, 119, 28–37.
[CrossRef]
13. Lin, L.; Yun, W. Design, optimization and fabrication of surface micromachined pressure sensors.
Mechatronics 1998, 8, 505–519. [CrossRef]
14. Godovitsyn, I.V.; Amelichev, V.V.; Pankov, V.V. A high sensitivity surface-micromachined pressure sensor.
Sens. Actuators A Phys. 2013, 201, 274–280. [CrossRef]
15. Waber, T.; Pahl, W.; Schmit, M.; Feiertag, G.; Stufler, S.; Dudek, R.; Leidl, A. Temperature characterization
of flip-chip packaged piezoresistive barometric pressure sensors. Microsyst Technol. 2014, 20, 861–867.
[CrossRef]
16. Hoa, P.; Suchaneck, G.; Gerlach, G. Influence of polycrystalline silicon as electrical shield on reliability and
stability of piezoresistive sensors. Sens. Actuators A Phys. 2005, 120, 567–572. [CrossRef]
17. Takahata, K.; Gianchandani, Y.B. A micromachined capacitive pressure sensor using a cavity-less structure
with bulk-metal/elastomer layers and its wireless telemetry application. Sensors 2008, 8, 2317–2330.
[CrossRef]
18. Schroder, D.K. Semiconductor Material and Device Characterization, 3rd ed.; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2006;
pp. 319–321.
19. Anderås, E.; Vestling, L.; Olsson, J.; Katardjiev, I. Resistance electric field dependence and time drift of
piezoresistive single crystalline silicon nanofilms. Proc. Chem. 2009, 1, 80–83. [CrossRef]
20. Tufte, O.N.; Stelzer, E.L. Piezoresistive properties of silicon diffused layers. J. Appl. Phys. 1963, 34, 313–318.
[CrossRef]
21. Boukabache, A.; Pons, P. Doping effects on thermal behaviour of silicon resistor. Electron. Lett. 2002, 38,
342–343. [CrossRef]
22. Sridhar, U.; Foster, R. Temperature coefficient of resistance of piezoresistors. In Proceedings of the 5th
Technical Digest, Solid-State Sensor and Actuator Workshop, Hilton Head Island, SC, USA, 22–25 June 1992;
pp. 54–57.

© 2016 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).