Bulk Deformation Processes in

Metalworking
BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES IN METALWORKING
1. Rolling
2. Other Deformation Processes Related to Rolling
3. Forging
4. Other Deformation Processes Related to Forging
5. Extrusion
6. Wire and Bar Drawing

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Four Basic Bulk Deformation Processes
1. Rolling – slab or plate is squeezed between opposing rolls
2. Forging – work is squeezed and shaped between opposing dies
3. Extrusion – work is squeezed through a die opening, thereby
taking the shape of the opening
4. Wire and bar drawing – diameter of wire or bar is reduced by
pulling it through a die opening

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Rolling

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Rolling
Rolling
• Deformation process in which work thickness is reduced by
compressive forces exerted by two opposing rolls

The Rolls
Rotating rolls perform two main
functions:
• Pull the work into the gap
between them by friction
between workpiece and rolls
• Simultaneously squeeze the
work to reduce its cross section

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Rolled products and their origin

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Rolling Operations

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Types of Rolling
• Based on workpiece geometry:
– Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a rectangular cross section

– Shape rolling - square cross section is formed into a shape such as an I-beam
• Based on work temperature:
Hot Rolling :
Generally an ingot or continuous cast metal is "hot" rolled at elevated
temperatures
• large amount of deformation required
Cold rolling:
produces finished sheet and plate stock
Enhances strength, hardness, and surface finish

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Shape and flat rolling
Initial Hot Rolling

– Cast structure includes coarse and non-uniform grains

– Hot rolling converts this to a wrought structure with finer
grains and enhanced ductility

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• Draft = amount of thickness
reduction
d =to−tf
where d = draft; to = starting thickness;
and tf = final thickness
• Reduction = draft expressed as a
fraction of starting stock thickness:
d
r =
to
Side view of flat rolling, indicating
• before and after thicknesses, work
velocities, angle of contact with rolls,
and other features

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Spreading
• Strips with a more square cross-section will cause its width to
increase significantly during rolling
• Spreading is more pronounced with:
– A low width-to-thickness ratio
– Low coefficient of friction
– Low ratio of the roll radius to the strip thickness

t o wo L o =t f w f L f

• .
Velocity
t o wo vo =t f w f v f

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Neutral Point:

The location where Vroll =Vworkpiece

To the left, Vroll Vworkpiece
To the right, Vroll  Vworkpiece

Forward slips
V0
v f − vr Workpiece
s=
vr

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Neutral Point:
• At one point along the arc of contact the two velocities are the
same. It is known as the neutral point or no-slip point. To the left of
this point, the roll moves faster than the workpiece, and to the right
the workpiece moves faster than the roll.

• Because of friction at the interfaces, the frictional forces-which

oppose motion act on the strip surfaces. The friction forces oppose
each other at the neutral point.

• The frictional force on the left of the neutral point must be greater
than the force on the right.

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Flat-Rolling Process

Schematic illustration of the Friction forces acting on strip Roll force, F, and the
flat-rolling process. surfaces. torque, T, acting on the
rolls.

Relative sliding Frictional Forces

To the right of the no-slip point, Required to move workpiece
material moves faster than the roll
Must be overcome, increasing
To the left of the no-slip point, material rolling forces and power
moves slower than the roll requirements

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Mechanics of flat rolling
Calculating roll forces
• Approximation and for low frictional conditions is

F = LwY f L = length of contact

Yf = average flow stress in plane strain

L = Rh
W=strip width
K n
Yf =
n +1

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Roll Force
Lateral force required to compress the workpiece
Perpendicular to the plane of the strip

• Reducing roll force

– Reducing friction
– Using smaller-diameter rolls
– Taking smaller reductions-per-pass
– Rolling at elevated temperatures
– Applying tensions to the strip

• Why rolling forces are undesirable?

– Can cause deflection and flattening of the rolls
– The roll stand (housing, bearings etc.) may stretch

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Front and back tension
Tension (Longitudinal Force) Front tension
Back tension Force applied to the strip at the exit
Force applied to the strip at the entry zone
zone Applied by increasing the rotational
Apply a braking action to the reel speed of the reel receiving the sheet
supplying the sheet into the roll gap from the roll gap (take-up reel)
(pay-off reel)
Vr

V0
h0 hf Vf
b f

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Friction in rolling
•  in Cold Rolling Ranges from 0.02 to 0.3
•  in Hot Rolling Ranges from 0.3 to 0.7
• Maximum Draft = h0 - hf is function of Friction

hmax = 2 R

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 Power and Torque in rolling
5. Roll torque and power

FL
The torque per roll T=
2

The power required per roll Power = Tw

• F = roll force in newtons
Power = 2FLN
• L in meters
• N = revolutions per minute of the roll rpm
Where w=2N and N is the revolutions per minute of the roll
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Example 1
A 300-mm-wide strip 25-mm thick is fed through a rolling mill with two
powered rolls each of radius = 250 mm. The work thickness is to be
reduced to 22 mm in one pass at a roll speed of 50 rev/min. The work
material has a flow curve defined by K =275 MPa and n =0.15, and
the coefficient of friction between the rolls and the work is assumed to
be 0.12. Determine if the friction is sufficient to permit the rolling
operation to be accomplished. If so, calculate the roll force, torque,
and power.
Pressure Distribution in Rolling
• Pressure distribution in the roll
gap as a function of the
coefficient of friction. Note that
as friction increases, the
neutral point shifts toward the
entry. Without friction, the rolls
will slip, and the neutral point
shifts completely to the exit
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Pressure distribution in the
roll gap as a function of
reduction in thickness.
Note the increase in the
area under the curves with
increasing reduction, thus
increasing the roll force
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Pressure distribution as a
function of front and back
tension in rolling. Note the
shifting of the neutral point and
the reduction in the area under
the curves (hence reduction in
the roll force) as tensions
increase.
Roll force in hot rolling
2 difficulties in calculation of forces and torque:
1. Proper estimation of the coefficient of friction
2. Strain-rate sensitivity of materials

V  h0 
• Average strain rate is  = ln  
r
L  h f 

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Roll deflections

• Geometric considerations
– Due to roll forces, rolls may bend (deflection)

• Causes the rolled strip to be thicker at its center than at its edges (crown)
• Corrected for by making the rolls larger diameter at their center(camber)
• To counteract deflection, the rolls can also be externally bent at their
bearings
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Rolling
Roll flattening
centre of
• Forces also tend to flatten the rolls
curvature
elastically, much like the flattening of tires
on automobiles. Flattening of the rolls
increases roll radius and hence yields a
larger contact area for the same
reduction in thickness. Thus the roll force roll centre of
F increases rotation
assumed
flattened rigid roll
roll

 E 12
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Defects in rolled products
• (a) Wavy edges are caused by
bending of the rolls; the edges of the
strip are thinner than the center.
• (b) Zipper cracks in the center
• (c) Edge cracks
(b) and (c) Usually result from poor
material ductility.
• (d) Alligatoring is a complex
phenomenon resulting from
inhomogeneous deformation of the
material during rolling or defects in th e
original cast
material

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1

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Residual stresses
•Small-diameter rolls
tend to deform the
metal more at its
surface than in its bulk
•Large-diameter rolls
tend to deform the
metal more in its bulk
than at its surface

(a) Residual stresses developed in rolling with small-diameter rolls or at small

reductions in thickness per pass.
(b) Residual stresses developed in rolling with large-diameter rolls or at high
reductions per pass.
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Vibration and chatter in rolling
Have significant effects on product quality and productivity of metalworking
operations
– Chatter
• Self-excited vibration
• Can occur in rolling, extrusion, drawing, machining and grinding
• Leads to periodic variations in the thickness of the sheet and its surface finish
• Rolling speed and lubrication are the two most important parameters

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Flat rolling practice
• Cold rolling
– Carried out at room temperature
– Produces sheets and strips with:
• Better surface finishes (lack of scale)
• Better dimensional tolerances
• Better mechanical properties
• Pack rolling
– Two or more layers of metal are rolled together to improve productivity
– Aluminum Foil

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Lubricant
• Hot Rolling Ferrous alloys-
None or Graphite
• Hot Rolling Non-Ferrous Alloys-
Oils, emulsions and fatty acids
• Cold Rolling-Oils, emulsions,
paraffin and fatty oils

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equipment
Schematic illustration of various roll
arrangements:
(a)four-high rolling mill showing
various features. The stiffness of
the housing, the rolls, and the roll
bearings are all important in
controlling and maintaining the
thickness of the rolled strip
(b) two-high mill;
(c) three-high mill; and
(d) cluster (or Sendzimir) mill

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Rolls
• Rolls must be made of materials with high strength and resistance
to wear
• Common materials include cast iron, cast steel and forged steel
• Forged steel has higher strength, stiffness and toughness but costs
more
• Tungsten carbides can be used for smaller diameter rolls
• Rolls are polished for cold-working and special applications
• Rolls are heat specific-misuse results in heat checking and spalling

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Ring Rolling
Deformation process in which a thick-walled ring of smaller diameter is rolled into a
thin-walled ring of larger diameter
• As thick-walled ring is compressed, deformed metal elongates, causing diameter
of ring to be enlarged
• Hot working process for large rings and cold working process for smallerrings
• Applications: ball and roller bearing races, steel tires for railroad wheels, and
rings for pipes, pressure vessels, and rotatingmachinery
• Advantages: material savings, ideal grain orientation, strengthening through cold
working

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Thread Rolling
Bulk deformation process used to form threads
on cylindrical parts by rolling them between
two dies
• Important commercial process for mass
producing bolts and screws
• Performed by cold working in thread rolling
machines
Advantages over thread cutting (machining):
• Higher production rates
• Better material utilization

• Stronger threads and

better fatigue resistance
due to work hardening

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Seamless ring rolling
Example 2
The starting workpiece in steel hot rolling of plate and sheet stock is
which of the following (one best answer): (a) bar stock, (b) billet, (c)
bloom, (d) slab, or (e) wire stock?
Example 3
The maximum possible draft in a rolling operation depends on which
of the following parameters (two correct answers): (a) coefficient of
friction between roll and work, (b) roll diameter, (c) roll velocity, (d)
stock thickness, (e) strain, and (f) strength coefficient
of the work metal?
Example 4
A 42.0-mm-thick plate made of low carbon steel is to be reduced to
34.0 mm in one pass in a rolling operation. As the thickness is
reduced, the plate widens by 4%. The yield strength of the steel plate
is 174 MPa and the tensile strength is 290 MPa. The entrance speed
of the plate is 15.0 m/min. The roll radius is 325 mm and the rotational
speed is 49.0 rev/min. Determine (a) the minimum required coefficient
of friction that would make this rolling operation possible, (b) exit
velocity of the plate, and (c) forward slip.
Example 5
Name the four basic bulk deformation processes.
Example 6
Which of the following stress or strength parameters is used in the
computation of rolling force (one best answer): (a) average flow
stress, (b) compression strength, (c) final flow stress, (d) tensile
strength, or (e) yield strength?
Example 7
A plate that is 250 mm wide and 25 mm thick is to be reduced in a
single pass in a two-high rolling mill to a thickness of 20 mm. The roll
has a radius = 500 mm, and its speed = 30 m/min. The work
material has a strength coefficient = 240 MPa and a strain hardening
exponent = 0.2 and a rotational speed of 9.55 rev/min. Determine (a)
roll force, (b) roll torque, and (c) power required to accomplish this
operation d) Knowing that reducing the roll’s radius to 250 mm will
increase rotational speed to 19.1 rev/min, what effect will it have on
the values of roll force, torque and power? Prove it. What other
parameters affect rolling force and torque?
Example 8
What is rolling in the context of the bulk deformation processes?
Example 9
List some of the products produced on a rolling mill.