ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY

ASSIGNMENT 1
Adolescent Psychology

Name: Samina Manzoor

Reg no: 18PLE10358
1. Discuss the importance of adolescence. Also highlight the problems of
early childhood.

Answer:

Adolescents (children aged 10–19) are growing up in a transforming world.

Technology, migration, climate change and conflict are reshaping society, forcing
people across the globe to adapt to unexpected changes in their lives and work.

Adolescence is also an important time in which young people begin to understand

how they fit into the larger society and develop the interpersonal skills that undergird
their emerging sense of civic life and community. Adolescents ascertain which
groups they belong to, what those groups mean to them, and how others in society
perceive their group membership. They use this knowledge to help guide their
behavior as they engage with the wider world and cultivate a sense of belonging
and security. These social identities include interpersonal relationships,
connections to clubs and organizations, categorization within demographic groups,
and even a sense of local, national, and global citizenship.

To keep up, adolescents must be able to seize opportunities and confront

challenges. They need education and skills to become lifelong learners, to secure
productive work, to make informed decisions and to positively engage in their
communities.

1. Scarcity of Resources
There is a scarcity of resources in our early childhood education system. This is a
big problem, as it affects the quality of education children receive and the ability to
provide them with safe, healthy environments that help them learn.

Teachers are underpaid and overworked because they don’t have enough support
staff to help them with things like discipline issues or behavior management
techniques (which are important). These challenges make it difficult for teachers to
focus on teaching their students, which can result in lower student test scores and
fewer opportunities for advancement later in life.

2. Lack of the Training

Early childhood teachers are often not trained in the specific needs of young
children. For example, many teachers lack training in how to read nonverbal cues
or respond appropriately when a child is upset. Teachers also need to be trained in
how to interact with young children. A skill that can’t be learned from books alone.
A teacher who is friendly and warm will help the child feel comfortable during these
critical years of development.

Additionally, early childhood education teachers must understand discipline

methods and how they should apply them at different ages (e.g., for toddlers versus
preschoolers).

3. Low Parental Engagement

Parents are a child’s first teachers, and they can help their child learn in many ways.
For example, parents can teach their children to read, write and count. They can
also help them develop social skills by spending time together at home or out in the
community.

Parents often want to be involved with their children’s education but face challenges
that prevent them from doing so, like work schedules that don’t allow for much time
away from work; lack of transportation; low literacy skills; not knowing where or how
to get information about early childhood education programs like Head Start
available in their area.

These Challenges Don’t Have to Sink Early Childhood Education

While these three challenges are certainly daunting, they don’t have to sink early
childhood education. If we work together as a community, we can be more effective
at overcoming these obstacles and continue to provide high-quality programming
for children across the country.
Conclusion
As we mentioned earlier, early childhood education is a growing field that offers
many opportunities for growth and development. However, it also faces challenges
that must be overcome in order for our children to receive the best possible
education. By understanding these challenges and how they can be addressed
through technology, we can help ensure that all children have access to quality
caregiving when they need it most.
2. Explain the individual differences in detail. Also highlight the factors which
affect the individual differences.

Answer:
Dissimilarity is principle of nature. No two persons are alike. All the individuals differ
from each other in many a respect. Children born of the same parents and even
the-twins are not alike. This differential psychology is linked with the study of
individual differences. Wundt, Cattel, Kraepelin, Jastrow and Ebbing Haus are the
exponents of differential psychology.
This change is seen in physical forms like in height, weight, colour,
complexion strength etc., difference in intelligence, achievement, interest,
attitude, aptitude, learning habits, motor abilities, skill. Each man has an
intellectual capacity through which he gains experience and learning.
Every person has the emotions of love, anger, fear and feelings of pleasure
and pain. Every man has the need of independence, success and need for
acceptance.
Broadly individual difference may be classified into two categories such as
inherited traits and acquired traits:

Causes of Individual Differences:

There are various causes which are responsible in bringing individual
differences.

They are narrated below:

i. Heredity:

Some heretical traits bring a change from one individual to other. An

individual’s height, size, shape and color of hair, shape of face, nose, hands
and legs so to say the entire structure of the body is determined by his
heretical qualities. Intellectual differences are also to a great extent
influenced by hereditary factor.

ii. Environment:

Environment brings individual differences in behaviour, activities, attitude,

and style of life characteristics. Personality etc. Environment does not refer
only physical surroundings but also it refers the different types of people,
society, their culture, customs, traditions, social heritage, ideas and ideals.
iii. Race and Nationality:

Race and Nationality is one cause of individual difference. Indians are very
peace loving, Chinese are cruel; Americans are very frank due to race and
nationality.

iv. Sex:

Due to sex variation one individual differs from other. Men are strong in
mental power. On the other hand women on the average show small
superiority over men in memory, language and aesthetic sense. Women
excel the men in shouldering social responsibilities and have a better control
over their emotions.

v. Age:

Age is another factor which is responsible in bringing individual differences.

Learning ability and adjustment capacity naturally grow with age. When one
grows in age can acquire better control over our emotions and better social
responsibilities. When a child grows then this maturity and development
goes side by side.

vi. Education:

Education is one major factor which brings individual differences. There is

a wide gap in the behaviors of educated and uneducated persons. All traits
of human beings like social, emotional and intellectual are controlled and
modifies through proper education.

This education brings a change in our attitude, behaviour, appreciations,

Personality. It is seen that uneducated persons are guided by their instinct
and emotions where as the educated persons are guided by their reasoning
power.

Educational implications of Individual differences are listed below:

i. Aims of education, curriculum, method of teaching should be linked with

individual differences considering the different abilities and traits individual.

ii. Curriculum should be designed as per the interest, abilities and needs of
different students.

iii. The teacher has to adopt different types of methods of teaching

considering individual difference related to interest, need, etc.
iv. Some co-curricular activities such as Drama, music, literary activities
(Essay & Debate Competition) should be assigned to children according to
their interest.

v. Teacher uses certain specific teaching aids which will attract the children
towards teaching considering their interest and need.

vi. Various methods such as playing method, project method, Montessori

method, story telling methods are to be used considering/discovering how
different children respond to a task or a problem.

vii. The division of pupils into classes should not be based only on the
mental age or chronological age of children but the physical, social and
emotional maturity should be given due consideration.

viii. In case of vocational guidance the counselor is to plan the guidance

technique keeping in view the needs and requirements of the students.
 3. Highlight the importance of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development in
child's developmental stages.
Answer:
Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and
accommodation using a mechanism he called equilibration. Equilibration helps explain how
children can move from one stage of thought to the next.
One of the main points of Piaget's theory is that creating knowledge and intelligence is an
inherently active process.
"I find myself opposed to the view of knowledge as a passive copy of reality," Piaget wrote.
"I believe that knowing an object means acting upon it, constructing systems of
transformations that can be carried out on or with this object. Knowing reality means
constructing systems of transformations that correspond, more or less adequately, to
reality."6
Piaget's theory of cognitive development helped add to our understanding of children's
intellectual growth. It also stressed that children were not merely passive recipients of
knowledge. Instead, kids are constantly investigating and experimenting as they build their
understanding of how the world works.
Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development suggests that intelligence changes as
children grow. A child’s cognitive development is not just about acquiring knowledge, the
child has to develop or construct a mental model of the world.
Cognitive development occurs through the interaction of innate capacities (nature) and
environmental events (nurture), and children pass through a series of stages.
Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years

• Preoperational stage: 2 to 7 years

• Concrete operational stage: 7 to 11 years
• Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up
The sequence of the stages is universal across cultures and follows the same invariant
(unchanging) order. All children go through the same stages in the same order (but not all
at the same rate).
4. What is the difference between aggression and depression? Also give
strategies for addressing the issues of both.

Answer:

The role of anger. When we focus on the depressed mood, we may be ignoring
other negative emotions that are closely linked to depression. There is not always
a clear demarcation between various emotions. Besides being sad, depressed
people often feel disgruntled, resentful, or irritable. Such emotions can lead to
violence in people who are predisposed to such behavior, especially when
confronted with severe frustration. Various studies indicate that mood states other
than sadness, such as irritability and anger, exist in subjects with depressive
symptoms. When irritability and anger are present during an episode of major
depression, these symptoms appear to be clinical markers for a significantly more
complex, chronic, and severe form of MDD.Patients are more likely to have
increased depressive severity, poorer impulse control, and a history of substance
abuse. The presence of a substance abuse disorder and poor impulse control
renders violence more likely.
Anger has been associated with both depression and violence. This association is
more often present in males and in children or adolescents. Depressed males are
less likely to experience clear depressive feelings or to be aware of these feelings;
instead, they present with increased irritability and anger, which can result in
violence.
When we assess the risk of violence in people with depressive symptoms, we must
consider the specific disorder in which these symptoms exist.
Irritability and anger figure prominently in mood disorders of children and
adolescents, especially males; particularly in the mood dysregulation disorder in
which episodes of extreme behavioral dyscontrol, including violence, are frequent.
Moreover, children and adolescents with depression are less able to control their
expression of anger, which can then lead to violence. For example, data show that
depressed children had more difficulties keeping cognitive control over their anger
than non-depressed children.Thus, the association between depression and
violence could be mediated, or partially mediated, by anger.

The role of emotional dysregulation. While the relationship between anger and
violence has greater intuitive appeal than that between depression and violence,
there may be a more general relationship between strong emotional states or faulty
emotional regulation, which include depression, and violence -more particularly,
impulsive violence. Aggressive impulses are more likely to result in aggression
when they are emotionally triggered, whether by anger or depression. (For more on
the importance of emotional dysregulation in conjunction with impulsivity or poor
impulse control in bringing about violence, see Krakowski.)

Affective states, including anger and depression, can magnify the intensity of the
underlying impulse that moves a person to action. Such states may also diminish
reflection in the decision-making process that would inhibit action. In one study,
impulsive subjects with depression were more likely to be aggressive, while
impulsive subjects who were not depressed did not differ from non-impulsive
subjects.
In another study, violent patients with schizophrenia were randomized to clozapine,
olanzapine, or haloperidol and followed for 12 weeks. When severe depression was
present at baseline, and especially if it was accompanied by high impulsivity, there
was more physical aggression over the subsequent 12 weeks in all 3 groups. When
there was low baseline depression, there was less physical aggression even in
patients with high impulsivity.

Impulsivity is frequently found in depressed individuals and correlates positively

with aggressive behavior. Patients with MDD show higher impulsivity scores and
more severe aggression than controls. Depressed mood appears to precede the
impulsivity -in patients with bipolar disorder, time-lagged models indicate that
greater negative affect, including anxiety and depression, predict subsequent
increases in impulsivity. Impulsivity may be a strategy to regulate negative affect,
even though it is maladaptive.
Depression in children and adolescents
Depression can show up in children and adolescents as prolonged periods of
unhappiness or irritability. It is quite common among older children and teenagers,
but often goes unrecognized.
Some children might say they feel “unhappy” or “sad”. Others might say they want
to hurt or even kill themselves. Children and adolescents who experience
depression are at greater risk of self-harm, so such responses should always be
taken seriously.
Just because a child seems sad, it doesn't necessarily mean they have
depression. But if the sadness becomes persistent or interferes with normal social
activities, interests, schoolwork or family life, it may mean they need support from
a mental health professional.
Remember, only a doctor or a mental health professional can diagnose depression,
so don’t hesitate to ask your health-care provider for advice if you are worried about
your child.
When to seek professional help
As Aggression and depression can only be diagnosed by a qualified expert,
it's important to seek help from your health care provider who may refer your
child to a mental health expert or psychiatrist. If the mental health expert
thinks your child would benefit from treatment, the options might include
some form of talk therapy – where they learn how to manage their thoughts
and feelings, or a combination of therapy and medication.
If your child has thoughts of self-harm, or has already self-harmed, seek help
from emergency services or a health-care professional. Don’t delay getting
in touch if you’re worried.
Depression can be treated and the sooner you speak to an expert, the
sooner your child can feel better.
 5. Discuss the role of peers and family. Also highlight their influence on a
child's development.
Answer:
Peers, or a group of people who have similar interests, age, background, or social status,
serve as an important source of information, feedback, and support to individuals as they
develop a sense of self. Peers help socialize an individual by reinforcing or punishing
behavior or interpersonal interactions. Peers are essential throughout one’s social
development, but research suggests this is particularly true during adolescence.
Parents and friends generally play a role in shaping the behavior and beliefs of an
individual—through parent expectations or peer pressure. Statesman investigates the
negative and positive impact of adolescents who might develop a view independent of their
parents.
Discussing your day at the dinner table, phoning Grandma or Facebook messaging a friend
for homework help are all considered typical ways of human interaction and socialization
through which one person can, to some extent, influence another person.
The more we interact with someone, the greater chance we have to shape his or her life in
a positive or negative way and vice versa. Therefore, the people who tend to become the
greatest influencers in our lives tend to be those closest to us—our friends and family.
Influencing factors can ultimately be categorized under nature or nurture. Nature is the
predisposition one is born with while nurture includes how one is shaped by his or her
family, friends and environment.
“You can be born into a family where everyone’s naturally extroverted, and you’re
introverted,” psychologist Stacey Max said. “You are born with a certain temperament.
Then, certain experiences and certain people around you shape you, and that’s the nurture
part.”
Nature gives way to nurture as children begin to mature and interact with others. According
to psychology teacher Jenna Breuer, family members tend to have a strong, nurturing
influence because they are the first socializing agents that children are exposed to.
Likewise, because people tend gravitate towards others that share commonalities with
them—whether that be interests, cultural identity or social groups—they are more open to
the influence of their peers, Breuer explained.
“When one’s personality syncs up with the people around them, they can be more
influential,” Max said. “When their personalities are very different, their natural inclination
is to put up walls and boundaries, and they’re less influenced.”
Although people tend to befriend those with common interests, friends can still influence
each other. For example, a kid who has grown up playing soccer might consider his soccer
team his peer group. Though his peers share his interests in soccer, it doesn’t necessarily
mean they have the same exact interests in other areas as well. We begin to start creating
our own sense of self by being exposed to new people and new things, according to Breuer.
“It’s difficult to look at [family and peer influences] independently of one another because
they’re constantly working in conjunction,” Breuer said. “Often times, with the values that
have been instilled through the family, the hope is that it that carries on to who you become
as a person and who you choose to befriend.”
The initial influence of family can affect an individual’s choice of friends later on, yet there
is a normal part of development where adolescents start to rely more on their friends to
make day to day decisions rather than family, social worker Jennifer Polisky said. A natural
inclination towards adding more peer influence becomes present the older a student gets,
and it varies with the individual in terms of who holds onto the family influence and who
breaks away from it, Polisky explained.
“Right around adolescence is a general time when kids are experimenting with coming up
with their own identities,” Max said. “Sometimes the way that it shows up is by doing things
opposite of their parents.”
Adolescent rebellion, which is displayed by some teenagers but not others, depends on a
person’s personality as well as the environment that his or her family has created.
For first generation Americans, a lot of people can find themselves exposed to the values
of the culture that their parents came from, but they’re living in this American culture which
holds a bunch of different values, Eric Crabtree-Nelson, licensed clinical social worker,
explained. Furthermore, Crabtree-Nelson believes that the family can make rebellion more
prevalent if they are not willing to listen to what the adolescent has to say.
“Parents don’t always have the same understanding that they want to facilitate their
adolescents’ independence,” Crabtree-Nelson said. A lot of parents want things to be done
their way, and when that runs into a teenager trying to forge their own way, that’s when the
conflict can create lots of arguments, leading up to and including some form of family
violence.”
While it would be convenient if adolescents just followed along and did as they were told,
that also wouldn’t create responsible independent adults of these adolescents, according
to Crabtree-Nelson. Because developing one’s own ideas is a crucial part to the
developmental process and maturity, Crabtree-Nelson stresses the importance for strong
communication and mutual understanding between parents and adolescents.
As a first generation Russian, George Vasilyev ’15 decided during his transition into high
school that he wanted a different lifestyle after observing his parents’ lifestyle. His decision
initially resulted in an unstable relationship with his parents which improved over time.
“I’d have pressure to change my lifestyle or maintain my lifestyle in a situation where it
wouldn’t be beneficial for me,” Vasilyev said. “I would make one decision, and then, if it
didn’t work out, I would try a different way.”
When teenagers choose to break away from their family’s beliefs, they might feel
depression, doubt and loneliness if they are relationship centered. If they’re more
independent and don’t rely on relationships as much, it wouldn’t have much of a negative
effect on them, psychologist Andrew Hoffman explained.
“I would encourage people to ask themselves, ‘is this the healthiest option for me?’ and
‘what would be the healthiest option for me to take?’ because sometimes that helps people
actively decide what they should do,” Hoffman said.
Because he decided to choose a separate lifestyle from his parents, Vasilyev explained
that he lost many of his friends from middle school who shared cultural similarities with his
family background. This led him to establish new friendships and relationships based on
similar lifestyle choices rather than cultural familiarities.
“I chose some of my friends because they had similar beliefs, and it helped my enforce my
beliefs,” Vasilyev said. “After I was solid in my lifestyle, I was very open to new ideas, and
now I have friends that don’t have similar lifestyles.”
According to Hoffman, whether or not relationships with peers and family can improve over
time largely depends on the strength of these relationships before the tumultuous stages.
Individuals who are more willing to communicate and understand each other’s perspective
tend to have a greater chance of improving their relationships while those who aren’t open
to communication risk their relationships with peers and family.
When there is a lack of a strong family influence or relationship with one’s parents, there is
a tendency to turn towards friends. Depending on the type of friends, they may or may not
shape your world, according to Max. On the other hand, teens who lack a sense of
belonging might withdraw from interactions altogether.
As adolescents form relationships with peers, peer pressure becomes a possible source of
influence. Peer pressure tends to be a more indirect form of peer influence when an
individual is not deliberately told to do something but does it because they witness most of
their peers or friends doing something, Polisky explained. Although peer pressure can carry
a negative connotation such as being forced to something one does not what to do, there
are benefits to the presence of peer pressures.
“The idea is that you are being pressured to engage in negative behavior, destructive
behavior and rebellious behavior, but in some aspects, there can be pressure to follow
social norms that might be necessary for a person to have success,” Breuer said. “It’s
ultimately the way you deal with peer pressure. The word pressure implies that it’s not of a
person’s choice.”
Whether or not a person succumbs to peer pressure depends on his or her sense of self-
security and independence. According to Breuer, the human need to belong and not be
ostracized by other people becomes a very overpowering feeling, so people might be more
willing to engage in things that they don’t want to do.
“I don’t think it’s necessary to give up something you feel strongly about to fit in with a group
of people,” Breuer said. “The hope is that if they’re a group of people that are going to be
safe and healthy for you, they should accept who you are.”
Although certain peer and family expectations may seem overwhelming, they can also
motivate and guide the development of adolescents on the right path. Friends and even
family can change throughout one’s life; therefore, influences are changing.
“I think family and friends often have a real positive influence on things,” Crabtree-Nelson
said. “There is a reason that family is our biggest influencer around things, and while a lot
of people would be upset that their parents had such great expectations, it’s also such a
benefit to have parents who really do want the best for their kids.”