Digital Literacy

DIGITAL LITERACY Prepared by: Griffin Mwaruma

Definition

Digital literacy refers to the ability to use digital technology effectively and efficiently to find, evaluate,
create, communicate, and manage information. It encompasses a range of skills, from basic computer
skills such as using a keyboard and mouse, to more advanced skills such as coding, online collaboration,
and digital communication.

In today's digital age, digital literacy is becoming increasingly important as technology continues to
shape our personal and professional lives. Those who are digitally literate have the ability to navigate
digital environments with ease and confidence, and are better equipped to participate in the digital
economy and society.

Digital literacy is not only about using technology, but also about understanding its social and ethical
implications, such as digital privacy, security, and responsible use of technology. It is important for
individuals of all ages and backgrounds to develop digital literacy skills in order to fully participate in the
digital world and to succeed in today's rapidly evolving job market.

ICT

ICT stands for Information and Communication Technology. It refers to a broad range of digital
technologies used to manage, process, and communicate information. ICT encompasses hardware,
software, networks, and digital media, and it is used in various fields, including education, healthcare,
finance, entertainment, and government.

ICT enables individuals and organizations to access, create, store, and share information and knowledge
in digital form. It includes technologies such as computers, smartphones, tablets, servers, routers, and
other digital devices, as well as software applications and systems used for data processing, analysis,
and communication.

The use of ICT has revolutionized the way people live, work, and interact with one another. It has
transformed the way businesses operate and has created new industries and job opportunities. ICT has
also contributed to the growth of the global economy and has made information and knowledge more
accessible and affordable than ever before.

Computer Software

Computer software refers to a set of programs, instructions, and data that enable a computer to
perform specific tasks or functions. Software can be categorized into two main types: system software
and application software.

System software is the software that manages and controls the operation of a computer system. It
includes the operating system, device drivers, and other software utilities that facilitate the proper
functioning of hardware components such as the CPU, memory, storage, and input/output devices.

Application software, on the other hand, is the software that is designed to perform specific tasks or
functions for end-users. Examples of application software include word processors, spreadsheet
programs, graphics and multimedia software, web browsers, and database management systems.

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Computer software is created by software developers using programming languages such as C++, Java,
Python, and many others. Software is typically distributed and installed on a computer system via a CD,
DVD, or downloaded from the internet. Once installed, software is executed by the computer's
processor and used to perform specific tasks, automate processes, and enhance productivity.

Types of Computer Software:

There are several types of computer software, each designed to perform specific functions. Some of the
most common types of computer software include:

1. Operating system software: This is the software that manages the computer's hardware and
provides a platform for other software to run on. Examples of operating systems include
Windows, macOS, and Linux.

2. Application software: This is software that is designed to perform specific tasks, such as word
processing, email, web browsing, and gaming. Examples of application software include
Microsoft Office, Adobe Photoshop, and Google Chrome.

3. Utility software: This is software that is designed to perform maintenance and optimization
tasks, such as antivirus software, disk cleanup utilities, and system backup tools.

4. Programming software: This is software that is used to create and develop other software
applications. Examples of programming software include Integrated Development Environments
(IDEs) such as Visual Studio and Eclipse.

5. Device drivers: These are software programs that enable the computer to communicate with
hardware devices such as printers, scanners, and video cards.

6. Firmware: This is software that is embedded in hardware devices, such as routers, modems, and
digital cameras, to control their functions.

7. System software: This is software that is designed to manage the computer system as a whole,
including its hardware and software components. Examples of system software include BIOS,
boot loaders, and device managers.

These are just a few examples of the many types of computer software available. The specific software
used by a computer will depend on its intended use and the needs of the user.

Types of Operating Systems:

There are several types of operating systems (OS) that exist, including:

1. Windows OS: Developed by Microsoft Corporation, this is one of the most popular operating
systems used in personal computers, laptops, and tablets. Windows OS has a graphical user
interface (GUI) and is known for its ease of use and compatibility with various software
applications.

2. macOS: Developed by Apple Inc., this is the operating system used on Apple Mac computers. It
is known for its sleek design and intuitive user interface, as well as its compatibility with Apple
software and hardware.

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3. Linux OS: This is an open-source operating system that is available for free to users. Linux is
known for its stability, security, and customizability. It is commonly used in servers,
supercomputers, and other specialized computing systems.

4. Unix OS: This is a powerful and secure operating system used in enterprise-level computing and
large-scale computing systems. It is known for its stability and scalability and is used in servers,
mainframes, and supercomputers.

5. Mobile OS: These are operating systems used in mobile devices such as smartphones and
tablets. Some popular mobile operating systems include Android (developed by Google), iOS
(developed by Apple), and Windows Mobile (developed by Microsoft).

6. Real-time OS: These are operating systems used in real-time computing applications such as
process control systems and embedded systems. They are designed to provide real-time
response and control for critical applications.

The choice of operating system depends on the specific needs of the user, the type of hardware being
used, and the compatibility of the software applications required for the task at hand.

Functions of Operating systems

Operating systems (OS) perform a variety of functions in a computer system. Some of the main
functions of operating systems include:

1. Memory Management: The OS manages the allocation and de-allocation of memory to different
programs and ensures that each program has access to the necessary resources to function
properly.

2. Processor Management: The OS manages the allocation of processing resources to different

programs and ensures that each program has access to the necessary resources to run
efficiently.

3. Device Management: The OS manages the allocation of input and output (I/O) devices such as
printers, keyboards, and monitors, ensuring that they are properly connected and that they
function correctly.

4. File Management: The OS manages the organization and storage of files and folders on a
computer system. This includes tasks such as creating, deleting, copying, and moving files.

5. Security: The OS provides security features such as user authentication, file permissions, and
encryption to protect the system from unauthorized access and malicious software.

6. Networking: The OS provides networking capabilities that allow computers to communicate

with each other over a network. This includes tasks such as setting up network connections,
sharing resources, and managing network protocols.

7. User Interface: The OS provides a graphical user interface (GUI) that allows users to interact
with the system and run applications easily.

Overall, the OS plays a critical role in managing the various components of a computer system, ensuring
that they work together efficiently to provide a smooth and seamless computing experience for users.

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Commands of an Operating system

The specific commands available in an operating system depend on the type of operating system being
used. However, some common commands that are used in operating systems include:

1. cd: This command is used to change the current directory in the file system.

2. ls: This command is used to list the contents of a directory in the file system.

3. mkdir: This command is used to create a new directory in the file system.

4. rm: This command is used to delete a file or directory in the file system.

5. mv: This command is used to move a file or directory from one location to another in the file
system.

6. cp: This command is used to copy a file or directory from one location to another in the file
system.

7. chmod: This command is used to change the permissions of a file or directory in the file system.

8. ps: This command is used to display the processes currently running on the system.

9. top: This command is used to display the processes currently using the most system resources.

10. shutdown: This command is used to shut down the system.

11. dir: This command lists the contents of the current directory.

12. md: This command is used to create a new directory.

13. rd: This command is used to remove a directory.

14. copy: This command is used to copy a file from one location to another.

15. del: This command is used to delete a file.

16. type: This command is used to display the contents of a file.

17. ren: This command is used to rename a file.

18. tasklist: This command displays the list of currently running processes.

19. taskkill: This command is used to end a running process.

20. netstat: This command displays the status of network connections.

21. ipconfig: This command displays network configuration information.

22. ping: This command is used to test network connectivity.

23. shutdown: This command is used to shut down the computer.

24. help: This command displays a list of available commands and provides help for using them.

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These are just a few examples of the commands that are available in an operating system. The specific
commands and their syntax may vary depending on the operating system being used.

Computer Hardware

Computer hardware refers to the physical components that make up a computer system. These
components include devices such as the CPU, motherboard, memory, storage devices, input/output
devices, and peripherals.

The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the "brain" of the computer and is responsible for executing
instructions and performing calculations. The motherboard is the main circuit board that connects all
the hardware components of the computer system.

Memory is the part of the computer that temporarily stores data and instructions that are currently in
use. There are two types of memory: RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read-Only Memory).
RAM is volatile memory, which means that it loses its contents when power is turned off, while ROM is
non-volatile memory and retains its contents even when the power is off.

Storage devices, such as hard disk drives, solid-state drives, and optical drives, are used to store data
and programs on a permanent or semi-permanent basis. Input/output devices, such as keyboards, mice,
monitors, printers, and speakers, allow users to interact with the computer system and output
information.

Peripherals are additional devices that can be added to a computer system to enhance its functionality,
such as a webcam, microphone, or external hard drive.

Together, these hardware components work together to create a functional computer system capable
of executing programs, processing data, and performing a variety of tasks.

Here are some examples of computer hardware components:

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU): The CPU is the brain of the computer and is responsible for
processing data and executing instructions.

2. Random Access Memory (RAM): RAM is the temporary storage used by the computer to store
data and instructions that are currently in use.

3. Hard Disk Drive (HDD): The HDD is a storage device that stores data on magnetic disks.

4. Solid State Drive (SSD): The SSD is a storage device that uses flash memory to store data.

5. Graphics Processing Unit (GPU): The GPU is a specialized processor used to render graphics and
images.

6. Motherboard: The motherboard is the main circuit board that connects all the hardware
components of the computer.

7. Power Supply Unit (PSU): The PSU is responsible for providing power to the computer
components.

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8. Keyboard and Mouse: The keyboard and mouse are input devices used to enter data into the
computer.

9. Monitor: The monitor is the display device used to output data and images from the computer.

10. Printer: The printer is an output device used to produce hard copies of documents and images.

These are just a few examples of computer hardware components, but there are many others, such as
network interface cards, sound cards, and optical drives.

Computer Networks:

A computer network is a group of interconnected computers and other devices that are linked together
to share resources and exchange information. Networks can be classified based on their size and
geographical area, and they can be used for a variety of purposes, including communication, sharing of
resources, and collaboration.

There are several types of computer networks, including:

1. Local Area Network (LAN): A LAN is a network that is confined to a single building or location,
such as a home or office. It is typically used for sharing resources, such as printers and files, and
for enabling communication between devices.

2. Wide Area Network (WAN): A WAN is a network that covers a large geographical area, such as a
city, region, or even multiple countries. It typically uses telecommunications technology to
connect devices and can be used for communication and resource sharing across large
distances.

3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A MAN is a network that covers a geographic area larger
than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, such as a city or a group of buildings in close proximity. It is
often used for connecting multiple LANs together.

4. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN): A WLAN is a type of LAN that uses wireless technology,
such as Wi-Fi, to connect devices together. It is commonly used in homes and offices to connect
devices without the need for cables.

5. Storage Area Network (SAN): A SAN is a dedicated network that is used to connect storage
devices, such as disk arrays and tape libraries, to servers. It is often used in data centers to
provide high-speed access to large amounts of data.

Computer networks can be configured in many different ways, depending on the needs of the user.
Some common network configurations include client-server networks, peer-to-peer networks, and
hybrid networks.

The Internet

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The internet is a global network of interconnected computers and computer networks that
communicate with each other using a standardized set of communication protocols. It is a vast network
that spans the entire world, connecting billions of devices and users.

The internet provides a platform for exchanging information, communicating with others, accessing
online services, and sharing resources such as files, media, and software. It is made up of millions of
servers, routers, switches, and other networking equipment that work together to transfer data and
information between computers and networks.

The internet enables people to access a wide range of online services and resources, including email,
instant messaging, social networking, online shopping, banking, entertainment, and education. It has
revolutionized the way people live, work, and interact with one another, and has become an essential
part of modern society.

The internet is often accessed through a web browser, which provides users with a graphical user
interface for navigating and accessing online resources. It is also accessed through various other
applications and devices, such as smartphones, tablets, and gaming consoles.

Basic Concepts of ICT

There are several basic concepts of ICT (Information and Communication Technology) that are essential
to understand in order to effectively use digital technology. Some of these concepts include:

1. Hardware: Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer system, such as the
central processing unit (CPU), keyboard, monitor, and printer.

2. Software: Software refers to the programs and applications that run on a computer system, such
as word processors, spreadsheets, and web browsers.

3. Networks: Networks are a group of interconnected devices and computers that communicate
with one another. The internet is an example of a global network.

4. Data: Data refers to information that is stored in a digital format. This includes text, images,
videos, and other media.

5. Information: Information is data that has been processed and organized in a meaningful way.

6. Communication: Communication refers to the exchange of information and messages between

people or devices. This can be done through email, instant messaging, video conferencing, and
other means.

7. Digital literacy: Digital literacy refers to the ability to effectively use digital technology and
navigate digital environments. It includes basic computer skills, such as using a mouse and
keyboard, as well as more advanced skills such as coding and online collaboration.

Understanding these basic concepts of ICT is important for effectively using digital technology and
navigating the digital world.

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History and Classification of Computers

The development of computers over time can be divided into several generations, each characterized by
certain features and technological advancements. The following are some of the key features of each
computer generation:

1. First Generation (1940s-1950s): The first generation of computers used vacuum tubes for logic
circuitry and magnetic drums for data storage. They were large, expensive, and unreliable, and
were mainly used for scientific and military purposes.

 Used vacuum tube technology

 Large and expensive

 Programmed in machine language

 Batch processing

2. Second Generation (1950s-1960s): The second generation of computers used transistor-based

logic circuitry and magnetic core memory for data storage. They were smaller, faster, more
reliable, and more affordable than first-generation computers, and were used for a wider range
of applications.

 Used transistor technology

 Smaller, faster and more reliable

 Assembly language programming

 Multiprogramming and time-sharing

3. Third Generation (1960s-1970s): The third generation of computers used integrated circuits (ICs)
for logic circuitry and semiconductor memory for data storage. They were even smaller, faster,
and more reliable than second-generation computers, and were used for business, scientific,
and personal computing.

 Used integrated circuit technology

 Smaller, faster, more powerful and more reliable

 High-level programming languages

 Time-sharing systems and virtual memory

4. Fourth Generation (1970s-1980s): The fourth generation of computers used microprocessors,

which combined the CPU and other system components on a single chip. This made them even
smaller, faster, and more powerful than previous generations, and they were used for personal
computing, gaming, and business applications.

 Used microprocessor technology

 Personal computers and workstations developed

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 Graphical user interfaces (GUIs)

 Networking and the Internet developed

5. Fifth Generation (1980s-present): The fifth generation of computers is characterized by the

development of artificial intelligence, parallel processing, and advanced user interfaces. They
are used for a wide range of applications, including scientific research, gaming, multimedia, and
virtual reality.

 Development of artificial intelligence (AI) and expert systems

 Use of parallel processing and supercomputers

 Development of natural language processing and speech recognition

 Continued miniaturization and portability of computers

These features are not mutually exclusive and there can be overlap between different generations of
computers. However, they provide a general overview of the major advancements and changes that
have occurred in computer technology over time.

It is worth noting that some people also refer to a sixth generation of computing, which is yet to come,
and is expected to involve technologies such as quantum computing and advanced artificial intelligence.

Classification of Computers:

Computers can be classified in a number of ways based on various criteria. Some common classifications
of computers are:

1. Based on size: Computers can be classified into four categories based on their size, namely
supercomputers, mainframes, minicomputers, and microcomputers.

2. Based on purpose: Computers can be classified into general-purpose and special-purpose

computers. General-purpose computers are designed to perform a variety of tasks, while
special-purpose computers are designed for specific tasks or applications.

3. Based on functionality: Computers can be classified into analog and digital computers. Analog
computers work with continuous values and are used for tasks such as scientific simulations,
while digital computers work with discrete values and are used for a wide range of tasks,
including business applications and personal computing.

4. Based on architecture: Computers can be classified into single-user and multi-user computers.
Single-user computers are designed to be used by one person at a time, while multi-user
computers can be used by multiple users simultaneously.

5. Based on processing power: Computers can be classified into personal computers (PCs),
workstations, and servers based on their processing power and capabilities.

6. Based on portability: Computers can be classified into desktop, laptop, tablet, and handheld
computers based on their portability.

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These are some of the most common classifications of computers, and each type of computer has its
own strengths and weaknesses, depending on the needs of the user.

Classification Basing on Size

Computers can be classified into four main categories based on their size:

1. Supercomputers: These are the most powerful and expensive computers, designed to perform
complex tasks that require massive amounts of processing power. They are typically used in
scientific research, weather forecasting, and other applications that require extremely high
computational performance.

2. Mainframes: These are large and powerful computers that are designed to support multiple
users and handle large amounts of data. They are often used in large organizations such as
banks, airlines, and government agencies to process transactions and manage data.

3. Minicomputers: These are smaller than mainframes but larger than microcomputers, and are
designed to support multiple users and handle moderate amounts of data. They were popular in
the 1970s and 1980s, but have largely been replaced by servers.

4. Microcomputers: These are the smallest and most common type of computers, often referred to
as personal computers (PCs). They are designed to be used by one person at a time and are used
for a wide range of applications, including word processing, browsing the internet, and gaming.

The classification of computers based on size is important because it determines the type of tasks they
are capable of performing, their processing power, and their cost. Each category of computers has its
own strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of computer depends on the specific needs of the user

Classification of computers basing on purpose

Computers can also be classified based on their purpose. The two main categories of computers based
on purpose are:

1. General-purpose computers: These are computers that are designed to perform a wide range of
tasks and are suitable for use in various industries and applications. General-purpose computers
are often used in offices, schools, homes, and other settings where they can be used for tasks
such as word processing, browsing the internet, and creating spreadsheets.

2. Special-purpose computers: These are computers that are designed for specific tasks or
applications. Special-purpose computers are often used in industries such as engineering,
scientific research, and manufacturing, where they can be used for tasks such as simulating and
analyzing complex systems, controlling machines, and performing quality control checks.

Examples of special-purpose computers include:

 Industrial control computers: These are used to control machines and processes in
manufacturing plants and other industrial settings.

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 Point-of-sale (POS) computers: These are used in retail stores to process transactions and
manage inventory.

 Embedded systems: These are specialized computers that are built into other devices, such as
cars, appliances, and medical equipment, to control their operation.

 Gaming consoles: These are specialized computers designed for playing video games.

The classification of computers based on purpose is important because it determines the type of tasks
they are suitable for, their processing power, and their cost. Each category of computers has its own
strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of computer depends on the specific needs of the user.

Classification of Computers based on functionality

Computers can also be classified based on their functionality. The two main categories of computers
based on functionality are:

1. Analog Computers: These are computers that work with continuous values and are used to
perform tasks such as scientific simulations, weather forecasting, and modeling complex
systems. Analog computers use physical quantities such as voltage, current, and resistance to
represent data and perform calculations.

2. Digital Computers: These are computers that work with discrete values and are used for a wide
range of tasks, including business applications, personal computing, and scientific simulations.
Digital computers use binary digits (bits) to represent data and perform calculations.

Digital computers can be further classified into three sub-categories:

 Mainframe computers: These are large, powerful computers that are designed to support
multiple users and handle large amounts of data.

 Minicomputers: These are smaller than mainframes but larger than microcomputers, and are
designed to support multiple users and handle moderate amounts of data.

 Microcomputers: These are the smallest and most common type of digital computers, often
referred to as personal computers (PCs). They are designed to be used by one person at a time
and are used for a wide range of applications, including word processing, browsing the internet,
and gaming.

The classification of computers based on functionality is important because it determines the type of
tasks they are suitable for, their processing power, and their cost. Each category of computers has its
own strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of computer depends on the specific needs of the user.

Classification based on Architecture:

Computers can also be classified based on their architecture. The three main categories of computers
based on architecture are:

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1. Von Neumann architecture: This is the most common computer architecture, which is used in
most digital computers. In this architecture, the computer's memory is separate from the
processing unit, and instructions and data are stored in the same memory.

2. Harvard architecture: This architecture is used in some specialized computers, such as digital
signal processors and microcontrollers. In this architecture, the computer's memory is split into
separate instruction and data memories, which allows for faster access to instructions and data.

3. Hybrid architecture: This architecture combines elements of both the Von Neumann and
Harvard architectures. In a hybrid architecture, some parts of the computer may use Von
Neumann architecture, while others use Harvard architecture. This allows for greater flexibility
in designing specialized computers.

The classification of computers based on architecture is important because it determines the way in
which instructions and data are processed and stored, which can affect the performance and capabilities
of the computer. Each architecture has its own strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of computer
depends on the specific needs of the user.

Classification of computers basing on processing power

Computers can also be classified based on their processing power. The three main categories of
computers based on processing power are:

1. Supercomputers: These are the most powerful and fastest computers available, used for
performing complex and computationally intensive tasks such as weather forecasting, scientific
simulations, and designing advanced technologies. Supercomputers are typically made up of
thousands of processors working together to perform calculations at a very high speed.

2. Mainframe computers: These are large and powerful computers designed to handle large-scale
processing and data storage for large organizations and businesses. They are typically used for
transaction processing, database management, and data processing.

3. Microcomputers: These are the smallest and least powerful computers available, commonly
known as personal computers (PCs). They are designed for use by a single person and are used
for a wide range of applications such as word processing, browsing the internet, and gaming.

The classification of computers based on processing power is important because it determines the type
of tasks they are capable of performing and the scale at which they can operate. Each category of
computers has its own strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of computer depends on the specific
needs of the user.

Computers can also be classified based on their portability

Computers can also be classified based on their portability. The three main categories of computers
based on portability are:

1. Desktop computers: These are non-portable computers that are designed to be used on a desk
or table. They consist of a separate monitor, keyboard, and system unit, and are generally more
powerful than portable computers.

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2. Laptop computers: These are portable computers that are designed to be carried around and
used on the go. They are smaller and lighter than desktop computers and consist of a built-in
screen, keyboard, and system unit. Laptops are generally less powerful than desktop computers
but are more convenient for use outside the office or home.

3. Tablet computers: These are highly portable computers that are designed to be used with a
touch screen interface. They are smaller and lighter than laptops and do not have a physical
keyboard. Tablet computers are designed for browsing the internet, reading e-books, and
running mobile applications.

The classification of computers based on portability is important because it determines the mobility and
convenience of the computer. Each category of computers has its own strengths and weaknesses, and
the choice of computer depends on the specific needs of the user.

Computers can also be classified based on data handling

Computers can also be classified based on their data handling capabilities. The three main categories of
computers based on data handling are:

1. Analog computers: These computers are designed to process continuous data such as sound,
temperature, and pressure. Analog computers are used in applications such as scientific
research, engineering design, and process control.

2. Digital computers: These are the most common type of computers, designed to process discrete
data in the form of binary digits (bits). Digital computers are used in applications such as
business data processing, scientific simulations, and gaming.

3. Hybrid computers: These are computers that combine elements of both analog and digital
computers. Hybrid computers are used in applications such as weather forecasting, control
systems, and simulations.

The classification of computers based on data handling is important because it determines the type of
data that can be processed and the accuracy of the processing. Each category of computers has its own
strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of computer depends on the specific needs of the user.

CHAPTER 2

Apply security measures to data, hardware and software in automated environment.

What is Data Security

Data security refers to the practice of protecting digital data from unauthorized access, theft,
destruction, alteration, or disclosure. It involves implementing measures to ensure the confidentiality,
integrity, and availability of data.

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Data security is important because the digital data we generate and store has become increasingly
valuable and sensitive. Personal, financial, and business information is often stored digitally, and if this
information is not adequately secured, it can be vulnerable to cyberattacks, data breaches, and other
forms of unauthorized access.

Examples of data security measures include:

1. Encryption: This involves converting data into a coded language that can only be read by
authorized users.

2. Access controls: This involves implementing mechanisms such as passwords, biometric

authentication, and user permissions to restrict access to data to only authorized personnel.

3. Firewalls and antivirus software: These are used to prevent unauthorized access and to detect
and eliminate malware and other security threats.

4. Data backup and recovery: This involves making regular backups of data and having a plan for
restoring data in the event of a data loss or breach.

5. Physical security: This involves securing the physical environment where data is stored to
prevent unauthorized access or theft.

Overall, data security is critical to protecting sensitive and valuable digital data, and implementing
effective data security measures is essential to preventing data breaches and cyberattacks.

We have found that data security is not very different from other forms of security. The same concepts
used to design castles apply to the construction of servers that offer access to a corporate database. The
details are different, and the technical pieces are quite different, but the same approaches, rules and
lessons apply. Below are some important maxims to keep in mind. Most of them have stood the test of
time for thousands of years:

There is no such thing as absolute security: We can raise the attacker’s cost of breaching our data
security to a very high level, but absolute guarantees are not possible.

Data security is always a question of economics: What is the value of what you are protecting? How
much time, effort, and money are your opponent’s willing to spend to get through your defenses?

An attacker doesn’t go through security, but around it: Their goal is to find and exploit the weakest link.

Don’t underestimate the value of your asset: Often common everyday data is underestimated. Mundane
data can be very important.

Key Terms:

Data

Data refers to any kind of information or facts that are collected, recorded, and analyzed for a specific
purpose. It can be in the form of numbers, words, images, sounds, or other digital or analog formats.

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Data can be structured, meaning that it is organized and stored in a specific format, such as in a
database or spreadsheet. It can also be unstructured, meaning that it does not have a defined format or
organization, such as in social media posts, emails, or images.

Data is used for a variety of purposes, such as:

1. Decision-making: Data is used to inform decisions in a variety of fields, from business and
finance to healthcare and public policy.

2. Research: Data is used in scientific research to test hypotheses and draw conclusions.

3. Analysis: Data is used to identify patterns and trends, and to analyze cause-and-effect
relationships.

4. Optimization: Data is used to optimize processes and systems, such as in manufacturing or

logistics.

Overall, data is a crucial resource in the digital age, and its collection, storage, and analysis is a key
aspect of many industries and fields.

Data Privacy/ Information Privacy

Data privacy refers to the protection of personal information or data from unauthorized access, use, or
disclosure. This includes any information that can be used to identify an individual, such as their name,
address, Social Security number, medical records, or financial information.

Data privacy is important because the digital age has led to an increase in the amount of personal
information that is collected, stored, and shared. This data can be used for a variety of purposes,
including marketing, research, and analysis. However, if this data falls into the wrong hands, it can be
used for malicious purposes such as identity theft or fraud.

To protect data privacy, individuals and organizations can take a number of measures, including:

1. Implementing strong passwords and multi-factor authentication to prevent unauthorized access

to sensitive data.

2. Encrypting data to protect it from unauthorized access or theft.

3. Limiting the collection and use of personal data to only what is necessary for a specific purpose.

4. Providing individuals with control over their personal data, including the ability to access,
correct, or delete their information.

5. Complying with privacy laws and regulations, such as the General Data Protection Regulation
(GDPR) or the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA).

Overall, protecting data privacy is important to ensure that personal information is not misused or
exploited, and individuals have control over how their information is collected and used.

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Security threats

A computer security threat is any event or action that could potentially compromise the confidentiality,
integrity, or availability of computer or network resources. These threats can come from a variety of
sources, including hackers, malware, employees, and natural disasters.

Examples of computer security threats include:

1. Malware: Malware is a type of software designed to harm or exploit computer systems.

Examples include viruses, worms, and Trojan horses.

2. Phishing: Phishing is a type of social engineering attack in which attackers use fraudulent emails
or websites to trick users into providing sensitive information, such as login credentials or credit
card numbers.

3. Denial-of-service (DoS) attacks: DoS attacks are designed to overwhelm a system with traffic or
requests, making it unavailable to legitimate users.

4. Password attacks: Password attacks involve attempts to guess or crack user passwords in order
to gain unauthorized access to systems or data.

5. Insider threats: Insider threats are threats that come from within an organization, such as
employees or contractors who intentionally or unintentionally cause harm to computer systems
or data.

Overall, computer security threats pose a significant risk to organizations and individuals, and require a
variety of strategies and technologies to prevent and mitigate their impact.

Classification of Security threats

Security threats can be classified into different categories based on the nature of the threat and the
impact it may have. Some common categories of security threats include:

1. Malware: Malware is a broad category that includes viruses, worms, Trojan horses, ransomware,
and other types of malicious software. Malware is designed to damage or disrupt computer
systems, steal sensitive data, or gain unauthorized access to networks.

2. Phishing: Phishing is a type of social engineering attack in which cybercriminals use fraudulent
emails, text messages, or websites to trick users into providing personal information, such as
login credentials or credit card numbers.

3. Denial of service (DoS) attacks: DoS attacks are designed to overwhelm a system or network
with traffic, making it unavailable to legitimate users. This can be accomplished through various
means, including flooding the network with data or exploiting vulnerabilities in network
protocols.

4. Insider threats: Insider threats refer to security risks posed by employees, contractors, or other
individuals who have authorized access to a system or network. This can include accidental
breaches of security protocols, as well as intentional sabotage or theft.

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5. Advanced persistent threats (APTs): APTs are sophisticated, long-term attacks that are designed
to evade detection and gain persistent access to a system or network. APTs are typically carried
out by well-funded and organized groups, such as nation-state actors or criminal syndicates.

6. Physical threats: Physical threats refer to security risks posed by physical access to a system or
network. This can include theft of hardware or sensitive data, as well as unauthorized access to
secure areas or equipment.

These are just a few examples of the types of security threats that organizations and individuals may
face. It is important to stay aware of the latest security threats and take appropriate measures to
protect against them.

Here is a quick explanation on some of the common computer threats you may come across:

Computer viruses: This is a small piece of software that can spread from one infected computer to
another. The virus could corrupt, steal or delete data in your computer, or even erase everything on
your hard drive.

Trojan horse: Users can infect their computers with this software simply by downloading an application
they thought was legitimate but was infect or malicious. Once in your computer, it can do anything from
recording your passwords by logging keystrokes to hijacking your webcam so as to watch and record
you’re every move.

Malicious spyware: It is used to describe a Trojan application that was created by cyber criminals to spy
on their victims. An example would be a key logger software that records a victim’s every stroke on
his/her keyboard. The recorded information is periodically sent back to the originating cybercriminal
over the internet.

Computer worm: This is a software program that can copy itself from one computer to another without
human interaction. A worm can send copies of itself to every contact in your email address book and
then send itself to all the contacts in your contact address book.

Spam: In the security context, it is primarily used to describe unwanted messages in your email box.
Spam is a nuisance as it can clutter your mailbox as well as taking up space on your mail server.
However, spam messages can contain links that when clicked could go to a website that installs
malicious software on to your computer.

Pursing: Pursing scams are fraudulent attempts by cybercriminals to obtain private information. Pursing
scams often appear in the guise of email messages designed to appear as though they are from
legitimate sources.

Rootkit: This is a collection of tools that are used to obtain administrator-level access to a computer or a
network of computers. A rootkit could be installed on a computer by a cyber-criminal exploiting a
vulnerability or security hole in a legitimate application on your PC and may contain spyware that
monitors and records keystrokes.

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These are perhaps the most common computer threats and crimes you will encounter that describe
methods cyber-criminals use to access data, computer hardware and software.

Classification according to type

 Physical damage: For example, fire, floods

 Natural events: For example, climate, volcanic
 Compromise of information: Via eavesdropping, theft of media
 Technical failures: For example, equipment, software

Compromise of functions and errors in use, abuse of rights Classification according to origin

 Deliberate: Aiming at information asset e.g. spying, illegal processing of data

 Accidental: For example, equipment failure, software failure
 Environmental: For example, natural event, loss of power supply
 Negligence: Known but neglected factors compromising the network safety and sustainability.

Categories of the risk of security threats

 Damage: How bad would an attack be?
 Reproducibility: How easy it is to reproduce the attack?
 Exploitability: How much work is it to launch the attack?

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 Affected users: How many users will be impacted?

 Discoverability: How easy it is to discover the threat?
Computer Security Control Measures

Computer security control measures are used to protect computer systems and data from unauthorized
access, theft, or damage. Some common control measures include:

1. Authentication: This involves verifying the identity of users and granting access based on their
credentials. Common methods of authentication include passwords, biometrics (such as
fingerprints or facial recognition), and smart cards.

2. Encryption: Encryption involves encoding data so that it can only be read by authorized users
who have the decryption key. This is used to protect data both in transit (such as over the
internet) and at rest (such as on a hard drive).

3. Access controls: Access controls are used to restrict user access to sensitive information or
resources based on their job roles or responsibilities. This can include implementing role-based
access control (RBAC), where users are assigned permissions based on their job duties.

4. Backup and recovery: Backup and recovery strategies are used to protect against data loss or
corruption. This involves regularly backing up important data and having a plan in place to
recover that data in the event of a disaster or system failure.

5. Firewalls: Firewalls are used to monitor and control incoming and outgoing network traffic,
blocking unauthorized access and potential threats.

6. Security software: Security software, such as antivirus and anti-malware programs, are used to
detect and remove malicious software from computer systems.

Overall, computer security control measures are essential to protecting computer systems and data
from a variety of threats, and require a multi-layered approach to be effective.

Cyber criminals

Cyber criminals are individuals or groups who use computer networks, the internet, and other digital
technologies to commit illegal activities. These activities can range from stealing personal information or
financial data, to launching attacks on computer systems, to distributing malware or ransomware.

Some common types of cyber criminals include:

1. Hackers: Hackers are individuals who use their knowledge of computer systems to gain
unauthorized access to networks or data. They may do this for financial gain, political or
ideological reasons, or simply for the challenge.

2. Malware creators: Malware creators develop and distribute malicious software, such as viruses,
worms, and Trojan horses, with the goal of stealing sensitive data, disrupting computer systems,
or taking control of computers for nefarious purposes.

3. Phishers: Phishers use fraudulent emails, text messages, or websites to trick users into providing
personal information, such as login credentials or credit card numbers.

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4. Ransomware attackers: Ransomware attackers use malware to encrypt users' files or lock them
out of their systems, demanding payment (usually in cryptocurrency) in exchange for restoring
access.

5. Cybercriminal organizations: Some cybercriminals work in organized groups or syndicates,

pooling resources and expertise to carry out sophisticated attacks on computer systems.

Cyber criminals are a significant threat to individuals, businesses, and governments around the world,
and their activities can have serious financial, legal, and reputational consequences. As such, it is
important for individuals and organizations to take steps to protect themselves from cyber attacks, such
as implementing strong passwords, keeping software up to date, and using security software.

As a result, data security and privacy have moved from the backroom to the boardroom. Data breaches
and privacy missteps now regularly make headlines and are a focal point for discussions and legislation
worldwide. Failure to communicate on these important issues can damage business by eroding trust,
tarnishing brand and reputation as well as undermining competitiveness.
Data security ensures that the data is accurate and reliable, and it is available when those with
authorized access need it. A data security plan includes facets such as collecting only the required
information, keeping it safe, and destroying any information that is no longer needed.

These steps will help any business meet the legal obligations of possessing sensitive data. Companies
need to enact data security policy for the sole purpose of ensuring data privacy, or the privacy of their
customers’ information. More so, companies must ensure data privacy because the information is an
asset to the company. A data security policy is simply the means to the desired end which is data
privacy. However, no data security policy can overcome the willing sale or soliciting of the consumer
data that was entrusted to an organization.

Challenges to big data security and privacy

Securing and protecting data in real time: Due to large amounts of data generation, most
organizations are unable to maintain regular checks. However, it is most beneficial to perform
security checks and observation in real time or almost in real time.
Data provenance: To classify data, it is necessary to be aware of its origin in order to determine
the data origin accurately, so that authentication, validation and access control can be gained.
Protecting access control method communication and encryption: A secured data storage device is an
intelligent step in protecting the data. Yet, because most often data storage devices are vulnerable, it is
important to encrypt the access control methods as well.

Staying safe from computer crimes

There are several ways to stay safe from computer crimes:
1. Keep software and operating systems up-to-date: Regularly update all software and
operating systems on your computer or device to ensure that any known security
vulnerabilities are patched.
2. Use strong and unique passwords: Use strong passwords and avoid using the same
password across multiple accounts. Consider using a password manager to generate and
store strong passwords.
3. Be cautious of suspicious emails and links: Be wary of unsolicited emails and do not
click on any links or download attachments from unknown sources. Always verify the
sender and check the link or attachment for malware using an anti-virus program.

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4. Use two-factor authentication: Enable two-factor authentication wherever possible to add

an extra layer of security to your accounts.
5. Back up important data: Regularly back up important data to an external hard drive or
cloud storage service to protect against data loss due to cyber attacks.
6. Use anti-virus and anti-malware software: Install and regularly update anti-virus and anti-
malware software to detect and remove malicious software.
7. Use a virtual private network (VPN): Consider using a VPN to encrypt your internet
connection and protect your online privacy.
8. Be cautious of public Wi-Fi: Avoid using public Wi-Fi for sensitive activities, such as
online banking, as these networks may be compromised.
9. Educate yourself: Stay informed about the latest cyber security threats and educate
yourself on best practices for staying safe online.

Chapter 3
Apply computer software in solving tasks
The term software refers to the set of electronic program instructions or data that a computer processor
reads in order to perform a task or operation. Software can be categorized according to what it is
designed to accomplish. The main two types are: System software and application software. Under this
unit, we will talk about application software. Application software (or simply applications) are often
called productivity programs or end users programs because they enable the users to complete tasks
such as: Creating documents, spreadsheets, databases, publications, doing online research, sending
email, designing graphics etc.

What is a software suite?

A software suite is a collection of software programs that are designed to work together and share
common functionality, user interfaces, and data formats. Typically, a software suite includes several
applications that are designed for specific tasks, such as word processing, spreadsheet management,
email communication, and graphic design.
A software suite usually includes a common user interface and a consistent look and feel across all of its
applications, making it easier for users to navigate and learn how to use the various tools. In addition, a
software suite often allows for seamless integration between its various applications, so that users can
easily move data and content between different programs without losing formatting or data integrity.
Examples of popular software suites include Microsoft Office, Adobe Creative Suite, and OpenOffice.

Definition of key terms

Word processor
A word processor is a software application that allows users to create, edit, format, and print digital
documents. It is primarily used for creating text-based documents, such as letters, reports, memos, and
manuscripts.

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Word processors provide a wide range of tools and features for formatting text, such as font selection,
text alignment, line spacing, bullet points, and numbering. They also offer tools for adding images,
tables, charts, and other visual elements to documents.
Some popular word processors include Microsoft Word, Google Docs, Apple Pages, and LibreOffice
Writer. These programs often come as part of a larger office software suite, and they allow users to save
their documents in a variety of file formats, such as .docx, .pdf, and .txt.

Word document
A word document is a digital file created and edited using a word processor software application, such
as Microsoft Word, Google Docs, or Apple Pages. It is a type of computer file that contains text, images,
tables, charts, and other elements that make up a document.
Word documents are commonly used for creating letters, reports, essays, and other types of written
content. They allow users to format their text in a variety of ways, such as changing font styles, sizes,
and colors, adjusting margins, and adding bullet points or numbered lists.
Word documents can be saved in a variety of file formats, such as .docx, .pdf, and .txt. They can also be
shared electronically via email, cloud storage, or file sharing services. Word documents can be easily
edited and revised by multiple users, and they are often used for collaborative writing projects in
academic and professional settings.

Word Processing
Word processing is the creation, editing, formatting, and printing of digital documents using a software
application called a word processor. Word processors provide a range of tools and features for creating
and editing text-based documents, such as letters, reports, memos, and manuscripts.
In word processing, users can format their text in a variety of ways, such as changing the font size, style,
and color, adjusting the margins, adding bullet points or numbered lists, and inserting images, tables,
and other visual elements. The process of word processing allows users to create professional-looking
documents quickly and easily, without the need for advanced design skills or technical knowledge.

Text
Consists solely of letters. Text refers to any written or printed representation of language in a readable
format. It can include letters, words, sentences, and paragraphs that are organized in a logical manner
to convey meaning.

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Text can be created using a variety of tools and technologies, such as a pen and paper, a typewriter, or a
computer. In the digital age, text is most commonly created and edited using word processing software
applications or text editors.
Text is a fundamental component of communication and is used in a wide range of contexts, including
literature, journalism, advertising, business, and education. It can be used to convey information,
express opinions, tell stories, and persuade readers.

Characters:
In computing, a character refers to a single letter, number, symbol, or other textual element that can be
represented or encoded in a digital format. Characters are the basic building blocks of written
communication in computing and are used to represent language, numerical data, and other types of
information.
In computing, characters are typically represented using a standardized encoding scheme, such as ASCII
(American Standard Code for Information Interchange) or Unicode. Each character is assigned a unique
code point that allows it to be represented and processed by computers.
Characters can be input using a variety of input methods, including keyboards, touchscreens, and voice
recognition software. They can also be displayed on a variety of output devices, including monitors,
printers, and other display technologies.
Here are some examples of computer characters:
1. Alphabetic characters - A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z
2. Numeric characters - 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
3. Special characters - !, @, #, $, %, ^, &, *, (, ), -, +, =, [, ], {, }, ;, :, ', ", ,, ., /, , <, >, ?, |
4. Control characters - characters that have special functions in computing, such as line feed (LF),
carriage return (CR), and tab (TAB)
5. Non-printable characters - characters that are not visible when printed or displayed, such as the
null character (NUL) and the escape character (ESC)

Text wrap:
In word processing programs, this occurs when you get to the end of the line and the text
wraps without you pressing the enter key

Edit: To make changes to a document.

Table: Refers to data arranged in a series of rows and columns.

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Word Processing Utilities: These are the software used to manipulate text and apply a basic
design to your pages.

Word processing utilities refer to the features and tools available in a word processing software
that enable users to create, edit, format, and share documents. Some common word processing
utilities include:
1. Formatting tools: These allow users to apply various formatting options such as font
type, size, color, alignment, indentation, line spacing, bullets, and numbering.
2. Spell check: This utility identifies and highlights spelling errors in a document and offers
suggestions for correcting them.
3. Thesaurus: This utility helps users find synonyms for words in their documents.
4. Auto-correct: This utility automatically corrects common spelling errors and typos as the
user types.
5. Find and replace: This utility allows users to search for specific words or phrases in a
document and replace them with others.
6. Table creation and manipulation: This utility allows users to create and format tables in
their documents.
7. Graphics and media integration: Word processing software often includes utilities for
adding images, videos, audio, and other media to documents.
8. Collaboration tools: These allow users to share and collaborate on documents with
others in real-time or asynchronously.
9. Templates: Word processing software often includes templates for various types of
documents such as resumes, business letters, and newsletters.
10. Printing and sharing options: These utilities allow users to print documents or share
them electronically via email or cloud storage.
11. Word count: Word count is finding out the numbers of words, characters, paragraphs
and lines in the document. Under the review menu, click the word ‘count’ from the
porting submenu. A popup box will appear showing the document’s statistics which
includes pages, words, characters (with and without spacing), paragraphs and lines.

Hyphenation refers to the process of breaking a word at the end of a line when the word is too
long to fit on that line. A hyphen is inserted at the end of the line, and the remaining part of the
word is moved to the next line. This is done to maintain even margins and improve the
readability of the document.
In word processing software, hyphenation can be automated or done manually. Automated
hyphenation uses pre-defined rules and algorithms to determine where to break a word, while
manual hyphenation allows the user to choose where to insert hyphens.

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Hyphenation rules may vary depending on the language being used, as different languages have
different conventions for breaking words at the end of a line. For example, in English, a word
can be hyphenated between syllables, while in some other languages, such as German, a word
can be hyphenated between compound words.
Hyphenation settings can be adjusted in word processing software to control the frequency and
placement of hyphens in a document. Users can choose to turn on or off automatic
hyphenation, adjust the minimum length of words that can be hyphenated, and specify
exceptions to hyphenation rules for specific words or parts of the document.

Some examples of word processors include:

1. Microsoft Word
2. Google Docs
3. Apple Pages
4. LibreOffice Writer
5. Apache OpenOffice Writer
6. WPS Office Writer
7. AbiWord
8. FocusWriter
9. Jarte
10. Atlantis Word Processor
These are just a few examples, as there are many other word processing software available, both
free and paid.

Spreadsheet: A user interface that resembles one or more paper accounting worksheets.
A spreadsheet is a computer program used to organize, analyze and manipulate numerical data.
It is often used in business and accounting to manage financial data, but can also be used in
other fields that require data management and analysis.
Spreadsheets are typically composed of rows and columns, with each intersection of a row and
column representing a single data point, known as a cell. Each cell can hold a number, text,
formula or function, which can be used to perform calculations and manipulate data.
Some common features of spreadsheet programs include the ability to perform mathematical
operations, create charts and graphs, filter and sort data, and perform complex calculations
using formulas and functions. Examples of popular spreadsheet programs include Microsoft
Excel, Google Sheets, Apple Numbers, and LibreOffice Calc.

A worksheet is a collection of cells where you keep and manipulate the data. Each excel
workbook can contain worksheets.

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Here are some examples of common Excel formulas:

1. SUM: Calculates the sum of a range of cells. For example, =SUM(A1:A10) will add up the
values in cells A1 through A10.
2. AVERAGE: Calculates the average of a range of cells. For example, =AVERAGE(B1:B5) will
give the average of values in cells B1 through B5.
3. MAX: Returns the maximum value in a range of cells. For example, =MAX(C1:C10) will
return the highest value in cells C1 through C10.
4. MIN: Returns the minimum value in a range of cells. For example, =MIN(D1:D10) will
return the lowest value in cells D1 through D10.
5. COUNT: Counts the number of cells in a range that contain numbers. For example,
=COUNT(E1:E10) will count the number of cells in E1 through E10 that contain numbers.
6. IF: Performs a logical test and returns one value if the test is true and another value if
the test is false. For example, =IF(F1>10,"Yes","No") will return "Yes" if the value in cell
F1 is greater than 10, and "No" if it is not.
7. VLOOKUP: Looks up a value in a table and returns a corresponding value in the same
row. For example, =VLOOKUP(G1,A1:B10,2,FALSE) will look up the value in cell G1 in the
first column of the table A1:B10, and return the corresponding value in the second
column.
8. CONCATENATE: Joins two or more strings of text into one string. For example,
=CONCATENATE("Hello"," ","World") will return "Hello World".
These are just a few examples of the many Excel formulas that can be used to manipulate data
and perform calculations in spreadsheets.

Database: An organized collection of data, generally stored and accessed electronically for a
computer system. A database management system (DBMS) is a software application that
enables users to create, modify, and manage databases. It is designed to manage large amounts
of data in a way that is efficient, secure, and reliable. A DBMS typically includes tools for data
entry, querying, reporting, and analysis.
The key components of a DBMS include:
1. Data definition language (DDL) – used to define the database structure and schema
2. Data manipulation language (DML) – used to retrieve, insert, update, and delete data
from the database
3. Query language – used to retrieve data from the database
4. Report generator – used to generate reports based on data in the database
5. Forms generator – used to create user-friendly interfaces for entering and viewing data
Some popular examples of DBMS include Oracle, MySQL, Microsoft SQL Server, IBM DB2,
Microsoft Access and PostgreSQL.

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Database Entities
In a database management system (DBMS), an entity is an object or concept that is represented
in the database. It can be a person, place, thing, or event that has its own set of properties or
attributes. Entities are typically organized into tables, and each table contains a collection of
related entities.
For example, in a database for a library, entities might include books, authors, borrowers, and
loan transactions. Each of these entities would have its own set of attributes, such as title and
author for a book, name and contact information for an author, and name and address for a
borrower.
Entities are often represented in a database schema using a data model such as the entity-
relationship (ER) model. In this model, entities are represented as rectangles, with their attributes
listed inside the rectangle. Relationships between entities are shown using lines connecting the
rectangles.
These entities exist in four kinds: people, things, events and locations. If the information you want to
include doesn’t fit in these categories, then it is probably not an entity but a property of an entity, an
attribute.

Relationships

In a database management system (DBMS), relationships are connections between tables that are
used to organize and link data. There are three main types of relationships that can exist between
tables:
1. One-to-One (1:1) Relationship: In a one-to-one relationship, each record in one table is
associated with only one record in another table, and vice versa. For example, in a
database for a school, each student might have only one locker assigned to them, and
each locker might be assigned to only one student.
2. One-to-Many (1:N) Relationship: In a one-to-many relationship, one record in one table
is associated with one or more records in another table, but each record in the second
table is associated with only one record in the first table. For example, in a database for a
school, each teacher might have multiple classes, but each class would have only one
teacher.
3. Many-to-Many (N:N) Relationship: In a many-to-many relationship, each record in one
table can be associated with multiple records in another table, and vice versa. For
example, in a database for a library, each book might be checked out by multiple
borrowers, and each borrower might check out multiple books.
To establish relationships between tables, a common field, also known as a foreign key, is used.
This field contains a value that matches the primary key value in another table. By linking tables
through common fields, DBMS can create complex queries that can retrieve and manipulate data
from multiple tables at once.

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Database attributes:
In a database, an attribute is a characteristic or property of an entity that can be used to describe
or identify it uniquely. Attributes can be thought of as columns in a table, where each column
represents a different piece of information about the entity. For example, in a database of
customer information, the attributes might include the customer's name, address, phone number,
and email address.
There are several types of attributes, including:
1. Simple attribute: An attribute that cannot be further subdivided. For example, a
customer's phone number is a simple attribute because it is a single value that cannot be
broken down into smaller parts.
2. Composite attribute: An attribute that can be further subdivided into smaller parts. For
example, a customer's address could be composed of separate attributes for street address,
city, state, and ZIP code.
3. Derived attribute: An attribute that is derived from other attributes in the database. For
example, a customer's age could be derived from their date of birth.
4. Key attribute: An attribute that is used to uniquely identify each entity in the database.
For example, in a database of employee information, the employee ID number might be
the key attribute.
5. Foreign key attribute: An attribute in one table that refers to the primary key of another
table. This is used to establish relationships between tables in a relational database.

Assigning keys

In a relational database, a key is a field or combination of fields that uniquely identify each
record in a table. There are several types of keys in a database:
1. Primary Key: A primary key is a field or combination of fields that uniquely identify
each record in a table. It cannot be null, and its value must be unique for each record.
2. Foreign Key: A foreign key is a field in a table that refers to the primary key of another
table. It establishes a link between the two tables.
3. Candidate Key: A candidate key is a field or combination of fields that could potentially
serve as a primary key.
4. Super Key: A super key is a combination of fields that uniquely identifies each record in
a table, but not necessarily using the minimum number of fields.
5. Alternate Key: An alternate key is a candidate key that is not selected as the primary key.
6. Composite Key: A composite key is a primary key that is made up of more than one field.

Defining Attributes Data Types

Database attributes, also known as fields or columns, can have different data types depending on
the type of information they represent. Some common data types for database attributes include:
1. Integer/Number/INT: A whole number without a decimal point, such as 1, 2, 3, etc.

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2. Float/Double: A number with a decimal point, such as 3.14 or 2.5.

3. Character/String/Text: A sequence of characters, such as a name or address.
4. Date/Time: A specific point in time, such as a birthdate or timestamp.
5. Boolean: A true/false or yes/no value.
6. Binary: Data stored in binary format, such as an image or audio file.
7. Currency: A specific monetary value, such as $10.99.
8. Object: A complex data type that can store various types of data, such as images, audio,
or video.
9. Text: Large amounts of unstructured text, such as a description or comment field.
Different database management systems may support additional or different data types beyond
these common types. It's important to choose the appropriate data type for each attribute to
ensure efficient storage and retrieval of data, as well as to maintain data integrity and accuracy.

Normalization:
Data normalization is a process of organizing data in a database in such a way that data
redundancy and anomalies are minimized. It involves breaking down a table into smaller tables
and defining relationships between them. The primary goal of normalization is to eliminate data
redundancy, which means storing the same data in multiple places, which can lead to
inconsistencies and errors.
Normalization is achieved by dividing larger tables into smaller tables, and creating relationships
between them. This is done by identifying the dependencies between the columns in a table and
grouping them into smaller, more manageable tables. The result is a set of tables that are
organized in such a way that each table has a single, well-defined purpose, and that redundancy
is minimized.
There are several levels of normalization, including:
1. First Normal Form (1NF): This level of normalization ensures that each column in a table
contains atomic values, which means that each value is indivisible and cannot be further
broken down into smaller values.
Example:
First Normal Form (1NF) requires that each column of a table contains atomic (indivisible)
values, and there are no repeating groups or arrays within any single row.
Here is an example of a table that violates 1NF:

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|
In the above table, the Item column has multiple values separated by commas. This violates
1NF because it violates the rule of atomicity - each column must have atomic values.
To convert the table into 1NF, we need to break up the repeating groups into separate rows
and create a new table for the items:

Now each column has atomic values, and there are no repeating groups or arrays within any
single row. This is an example of a table that satisfies 1NF.

2. Second Normal Form (2NF): This level of normalization eliminates partial dependencies
by ensuring that each non-key column in a table is dependent on the entire primary key,
not just part of it.

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Example
Second normal form (2NF) is a database normalization process that eliminates redundant
data in a table by ensuring that it is properly structured and all data is logically related. In
order to achieve 2NF, a table must meet two conditions: it must already be in first normal
form (1NF), and all non-key attributes must depend on the whole primary key.
Consider a table called "Sales" that contains information about customer orders:

Here, the primary key is composed of the CustomerID and OrderID attributes, and the
non-key attributes are OrderDate, ProductName, ProductPrice, and Quantity. However,
the table contains a partial dependency, where the non-key attributes depend only on the
OrderID and not the whole primary key.
To normalize this table to 2NF, we need to split the table into two tables: one for
customer information and one for order information. The resulting tables might look
something like this:

Now, the Orders table has a full primary key composed of OrderID and CustomerID, and
the OrderDetails table has a primary key composed of OrderID. All non-key attributes
depend on the whole primary key, so the table is in 2NF.

3. Third Normal Form (3NF): This level of normalization eliminates transitive dependencies
by ensuring that each non-key column in a table is dependent only on the primary key,
and not on any other non-key column.
Example of 3NF
Consider a table called Customer_Orders that tracks the orders made by customers. The
columns in this table are Customer_ID, Customer_Name, Order_Date, Product_ID,
Product_Name, Quantity, and Price.
Customer_ID Customer_Name Order_Date Product_ID Product_Name Quantity Price

$10
101 John Smith 2021-01-01 001 Laptop 2 00
101 John Smith 2021-01-01 002 Mouse 1 $20

102 Jane Doe 2021-02-01 003 Keyboard 1 $50

$20
103 Bob Johnson 2021-02-15 004 Printer 1 0

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The primary key for this table could be a composite key consisting of Customer_ID,
Order_Date, and Product_ID. However, this table violates 3NF because of the
transitive dependency between Customer_Name and Customer_ID.
To transform this table into 3NF, we need to create two new tables: Customers and
Products.
The Customers table has the columns Customer_ID and Customer_Name, and the
Products table has the columns Product_ID and Product_Name. We remove the
redundant Customer_Name and Product_Name columns from the Customer_Orders
table and replace them with the foreign keys Customer_ID and Product_ID,
respectively.
Here are the resulting tables:
Customers table:
Customer_ID Customer_Name
101 John Smith
102 Jane Doe
103 Bob Johnson
Products table:
Product_ID Product_Name
001 Laptop
002 Mouse
003 Keyboard
004 Printer
Customer_Orders table:
Customer_ID Order_Date Product_ID Quantity Price
101 2021-01-01 001 2 $1000
101 2021-01-01 002 1 $20
102 2021-02-01 003 1 $50
103 2021-02-15 004 1 $200
Now, Customer_Name and Product_Name are no longer repeated in the
Customer_Orders table, and the transitive dependency has been eliminated. The
Customer_ID and Product_ID columns in the Customer_Orders table are foreign keys
that reference the primary keys of the Customers and Products tables, respectively. This
design is now in 3NF.

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Other levels of normalization include Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF), Fourth Normal Form
(4NF), and Fifth Normal Form (5NF).

In Microsoft Access, there are several types of database objects that can be created:
1. Tables: Used to store data in a structured format, similar to a spreadsheet.
2. Queries: Used to search, filter, and manipulate data in tables.
3. Forms: Used to display data from tables and allow users to interact with the data.
4. Reports: Used to present data from tables in a formatted and organized manner.
5. Macros: Used to automate tasks in the database by running a series of predefined actions.
6. Modules: Used to create custom code that can be used to perform complex tasks or
automate specific processes within the database.

Update: Insertion, modification and deleting of the actual data.

Desktop Publishing Software

Desktop publishing (DTP) software is a type of software used to create page layouts, design
graphics, and produce print and digital documents for various purposes, such as magazines,
brochures, books, flyers, and newsletters. Some examples of DTP software include Adobe
InDesign, Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Pagemaker, QuarkXPress, Scribus, and Microsoft Publisher.
DTP software allows users to create complex and professional-quality layouts, incorporating
images, text, and graphic elements. These programs usually offer a range of tools and features,
such as typography, color management, image editing, page numbering, and book formatting.
Some DTP software can also export files in various formats, such as PDF, HTML, or EPUB,
making it easy to share or publish the final document across different platforms.
We can describe publishing as the process of producing publications such as newspapers,
pictures, cards, pamphlets, books calendars, etc. that has a special text and graphical designs
and layouts. Desktop publishing refers to the process of producing publications by designing
their text and graphics layout using special desktop publishing software installed on the
personal computers.

Publishing: This is the process of producing publications such as newspapers, cards pamphlets
pictures, calendars, books, etc. that has special text and graphical designs. Type setter: This is
the person designing publications.
Electronic pages: Commonly refers to the website, manuals, e-books, etc. which are normally
not printed but shared digitally.
Virtual pages: On the other hand, are electronic pages created in a DTP software which are
eventually published as printed pages.

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Traditionally publishing involved drawing and writing manually on wooden or metallic boards.
The artwork would then be painted with ink and pressed on papers to produce a printout.
Today the art of publishing makes use of personal computers and small printers that are able to
print high-quality text and graphics. All the publishing process can be done on a desk in the
office or at home. Desktop publishing refers to the process of producing publications by
designing their text and graphics layout using special desktop publishing software installed on
personal computers.

Functions of the desktop publishing software

Desktop publishing software is used to create and design visual materials for print or digital
distribution. Some of the functions of desktop publishing software include:
1. Layout and Design: Desktop publishing software is used to create layouts for print and
digital media, such as brochures, magazines, newsletters, and advertisements.
2. Text and Font Management: Desktop publishing software allows users to create and
manipulate text, including font, size, style, and color.
3. Image and Graphic Design: Desktop publishing software includes tools for creating and
editing graphics and images, such as logos, photos, and illustrations.
4. Page Formatting: Desktop publishing software allows users to set margins, add headers
and footers, and adjust page size and orientation.
5. Printing and Publishing: Desktop publishing software includes options for printing and
publishing documents, such as printing to a local printer, exporting to a PDF, or
uploading to a website.
6. Collaboration: Desktop publishing software can be used for collaborative projects,
allowing multiple users to work on a document at the same time and share files and ideas.

There are two types of DTP software:

1. Graphic-based: They are specifically developed for editing and formatting graphic
object like pictures. Examples:

Adobe Photoshop: A raster graphic editor developed and published by adobe for windows and
Mac OS. This software has become the industry standard, not only in raster graphics but also in
digital art as a whole.
Corel draw: Is a vector editor developed and marketed by Corel corporations. It is also the name
of the Corel graphics suite which includes the bitmap image of the editor Corel photo paint as
well as the other graphics-related programs.
Graphic-based desktop publishers have superior capabilities for handling images such as setting
resolutions, brightness contrast, cropping and filling images with color.
2. Layout-based: They are specifically developed to create different page layout designs
and pictures. Examples:

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Adobe page maker: This is a discontinued desktop publishing computer program introduced in
1985 by Aldus. The combination of PageMaker using the Macs graphical user interface for
document creation and the apple laser writer for output represented the starting point of what
became the desktop publishing revolution in the late 1980.
164
Microsoft publisher: This is a desktop publishing application from Microsoft word in that
emphasis is placed on page layout and design rather than text composition proofing.

Application of desktop publishing

Desktop publishing software is used to create visual designs and layouts for various types of
printed or electronic media. Some common applications of desktop publishing include:
1. Creating marketing materials: Desktop publishing software is often used to create eye-
catching marketing materials such as brochures, flyers, and newsletters.
2. Designing print publications: Desktop publishing software can be used to design various
types of print publications, such as books, magazines, and newspapers.
3. Producing business documents: Desktop publishing software is commonly used to
produce business documents such as reports, proposals, and presentations.
4. Developing graphics and illustrations: Desktop publishing software can be used to create
graphics and illustrations for a variety of purposes, including advertisements, web design,
and social media posts.
5. Creating educational materials: Desktop publishing software is often used to create
educational materials such as textbooks, workbooks, and training manuals.

Typesetting
Typesetting is the process of arranging text on a page or other medium for printing or digital
display. It involves selecting a typeface, adjusting its size and spacing, and positioning it in a way
that makes it easy to read and visually appealing. Typesetting can be done manually, using
traditional printing methods such as letterpress or offset printing, or digitally using desktop
publishing software. Typesetting is used in a variety of applications, including book publishing,
advertising, graphic design, and web design. Good typesetting is essential for creating
documents that are easy to read and visually appealing.

Presentation Software
Presentation packages are software applications designed for creating and delivering multimedia
presentations. They are widely used in business, education, and entertainment industries to create
visual aids for speeches, lectures, meetings, and events. The software provides tools to create and
format text, graphics, images, charts, diagrams, animations, and video to produce engaging and

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interactive presentations. A presentation package is a software package suite that contains

programs designed to accompany the speaker when he makes a presentation. It is always in form
of a slide show.
Presentation software is one of the application software that is used to display information in the
form of a slide show. They have three major functions: an editor, a method and a slide show
system to display content.
Some popular presentation packages include:
1. Microsoft PowerPoint: A widely used presentation software that comes bundled with the
Microsoft Office suite.
2. Apple Keynote: A presentation software designed for Mac OS X and iOS operating
systems.
3. Google Slides: A free, web-based presentation software provided by Google as part of the
Google Drive suite.
4. Prezi: A cloud-based presentation software that allows users to create interactive
presentations with a zooming interface.
5. Canva: A web-based graphic design platform that offers a range of presentation templates
and design tools to create professional-looking presentations.
6. LibreOffice Impress: An open-source presentation software that is part of the LibreOffice
office suite.
7. Haiku Deck: A mobile app that allows users to create presentations on their iOS devices
with a range of templates and design tools.
These software packages provide a range of features that allow users to create visually appealing
and engaging presentations to convey information and ideas effectively.

Definition of key terms

Presentation software: This is one of the application software that is used to display
information in the form of a slide show.
Presentation package: This is a software package suite that contains programs designed to
accompany the speaker when he makes a presentation. It is always in form of a slide.
Microsoft PowerPoint: This is a popular presentation software developed by Microsoft.
It is available in Microsoft office packages. It is used to prepare presentation slides.

A PowerPoint template is a pattern or blueprint of a slide or a group of slides that you can save
as a .pptx file. Templates contain layouts, theme colors, theme fonts, theme effects, background
styles and even new contents. We follow the following steps:
Click on design tab
Choose available themes or click on more button to search for other different themes.
If the color of theme needs to be changed, then click on the drop-down arrow.
If you like to choose or make different colors, then create new theme colors. Choose the color
and click on save button.

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If the background needs to be changed, then click on background styles.

Choose available backgrounds or click on format background to change the style of pictures and
colors. Finally click on the close button.
Changing layouts

You can change the layout according to the information added in your slide. Follow the
following steps to change the layout of content.
Click on the slide panel of home tab.
Choose the layout according to content.
Adding video

Click the insert tab.

Click the movie button from the media clips of the insert tab
Slide transitions

Transitions are effects that are seen when you switch from one slide to another. To add a
transition:
Select the slide; that you want transistors Click the animation tab
Click the appropriate animation or click the transition dialog box
Slide animation

Slide animation effects are predefined special effects that you can add to objects on a slide to
apply an animation effect.
Select the object.
Click the custom animations from the animation tab. animation pane will appear on the right side
of the screen.
Click the add effect and choose the appropriate effect from the pane.
Adding photo albums

Click the photo album button on the insert tab. Click on new photo album.
Click on file/disk to add pictures to the photo album, then the photo album dialogue box will
appear.
Browse your photo to create an album.
Select the required photos to keep in album.
Click on the create button from the dialogue box. Now your photo album will be created.

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Chapter 4:
Apply internet and email in communication at workplace
What is the Internet?
The internet is a global network of interconnected computer networks. It allows people all over
the world to communicate and share information with each other using a variety of services
such as email, instant messaging, and the World Wide Web. The internet has become an
essential part of modern life, enabling people to access vast amounts of information, conduct
business, entertain themselves, and connect with others regardless of physical location.

It is an interconnection of computers throughout the world, using ordinary communication

lines and modems. The internet uses (Very Small Aperture Telecommunication Systems) VSATS
such as telephone lines, satellites.

Functions of the internet

The internet has several functions, including:
1. Communication: The internet is used for communication, enabling people to send and
receive emails, instant messages, video conferencing, voice calls, and social media
messages.
2. Information sharing: The internet is a vast repository of information that can be accessed
and shared easily. People use the internet to research topics, read news, and find
information on products and services.
3. Online shopping: The internet allows people to shop online and make purchases from the
comfort of their homes. E-commerce sites such as Amazon, eBay, and Walmart are
popular online shopping destinations.
4. Entertainment: The internet provides various forms of entertainment, such as streaming
movies and TV shows, playing online games, listening to music, and watching videos on
platforms such as YouTube.
5. Education: The internet is a valuable tool for learning and education, providing access to
online courses, tutorials, and educational resources.
6. Business: The internet has revolutionized the way businesses operate, providing
opportunities for e-commerce, online marketing, and remote work.
7. Social networking: The internet enables people to connect with others through social
media platforms, such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and LinkedIn.
8. Research and development: The internet provides a platform for researchers to
collaborate and share information, leading to new discoveries and innovations.

Services of the internet

The Internet provides various services that enable communication, collaboration, and access to
information. Some of the common internet services include:

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1. World Wide Web (WWW): This is a service that enables users to access and view web
pages on the internet using a web browser.
2. Email: Electronic mail is a service that enables users to send and receive messages and
files over the internet.
3. File transfer protocol (FTP): This is a service that enables users to transfer files from one
computer to another over the internet.
4. Instant messaging (IM): This is a service that enables users to send and receive real-time
messages over the internet.
5. Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP): This is a service that enables users to make voice
and video calls over the internet.
6. Online gaming: This is a service that enables users to play games with other people over
the internet.
7. Social media: This is a service that enables users to create, share, and interact with
content and other users over the internet.
8. Search engines: This is a service that enables users to search for and find information on
the internet.
9. Online banking: This is a service that enables users to manage their finances, pay bills,
and conduct transactions over the internet.
10. Online shopping: This is a service that enables users to purchase products and services
over the internet.

Advantages of the Internet

There are several advantages of the internet, including:
1. Access to Information: The internet provides access to an abundance of information on
any topic imaginable. This information can be used for research, learning, and personal
growth.
2. Communication: The internet allows people to communicate with one another regardless
of their location. Email, chat, and video conferencing are some of the many ways people
can communicate online.
3. Entertainment: The internet offers a vast array of entertainment options, including
streaming videos, music, and online games.
4. Online Shopping: The internet makes shopping more convenient than ever before.
Consumers can shop from the comfort of their own homes and have products delivered
right to their doorstep.
5. Flexibility: The internet offers flexibility in terms of work and education. People can
work and learn from anywhere with an internet connection, allowing for more freedom
and work-life balance.
6. Social Networking: The internet allows people to connect and interact with others around
the world through social networking sites like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram.

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7. Cost Savings: The internet provides cost savings for both businesses and consumers.
Businesses can save on marketing and advertising costs, while consumers can save on
travel, shopping, and other expenses.

Disadvantages of the internet

While the internet has numerous advantages, it also has several disadvantages. Some of the main
disadvantages of the internet include:
1. Addiction: The internet can be highly addictive, leading to reduced productivity,
isolation, and neglect of other important responsibilities.
2. Cyberbullying: The internet provides a platform for bullies to target and harass
individuals, leading to emotional distress and even physical harm.
3. Online fraud: The internet is also a breeding ground for scams and fraud, with many
individuals falling prey to phishing, hacking, identity theft, and other malicious activities.
4. Cyberstalking: Cyberstalking involves the use of the internet to harass, intimidate, or
threaten individuals, often leading to severe emotional and psychological trauma.
5. Security risks: The internet is prone to security breaches, making it vulnerable to
malware, viruses, and other cyber attacks that can compromise sensitive data.
6. Spread of misinformation: The internet is rife with misinformation, propaganda, and fake
news, which can have serious consequences on individuals, organizations, and even
governments.
7. Dependence: The internet has made us overly dependent on technology, leading to
reduced critical thinking, problem-solving, and social skills.

Electronic Email
Electronic email, commonly known as email, is a digital communication method that allows
individuals to send and receive messages and files over the internet or other computer
networks. Email messages are usually composed using an email client or webmail service and
can contain text, images, attachments, and other multimedia elements. Email is a fast and
convenient way to communicate with others, and it has become an essential tool for personal
and professional communication in today's digital age.
Examples of email services include:
1. Gmail
2. Outlook.com
3. Yahoo Mail
4. ProtonMail
5. AOL Mail
6. Zoho Mail
7. iCloud Mail
8. GMX Mail

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9. Mail.com
10. FastMail

Mail server
A mail server is a computer system that sends, receives, and stores email messages. It uses
standard email protocols such as Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) and Post Office Protocol
(POP) to send and receive messages between email clients and other email servers. Mail
servers can be used by individuals or organizations to manage their email communication.
Some common examples of mail servers include Microsoft Exchange Server, Google Mail, and
Yahoo Mail.

POP3
POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3) is an internet standard protocol used by email clients to
retrieve emails from a remote mail server. When a user downloads their email messages from
the mail server to their local device or computer, the messages are typically deleted from the
server, although some email clients offer options to keep a copy on the server. POP3 is one of
the most commonly used email protocols along with IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol).

SMTP
SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It is a standard communication protocol used to
transmit email messages over the internet between mail servers. SMTP is responsible for
sending messages from a mail client or application to a mail server, which then routes the
message to its intended recipient.

IMAP
IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) is an email protocol used to access and manage email
messages on a mail server. IMAP allows users to view and manipulate email messages without
downloading them to their local devices, making it useful for accessing email from multiple
devices or locations. With IMAP, users can organize and manage their email messages, create
and delete folders, search for specific messages, and more. Unlike POP3, which is primarily a
download-only protocol, IMAP allows users to both read and send email messages.

Incoming Mail Server

An incoming mail server is a computer or software application that is responsible for receiving
incoming email from email clients like Microsoft Outlook, Gmail, and others. When an email is
sent from one person to another, the outgoing mail server forwards the message to the
incoming mail server of the recipient's email service provider. The incoming mail server then

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stores the message until the recipient accesses their email account and retrieves the message.
Examples of incoming mail servers include POP3, IMAP, and Exchange servers.

Outgoing Mail Server

An outgoing mail server (also known as SMTP server) is a server responsible for sending emails
from your email client or webmail service to the recipient's email server. When you compose
and send an email, your email client or webmail service connects to the outgoing mail server to
send the email message to the recipient's email server. The outgoing mail server typically
requires authentication to prevent unauthorized users from using the server to send spam or
other malicious messages.

Email address
An email address is a unique identifier used to send and receive emails over the internet. It is
composed of two parts separated by the "@" symbol: the username and the domain name. For
example, john.doe@example.com is an email address, where "john.doe" is the username and
"example.com" is the domain name. When someone sends an email to this address, it is
delivered to the email server associated with the domain name, and the recipient can access it
by logging in to their email account.

Email extension
An email extension, also known as a top-level domain (TLD), is the part of the email address
that comes after the last dot. Some common email extensions include:
1. .com - commercial businesses
2. .edu - educational institutions
3. .gov - government organizations
4. .org - non-profit organizations
5. .net - network organizations
6. .mil - military organizations
7. .info - informational websites
8. .biz - businesses
9. .me - personal websites
10. .io - technology companies
11. .ac – academic institutions
There are also country-specific extensions, such as .uk for the United Kingdom, .ca for Canada
and .ke for Kenya
Advantages of email
Some advantages of email are:

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1. Speed: Email is a fast way to send messages or information to people anywhere in the
world. With just a few clicks, you can send an email to someone on the other side of the
globe.
2. Convenience: Email can be accessed from anywhere, as long as you have an internet
connection. You can use a computer, laptop, tablet, or even a smartphone to send and
receive emails.
3. Cost-effective: Unlike traditional mail, email is free, which makes it a cost-effective
option for businesses and individuals.
4. Environmentally friendly: Sending emails eliminates the need for paper, envelopes, and
stamps, which reduces the impact on the environment.
5. Record keeping: Emails can be saved and stored, making it easy to search and retrieve
important information at a later time.
6. Multiple recipients: You can send an email to multiple recipients at once, making it an
efficient way to communicate with groups of people.
7. Attachments: Emails allow you to attach documents, photos, and other files, making it
easy to share information with others.

Disadvantages of email
While email is a powerful tool for communication, it also has some disadvantages. Here are a
few:
1. Security concerns: Email can be vulnerable to hacking, viruses, and phishing attacks.
2. Overwhelming amount of emails: People can receive a large amount of emails that can be
overwhelming to manage and respond to.
3. Spam: Unsolicited emails, also known as spam, can clog up inboxes and make it harder
to find important messages.
4. Misinterpretation: Written communication can be easily misinterpreted, leading to
misunderstandings and conflicts.
5. Lack of personal touch: Email lacks the personal touch of face-to-face or phone
conversations, making it harder to build relationships.
6. Dependence on technology: Email requires access to the internet and a computer or
mobile device, which can be limiting for those without regular access to these resources.

Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a set of rules that governs the transfer of information
over the internet. It defines how messages are formatted and transmitted, and what actions
web servers and browsers should take in response to various commands. HTTP is the
foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web (WWW) and it enables the
exchange of various resources such as hypertext documents, images, videos, and audio files.

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Web browser
A web browser is a software application that allows users to access and view websites on the
internet. It interprets the HTML code of web pages and displays them in a visually appealing
format on the user's computer or mobile device. Some popular web browsers include Google
Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Apple Safari, Microsoft Edge, and Opera.

Intranet
An intranet is a private computer network that uses internet protocols, network connectivity
and possibly the public telecommunication system to securely share part of an organization's
information or operations with its employees. An intranet may have its own servers and may be
accessible only from the internal network or by authenticated users who are granted access. In
contrast, the internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use
standard communication protocols to link devices worldwide. The internet is public and
accessible to everyone with an internet connection, while an intranet is private and only
accessible to authorized users.

Extranet
An intranet is a private computer network that uses internet protocols, network connectivity
and possibly the public telecommunication system to securely share part of an organization's
information or operations with its employees. An intranet may have its own servers and may be
accessible only from the internal network or by authenticated users who are granted access. In
contrast, the internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use
standard communication protocols to link devices worldwide. The internet is public and
accessible to everyone with an internet connection, while an intranet is private and only
accessible to authorized users. It works in the same manners as intranet but provides
information to selected users outside the organization.

Webpage
A webpage is a document that is coded in a markup language, such as HTML, that is displayed
on the internet through a web browser. It can contain text, images, videos, hyperlinks, and
other multimedia elements that are displayed in a specific layout or design. Webpages are used
for a variety of purposes, including providing information, selling products or services, sharing
content, and communicating with others. They can be static, with fixed content that does not
change, or dynamic, with content that is updated regularly or in response to user interactions.

Website
A website is a collection of web pages or digital content that is accessible via the internet. It is
typically hosted on a web server and can be accessed using a web browser. Websites can

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contain a variety of content, including text, images, videos, and interactive features such as
forms and shopping carts. They can serve many purposes, from providing information about a
business or organization to offering online services such as e-commerce or social networking.
Websites can be created using a variety of tools and technologies, including content
management systems, programming languages, and web design software.

Web address
A web address, also known as a URL (Uniform Resource Locator), is a unique address that
identifies a specific web page or resource on the internet. A web address consists of different
components, including the protocol (such as HTTP or HTTPS), domain name, and path or
resource location. For example, the URL for the Google search engine is
https://www.google.com/. The protocol is HTTPS, the domain name is google.com, and the
resource location is the root directory of the website.

World Wide Web (WWW)

The World Wide Web (WWW or Web) is a system of interlinked hypertext documents that are
accessed via the internet using a web browser.
The Web allows users to navigate between different web pages by clicking on hyperlinks and to
interact with web applications and services. It is a key component of the internet and has become
an essential tool for business, education, entertainment, and communication.

ISP
ISP stands for "Internet Service Provider." It is a company that provides individuals and
organizations with access to the Internet. ISPs offer different types of Internet connections, such
as broadband (cable, DSL, or fiber), dial-up, and satellite. They may also provide email, web
hosting, and other related services.

Network configuration
This is the process of setting network controls, flow, and operation to support the network
communication of an organization and or network owner. It is also known as network set up.

Also referred to the process of setting up and managing the various components of a computer
network. It involves configuring network devices such as routers, switches, and firewalls, as well
as network protocols such as TCP/IP, DNS, DHCP, and others.
Some common network configuration tasks include:
1. Assigning IP addresses to devices on the network
2. Configuring network interfaces on servers and workstations
3. Setting up and configuring firewalls to protect the network
4. Configuring network routing and gateway settings

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5. Configuring DNS and DHCP servers to manage network services

6. Configuring network security settings, such as encryption and authentication protocols
Network configuration is essential for ensuring that a network operates efficiently and securely,
and it is typically managed by IT professionals or network administrators.

Router configuration: Specifies the correct IP addresses and route setting.

Host configuration: Sets up a network connection on a host computer/laptop by logging the

default network settings such as IP addressing, proxy, network name.

Software configuration: Any network-based software is allowed access and provided with the
appropriate credential to monitor network traffic.

There are several types of network configurations, including:

1. Peer-to-peer network: In this configuration, all computers on the network have equal
capabilities and responsibilities. Each computer can act as both a client and a server, and
can share resources such as files and printers. They are commonly implemented where
less than 10 computers are involved and where strict security is not necessary. All
computers have the same status hence the term “peer” and they communicate to each
other on equal footing.
2. Client-server network: In this configuration, one or more central servers provide services
to multiple client computers. Clients request services from the server, which responds by
providing the requested service. This configuration is commonly used in businesses and
organizations. Usually, the server is a higher than average performance computer. The
server also controls the network access of the other computer which are referred to as
client computers.
3. Domain network: In this configuration, computers are organized into a hierarchical
structure called a domain. Each domain has a domain controller, which manages user
accounts, permissions, and other settings. This configuration is commonly used in larger
organizations.
4. Workgroup network: In this configuration, computers are organized into a group called a
workgroup, and each computer is responsible for managing its own resources. This
configuration is typically used in small businesses or home networks.
5. Hybrid network: This configuration combines elements of both client-server and peer-to-
peer networks. It allows for centralized management and control while still allowing
individual computers to share resources and communicate directly with each other.

Components of a computer network

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A computer network is a group of interconnected devices that can communicate and share
resources. Some of the components of a computer network include:
1. Devices: These are the physical components of the network such as computers, servers,
printers, switches, routers, and hubs.
2. Network Interface Card (NIC): It is a hardware component that connects a computer to a
network. It allows a computer to communicate over a network by converting digital data
into an electrical signal that can be transmitted over the network.
3. Cables: These are used to connect devices on the network. There are different types of
cables, such as Ethernet cables, fiber optic cables, and coaxial cables.
4. Switches: These are used to connect multiple devices on a network. They help to control
the flow of data by directing it to the appropriate destination.
5. Routers: These are used to connect multiple networks together. They help to direct traffic
between different networks and ensure that data is transmitted to the appropriate
destination.
6. Network Operating System (NOS): It is software that runs on a server and provides
services to clients on the network. Examples of NOS include Windows Server, Linux,
and Novell Netware.
7. Network protocols: These are rules that govern how devices communicate on a network.
Examples of network protocols include TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, and SMTP.
8. Network security devices: These are used to protect the network from unauthorized
access and malicious attacks. Examples of network security devices include firewalls,
intrusion detection systems, and antivirus software.
9. Network applications: These are software programs that run on the network and provide
services to users. Examples of network applications include email, file sharing, and web
browsing.

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