Article

applied
sciences
Minimization of the Decoupling Circuit (DC-Link) in
Article
Induction Motors
Minimization of the Decoupling Circuit (DC-Link) in
Induction
Luis Motors, Mario Ponce-Silva *, Leobardo Hernández-González *, Gabriel Calzada-Lara
Mauricio Carrillo-Santos 1 1, 2, 3 ,
Yesenia Reyes-Severiano and Oswaldo Ulises Juarez-Sandoval
1 2

Luis Mauricio Carrillo-Santos 1 , Mario Ponce-Silva 1, * , Leobardo Hernández-González 2, * ,

Gabriel Calzada-Lara 3 , Yesenia Reyes-Severiano
1 Tecnólogico
1 and Oswaldo
Nacional de México-CENIDET, UlisesPC
Cuernavaca Juarez-Sandoval
62490, Mexico;
2

luiscarrillo16e@cenidet.edu.mx (L.M.C.-S.), yeseniareyes16e@cenidet.edu.mx (Y.R.-S.)

2
1 Instituto Politécnico Nacional, ESIME Culhuacan, Mexico City PC 07738, Mexico; ojuarezs@ipn.mx
Tecnólogico Nacional de México-CENIDET, Cuernavaca PC 62490, Mexico
3 Colegio de Postgraduados, Salinas de Hidalgo, San Luis Potosí PC 78600, Mexico;
2 Instituto Politécnico Nacional, ESIME Culhuacan, Mexico City PC 07738, Mexico
3 calzada.gabriel@colpos.mx
Colegio de Postgraduados, Salinas de Hidalgo, San Luis Potosí PC 78600, Mexico
* Correspondence: mario.ps@cenidet.tecnm.mx (M.P.-S.); lhernandezg@ipn.mx (L.H.-G.)
* Correspondence: mario.ps@cenidet.tecnm.mx (M.P.-S.); lhernandezg@ipn.mx (L.H.-G.)

Abstract:
Abstract: There
There is is currently
currently aa growing
growing interest
interest in in replacing
replacing the the internal
internal combustion
combustion engineengine with
with
electric motors in transportation applications. However, there are different problems
electric motors in transportation applications. However, there are different problems related to electric related to elec-
tric motors
motors for this
for this application.
application. OneOne of them
of them is the
is the oversizing
oversizing of the
of the energy
energy decoupling
decoupling system
system since
since to
to ensure that the decoupling capacitor can store the power fluctuations, the
ensure that the decoupling capacitor can store the power fluctuations, the capacitance required by capacitance required
by
thethe system
system is usually
is usually oversized.
oversized. ThisThis leads
leads to preference
to preference forfor
thetheuseuse of capacitors
of capacitors withwith construc-
construction
tion
technologies that have a lower lifetime than the remaining elements of the propulsion system,system,
technologies that have a lower lifetime than the remaining elements of the propulsion directly
directly
affectingaffecting the reliability
the reliability of the system.
of the system. In thisInarticle,
this article, the energy
the energy flow flow
handledhandled
by thebydecoupling
the decou-
pling capacitor
capacitor is analyzed
is analyzed considering
considering the critical
the critical case ofcase of operation
operation of an induction
of an induction motor to motor to mini-
minimize the
mize the capacitance
capacitance required required by the propulsion
by the propulsion system; emphasizing
system; emphasizing the conditions
the conditions that generate
that generate a higher
aenergy
higherreturn,
energyfrom return,
the from
motorthe motor
mode mode
of the of themachine
electric electric to
machine
the decoupling capacitor.capacitor.
to the decoupling From the
From the energy analysis, an equation for the capacitor calculation
energy analysis, an equation for the capacitor calculation is obtained, involving is obtained, involving propor-
proportionality
tionality factors that relate to the different operating powers, reducing up to 62.2%
factors that relate to the different operating powers, reducing up to 62.2% of the capacitance value of the capacitance
value required
required by theby the decoupling
decoupling system, system,
under under conditions
conditions of maximum
of maximum energyenergy
returnreturn
in motorin motor
mode,
mode, compared to existing equations
compared to existing equations in the literature. in the literature.

Citation: Carrillo-Santos, L.M.; Keywords:

Keywords: DC-link;
DC-link; electric
electric vehicle;
vehicle; coupling
coupling capacitor;
capacitor; energy
energy analysis
analysis
Ponce-Silva, M.; Hernández-Gonzá-
Citation: Carrillo-Santos, L.M.;
lez, L.; Calzada-Lara,
Ponce-Silva, M.; G.;
Reyes-Severiano, Y.; Juarez-Sando-
Hernández-González, L.;
val, O.U. Minimization
Calzada-Lara, of the
G.; Reyes-Severiano, Y.; 1. Introduction
Decoupling Circuit
Juarez-Sandoval, (DC-Link)
O.U. in
Minimization
Induction Motors. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13,
Currently, there is an increasing global concern to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
emissions
of the Decoupling Circuit (DC-Link)
x.
in https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx
Induction Motors. Appl. Sci. 2023,
produced by the transportation sector while improving energy efficiency. efficiency. The migration
13, 3674. https://doi.org/10.3390/
to the use of electric motors in
in traction
traction applications
applications [1–4],
[1–4], which
which offer
offer several
several advantages,
advantages,
Academic Editor: Frede Blaabjerg
app13063674 including significantly higher efficiency
efficiency than internal combustion engines [5–8], has been been
Received: 15 February 2023 proposed as an option. Within
Within electric
electric motors,
motors, three-phase
three-phase induction
inductionmotors
motorsareareof
ofpar-
par-
Academic Editor: Frede Blaabjerg
Revised: 8 March 2023 ticular interest due to their simplicity, robustness, low cost, low maintenance,
maintenance, andand high
Accepted:
Received: 11 March 2023
15 February 2023 reliability compared to DC motors [9–12]. However, the adoption rate of electric vehicles
Published: 14 March
Revised: 8 March 2023
2023 is still low due to the short lifetime of some of the elements that compose the propulsion
Accepted: 11 March 2023 system (Figure 1) [13–16].
Published: 14 March 2023

Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.

Submitted for possible open access
publication under the terms and con-
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
ditions of the Creative Commons At-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
tribution (CC BY) license (https://cre-
This article is an open access article
ativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons Figure
Figure 1. Electric
Electric vehicle
vehicle propulsion
propulsion system.
system.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Regarding the reliability and lifetime of the propulsion system, several studies address
4.0/). strategies to improve the design and selection of these elements, for example in [17]
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x. https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3674. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13063674 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 16

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3674 2 of 16

Regarding the reliability and lifetime of the propulsion system, several studies ad-
dress strategies to improve the design and selection of these elements, for example in [17]
and [18]
and [18] strategies
strategies thatthatcontribute
contributetotothe improvement
the improvement of of
thethe
reliability of the
reliability battery
of the ele-
battery
ment belonging to the propulsion system are presented. Another
element belonging to the propulsion system are presented. Another weak point of the weak point of the pro-
pulsion system,
propulsion system,duedueto its
to short lifetime,
its short is the
lifetime, decoupling
is the decoupling element.
element.
The decoupling element has the function of storing
The decoupling element has the function of storing energy to energy to damp
damp thethe fluctuation
fluctuation
between the
between the constant
constantpowerpowerofofthetheDC DCsource
sourceandandthethe power
power present
present in in
thethe load
load (Figure
(Figure 2).
2). However,
However, thisthis fluctuation
fluctuation cancan cause
cause a variation
a variation of the
of the DC DC voltage
voltage andand a reduction
a reduction in
in the
the system performance [1,19,20], which represents an affectation to the
system performance [1,19,20], which represents an affectation to the optimal system perfor- optimal system
performance.
mance. Because Because of the negative
of the negative impact of impact of the aforementioned
the aforementioned fluctuation,fluctuation, the im-
the importance of
portance
the of thesystem
decoupling decoupling system
addressed addressed
in this paper isinemphasized,
this paper is asemphasized,
constant power as constant
demand
power
is demand
required is required
to improve system to improve
performancesystem performance [21,22].
[21,22].

Figure 2.
Figure 2. Instantaneous
Instantaneous power
power using
using the
the motor
motor as
as aa load.
load.

The decoupling
The decoupling elementelement is is usually
usually oversized
oversized by by selecting
selecting highhigh capacitances
capacitances to to ensure
ensure
its correct operation
operation in in various
variousworking
workingscenarios.
scenarios.This This leads
leadsto to
thethe
useuseof electrolytic
of electrolytic ca-
pacitors due
capacitors dueto to
their high-power
their high-power density
densityandand lowlowcost.cost.
However, this capacitor
However, this capacitorconstruc-
con-
tion technology
struction technologyhas ahaslowa lifetime compared
low lifetime compared to the toother elements
the other of the
elements ofpropulsion
the propulsion sys-
tem [19,23–27].
system [19,23–27].
Therefore, several studies have been carried out with alternatives to reduce the size size
the decoupling
of the decoupling element element to select
select aa different
different construction
construction technology
technology for the the capacitor
capacitor
that has
that has aalonger
longerlifetime
lifetimeand andatatthe
thesame
same time
time hashas a positive
a positive impact
impact on the
on the reliability
reliability of theof
the system
system [28,29].
[28,29]. However,
However, mostmost strategies
strategies to minimize
to minimize the decoupling
the decoupling capacitance
capacitance requirere-
adding additional
quire adding topology
additional to the system,
topology such assuch
to the system, passive filters and
as passive active
filters andfilters
active[30–33].
filters
Passive
[30–33].filters
Passive include
filtersan electrolytic
include capacitorcapacitor
an electrolytic connected to the DCtosupply,
connected the DCa supply,
series induc-
a se-
tance, or coupled filters [34–36]. As performed in [30], which
ries inductance, or coupled filters [34–36]. As performed in [30], which adds two notch adds two notch filter design
techniques,
filter designthe first modulated
techniques, bymodulated
the first triangular and sawtooth carriers
by triangular and thecarriers
and sawtooth second and passive
the
filter
second that reduces
passive thethat
filter current in the
reduces thenominal
currentoperating
in the nominalregion. As well as,
operating in some
region. works,
As well as,
ainthree-port
some works, ripple topology isripple
a three-port addedtopology
which allows the capacitor
is added which allows to be reduced
the capacitor [31]. to be
Adding
reduced [31].an extra topology or element to the system to perform the function of reducing
the capacitance
Adding an of thetopology
extra decoupling system can
or element to the negatively
system toaffectperformthe the
robustness,
function cost, and
of reduc-
reliability of the system. Therefore, it is important to explore
ing the capacitance of the decoupling system can negatively affect the robustness, cost, alternatives that allow the
capacitance to be reduced without negatively affecting the system
and reliability of the system. Therefore, it is important to explore alternatives that allow as a whole, which
emphasizes
the capacitance the importance
to be reduced of the analysis
without developed
negatively in thisthe
affecting article.
system as a whole, which
emphasizes the importance of the analysis developed in this article.capacitance equation
The main contribution of this paper is to obtain a minimum
necessary
The main to guarantee the minimization
contribution of this paperofisthe to size of the
obtain decoupling
a minimum system capacitor
capacitance equation in
the electric vehicle propulsion system, which performs the function
necessary to guarantee the minimization of the size of the decoupling system capacitor in of absorbing the power
fluctuations of the system.
the electric vehicle propulsionThe equation
system, whichwas obtained
performs through an analysis
the function of the power
of absorbing the
flow in the power electronic converters of the system. The
power fluctuations of the system. The equation was obtained through an analysis analysis focused on identifying
of the
the
powercritical
flowscenario whereelectronic
in the power the highest energy return
converters of theoccurs
system. inThe
the analysis
motor operation
focused mode on iden- of
the electric
tifying vehicle,scenario
the critical considering
wherethe theexistence of different
highest energy return operation
occurs inmodes
the motor of the electric
operation
machine, including regenerative braking (generator mode), for which topologies are added
mode of the electric vehicle, considering the existence of different operation modes of the
to the system for energy management and storage, as reported in previous works [15,37,38].
The developed equation considers the critical case of operation to guarantee the correct
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3674 3 of 16

operation of the system in working schemes with lower demand than this, avoiding
oversizing and at the same time minimizing the minimum capacitance required by the
decoupling system without the need to design and implement an extra topology that
performs this function in comparison with the options reported in the literature.
The article is organized as follows: Section 2 presents the methodology for selecting
the case study, and the mathematical procedure to obtain the minimum capacitance. Subse-
quently, Section 3 presents the simulation results using the capacitance equation obtained
in conjunction with the power system and in addition, the analysis of the simulation re-
sults using the developed equation in comparison with existing equations in the literature
is presented. Finally, Section 4 presents the conclusions reached in the development of
this work.

2. Energy Flow Analysis of the Study Case

In this section, the methodology for the selection of the study case is described. The
system operating conditions are defined to obtain the minimum capacitance equation.
Likewise, the definition and mathematical development of the equation are presented.

2.1. Case Study Selection

For the selection of the case study, an evaluation of the behavior of the energy flow
in the system under different operating profiles of the electric vehicle is performed. The
purpose of this is to carry out a comparison between the points with the highest energy
return, to subsequently select the operating profile that represents the critical point with the
highest energy stored by the decoupling system, which will be used for the development of
the mathematical equation proposed in this article. The methodology used for the selection
of the case study is listed below:
1. The analysis is delimited to the motor operation mode of the electric machine.
2. The operation profile to be analyzed (torque variation or speed variation at constant
load) is selected.
3. The analysis of the power flow behavior in the selected profile is carried out, starting
from the inverter current.
4. The point with the highest energy return in the working profile is identified.
5. The results of the previous point are obtained in both operation profiles.
6. A comparison is made of the points of highest energy return obtained in both work
profiles (torque variation or speed variation at constant load).
7. The critical case with the highest level of energy return obtained from the previous
step is selected.
8. Mathematical development is performed considering the selected critical case.
The mathematical development of the capacitance required by the decoupling system,
using the critical point resulting from the abovementioned comparison, guarantees the
correct operation of the system in less demanding work scenarios since it ensures that the
calculated capacitor can operate in the case of a higher energy return. For the analysis
of the operation profiles of the electric vehicle, a three-phase induction motor is used as
load, whose specifications are shown in Table 1, for accurate and consistent results with
the application.

Table 1. Motor specifications.

Parameter Value
Power load 3 HP
Motor speed 1800 RPM
Nominal motor current 8A
Number of poles 4
 Table 1. Motor specifications.
Parameter Value
Parameter Value
Power load 3 HP
Power load 3 HP
Motor speed 1800 RPM
Motor speed 1800 RPM
Nominal motor current 8A
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3674 Nominal motor current 8A 4 of 16
Number of poles 4
Number of poles 4
2.1.1. Torque Variation
2.1.1. Torque
Torque Variation
In this first operation profile, different slopes in the operation of the electric vehicle
In this first operation profile, different
different slopes in the operation of the electric vehicle
are emulated since these situations require different motor powers. For this purpose, a
are emulated
emulated since these situations requiredifferent
since these situations require differentmotor
motorpowers.
powers.ForForthis purpose,
this purpose,a
load variation technique is used to simulate the variation of the conditions of use of the
load
a loadvariation
variationtechnique
techniqueisisused
usedtotosimulate
simulatethethevariation
variationofofthe
theconditions
conditionsofof use
use of
of the
electric vehicle.
electric vehicle.
For the analysis, different levels of torque variation are used to evaluate the power
For the analysis, different
different levels
levels of torque variation
variation are used to evaluate the power
behavior of the system. These levels range from the nominal torque of the motor up to
behavior of of the
thesystem.
system.These
Theselevels
levelsrange
rangefrom
from thethe nominal
nominal torque
torque of the
of the motor
motor up10%
up to to
10% of the motor (Figure 3) and are essential to simulate high and low power demand
10%
of theofmotor
the motor
(Figure(Figure
3) and 3)
areand are essential
essential to simulate
to simulate high andhigh and low
low power powersituations
demand demand
situations in the vehicle applications.
in the vehicle
situations applications.
in the vehicle applications.

Figure 3. Torque variation steps: (a) 30% of rated torque; (b) 60% of rated torque; (c) at full load; (d)
Figure 3. Torque
Torque variation steps: (a)
(a) 30%
30% of
of rated
rated torque;
torque; (b)
(b) 60%
60% of
of rated
rated torque;
torque; (c)
(c) at
at full
full load;
load; (d)
(d)
50% of rated torque; and (e) 10% of rated torque.
50% of rated torque; and (e) 10% of rated torque.
Figure 44 shows
Figure shows the inverter
inverter current (i(iinv)) at
at different
different intervals
intervals of
of the
the electric
electric vehicle
vehicle
Figure 4 shows the the inverter current
current (iinv
inv) at different intervals of the electric vehicle
operation. It can
operation. ItIt can be
can be observed
be observed that
observed that there
that there are
there are intervals
are intervals
intervals inin which
in which there
which there is
there is an
is an energy
an energy return,
energy return,
return,
operation.
which means
which means
means that that the
that the current
the current is negative. Emphasizing that the purpose of the variations
which current is
is negative. Emphasizing that
negative. Emphasizing that the
the purpose
purpose of of the
the variations
variations
presented is
presented is to
to observe
observe thethe interval
interval inin which
which the
the greatest
greatest amount
amount of of energy
energy is is returned
returned to
to
presented is to observe the interval in which the greatest amount of energy is returned to
the source.
the source.
source.
the

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Inverter
Inverter current,
current, varying
varying torque: (a) at 30% ofof rated
rated torque;
torque; (b)
(b) at
at 60%
60% of
of non-minimum
non-minimum
Figure 4. Inverter current, varying torque: (a) at 30% of rated torque; (b) at 60% of non-minimum
torque; (c)
torque; (c) at
at full
full load;
load; (d)
(d) at
at 50%
50% of
of rated
rated torque;
torque;and
and(e)
(e)at
at10%
10%ofofrated
ratedtorque.
torque.
torque; (c) at full load; (d) at 50% of rated torque; and (e) at 10% of rated torque.
The previous figure is important because it allows observation of the direction and
magnitude of the electric current flowing through the inverter, which provides information
about the energy behavior of the system. With the data provided in Figures 3 and 4, it is
emphasized that for this work scenario, the highest level of current return to the capacitor
is presented at the moment of varying the torque from 50% to 10% of the nominal load.

2.1.2. Speed Variation at Constant Load

In this operation profile, the speed variation at a constant load is performed, which
consists of modifying the speed of the electric motor while maintaining a constant load.
This is done to observe the behavior of the energy under frequency and voltage variations.
 4, itit is
4, is emphasized
emphasized that
that for
for this
this work
work scenario,
scenario, the
the highest
highest level
level of
of current
current return
return to
to the
the
capacitor is
capacitor is presented
presented at
at the
the moment
moment ofof varying
varying the
the torque
torque from
from 50%
50% to
to 10%
10% of
of the
the nomi-
nomi-
nal load.
nal load.

2.1.2. Speed
2.1.2. Speed Variation
Variation at
at Constant
Constant Load
Load
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3674 5 of 16
In this
In this operation
operation profile,
profile, the
the speed
speed variation
variation atat aa constant
constant loadload is
is performed,
performed, which
which
consists of
consists of modifying
modifying the the speed
speed ofof the
the electric
electric motor
motor while
while maintaining
maintaining aa constant
constant load.
load.
This is
This is done
done toto observe
observe the
the behavior
behavior of of the
the energy
energy under
under frequency
frequency and and voltage
voltage variations.
variations.
To
Toperform
To performthis
perform thisoperation
this operationprofile,
operation profile,different
differentvoltage
different voltageand
voltage andfrequency
frequencylevelslevels are
areapplied
applied
to
to the
the electric
electric motor,
motor, trying
motor, trying to
trying to maintain
to maintain aaaconstant
maintain constant load.
constant load. In
load. this way,
In this way, the the behavior
behavior and
behavior and
performance
performanceof
performance ofthe
of themotor
motorunder
underdifferent
differentoperating
different operatingconditions
operating conditionscan
conditions canbe
can beevaluated.
be evaluated. Figure
evaluated. Figure55
shows
showsthe
shows the inverter
the inverter current
inverter currentobtained
current obtainedat
obtained at different
at differenttest
different testspeeds
test speedsat
speeds at constant
at constant load,
constant load, which
load, which allows
which allows
allows
observation
observation of
observation of the
of the variation
the variation
variation ofof the
of the current
the current
current asas a function
as aa function
function of of the
of the speed
the speed of
speed of the
of the electric
the electric motor.
electric motor.
motor.

Figure
Figure5.5. Inverter
5. Inverter current,
current, constant
constant load
load at
at variable
variable speed.
speed. With speed
speed steps
steps from:
from: (a) 0%
0% to
to 100%;
100%;
(b) 100%
100% to
(b) 100% to 80%;
to 80%; (c)
80%; (c) 80%
(c) 80% to
80% to 35%;
to 35%; (d)
35%; (d) 35%
(d) 35% to
35% to 90%.
to 90%.
90%.

To
Toperform
To performthe
perform thespeed
the speedvariation
speed variationat
variation atconstant
at constantload,
constant load,previously
load, previouslydefined
previously definedspeed
defined speedvariation
speed variation
variation
steps are
steps are
steps used.
are used. These
used. These steps
These steps are
steps areshown
are shown in
shown in Figure 6
in Figureand represent
Figure 66 and the
and represent different
represent the frequency
the different
different and
frequency
frequency
voltage
and levels
and voltage applied
voltage levels to
levels appliedthe
applied to electric
to the motor
the electric used
electric motor as
motor usedload.
used as
as load.
load.

Figure6.6. Speed
Figure Speedvariation
Speed variationranges
variation ranges
ranges from:
from:
from: (a)
(a)(a) 0%
0%0% to 100%;
to to 100%;
100%; (b)
(b)(b)
100%100%
100% to 80%;
to
to 80%; 80%; (c) 80%
(c)
(c) 80% 80% to 35%;
to
to 35%; 35%; (d)to
(d)
(d) 35% 35%
35% to
to
90%.
90%.
90%.
Considering the information shown in Figures 5 and 6, it can be observed that in this
Considering
operating the information
profile, the
Considering information
highest shown
current return
shown in Figures
in Figures
from the55inverter
and 6,
and 6, ititto
can
can thebedecoupling
be observed that
observed that in this
this
capacitor
in
operating
occurs
operatingwhenprofile, the highest
varying
profile, the highest current
from the returntofrom
idle return
current state from the
the the
ratedinverter
speed.to
inverter to the
the decoupling
decoupling
Realizing capacitor
a comparison
capacitor
occurs when
between
occurs when varying
the critical
varying from
point
from the idle
idlein
obtained
the state
the to
state to the
first
the rated speed.
scenario
rated speed.
(torque Realizing
variation)
Realizing aa comparison
comparison
and the criticalbe-
be-
point
tween obtained
the in this
critical second
point operation
obtained in profile,
the first the critical
scenario point
(torque that occurs
variation)
tween the critical point obtained in the first scenario (torque variation) and the critical when
and the
the speed
critical
of the electric motor is varied from the idle state to reach 100% of the nominal speed in the
shortest possible time, under the conditions established in the work, is selected as a case
study, from which the mathematical equation of minimum capacitance developed in this
article is based.
To develop the required minimum capacitance equation, it is necessary to identify the
critical intervals of the returned power, in the previously selected case study. Subsequently,
simulations were performed with the specifications shown in Table 2, to obtain the signal
patterns of the inverter and the DC-link in these critical intervals.
 case study,
case study, from
from which
which the
the mathematical
mathematical equation
equation ofof minimum
minimum capacitance
capacitance developed
developed in in
this article is based.
this article is based.
To develop
To develop the
the required
required minimum
minimum capacitance
capacitance equation,
equation, it
it is
is necessary
necessary toto identify
identify
the critical intervals of the returned power, in the previously selected case study.
the critical intervals of the returned power, in the previously selected case study. Subse- Subse-
quently, simulations
quently, simulations were
were performed
performed with
with the
the specifications
specifications shown
shown in in Table
Table 2,
2, to
to obtain
obtain
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3674 the signal
signal patterns
patterns of
of the
the inverter
inverter and
and the
the DC-link
DC-link inin these
these critical
critical intervals.
intervals. 6 of 16
the

Table 2.
Table 2. Design
Design specifications
specifications used
used for
for the
the analysis.
analysis.
Table 2. Design specifications used for the analysis.
Parameter
Parameter Value
Value
DC–AC Converter and Modulation
Parameter DC–AC Converter and Modulation Value
Inverter
Inverter 33-phase H-bridge
33-phase
DC–AC Converter and Modulation H-bridge inverter
inverter
Modulation
Inverter
Modulation 33-phase SPWM
H-bridge
SPWM inverter
DC source
source inverter
Modulation
DC inverter SPWM 320 V
320 V
DC source inverter
Modulating signal
signal frequency
frequency 320 V60 Hz
Hz
Modulating
Modulating signal frequency 60 Hz
60
Carrier
Carrier
Carrier
signal
signal
signal
frequency
frequency
frequency
3300
3300 3300
Hz Hz
Hz
Modulation
Modulation
Modulation index
indexindex 0.9
0.9 0.9
DC-link
DC-link
DC-link
Capacitor
Capacitor 200 µ200 μ
Capacitor 200 μ
ESR 0.20 Ω
ESR
ESR 0.20 Ω
0.20 Ω

The
The waveform
The waveform pattern
waveform pattern of
pattern of the
of the inverter
the inverter current
inverter current and
current and capacitor
and capacitor voltage
capacitor voltage(VC)
voltage (VC)waveforms
(VC) waveforms
waveforms
are
are shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 7,
7,zooming
zooming in
in on
onFigure
Figure
are shown in Figure 7, zooming in on Figure 8. 8.
8.

Figure
Figure 7. Capacitor
Figure7.
7. Capacitor voltage
Capacitor voltage waveform
voltage waveform pattern
waveform pattern (a);
pattern (a); inverter
(a); inverter current
inverter current (b)
current (b) in
(b) in the
in the critical
the criticalcase.
critical case.
case.

Figure 8.
Figure 8. Inverter
Inverter current
current zooming
zooming in
in on
on the
the critical
critical case.
case.
Figure 8. Inverter current zooming in on the critical case.

From Figure 8, it can be seen that the pattern is directly affected by the switching
signals. However, it was detected that a certain pattern is followed every six intervals. For
this reason, the signal is sectioned to deduce the capacitance in the largest ripple presented
(worst case), Figure 9, Table 3 defines the intervals. Observing that in sections four, five,
and six is when the steepest positive slopes are presented, this indicates that these are the
moments in which more energy is returned.
 From Figure 8, it can be seen that the pattern is directly affected by the switching
From Figure 8, it can be seen that the pattern is directly affected by the switching
signals. However, it was detected that a certain pattern is followed every six intervals. For
signals. However, it was detected that a certain pattern is followed every six intervals. For
this reason, the signal is sectioned to deduce the capacitance in the largest ripple presented
this reason, the signal is sectioned to deduce the capacitance in the largest ripple presented
(worst case), Figure 9, Table 3 defines the intervals. Observing that in sections four, five,
(worst case), Figure 9, Table 3 defines the intervals. Observing that in sections four, five,
and six is when the steepest positive slopes are presented, this indicates that these are the
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3674 and six is when the steepest positive slopes are presented, this indicates that these are7 of
the16
moments in which more energy is returned.
moments in which more energy is returned.

Figure 9. Maximum energy return intervals.

Figure
Figure9.
9.Maximum
Maximumenergy
energyreturn
return intervals.
intervals.
Table 3. Distribution of sections and intervals in the critical case.
Table 3.
Table Distribution of
3. Distribution of sections
sections and
and intervals
intervals in
in the
the critical
critical case.
case.
Section Interval
Section
Section Interval
Interval
1 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
1 1 t0 ≤ 𝑡t ≤ t𝑡1 𝑡
2 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
2 2 t1 ≤ 𝑡t ≤ t𝑡2 𝑡
3 ≤
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
3 3 t2 𝑡t ≤ t𝑡3 𝑡
4 4 t3 ≤ 𝑡t ≤ t𝑡4 𝑡
4 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
5 5 t4 ≤ 𝑡t ≤ t𝑡5 𝑡
5 ≤ 𝑡t ≤ t𝑡6 𝑡
6 6 t5 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
6 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
2.2. Development
2.2. DevelopmentofofaaMathematical
MathematicalModel
Model
2.2. Development of a Mathematical Model
For the
For the analysis and
and mathematical
mathematicaldevelopment
developmentofofthe proposed
the proposed capacitance equation,
capacitance equa-
For the analysis
the analysis and mathematical
of theofcurrents presented in development
Figure of theasproposed
10 are10used a startingcapacitance
point.point. equa-
tion, the analysis the currents presented in Figure are used as a starting
tion, the analysis of the currents presented in Figure 10 are used as a starting point.

Figure10.
Figure Identificationof
10. Identification ofstudy
studycurrents.
currents.
Figure 10. Identification of study currents.
The development
The development of ofthe
thecalculation
calculationof the minimum
of the minimumcapacitance
capacitancerequired is addressed
required is ad-
in The development
Equations (1)–(19), of the start
which calculation
from of the minimum
Kirchhoff’s current capacitance
law, taking required
as referenceis ad-
the
dressed in Equations (1)–(19), which start from Kirchhoff’s current law, taking as reference
dressed
incoming in and
Equations (1)–(19),
outgoing which
currents start
in the from Kirchhoff’s current law,
thetaking as reference
the incoming and outgoing currents indecoupling circuit,circuit,
the decoupling as wellas as well operating mode of
as the operating
the
the incoming
load andSubsequently,
[39,40]. outgoing currents
the in pertaining
data the decoupling
to the circuit,
criticalas well
case of as the operating
operation, which
mode of the load [39,40]. Subsequently, the data pertaining to the critical case of operation,
mode of the load by
is characterized [39,40]. Subsequently,
the highest the data
energy return topertaining to thecircuit,
the decoupling critical is
case of operation,
addressed. This
which is characterized by the highest energy return to the decoupling circuit, is addressed.
analysis
which neglects the effects
is characterized by theof heating
highest and degradation
energy return to theofdecoupling
the DC-link. circuit, is addressed.
This analysis neglects the effects of heating and degradation of the DC-link.
Using Kirchhoff’s
This analysis law
neglects the of nodes,
effects obtaining:
of heating and degradation of the DC-link.
Using Kirchhoff’s law of nodes, obtaining:
Using Kirchhoff’s law of nodes, obtaining:
Idc = iC + iinv (1)

where IDC is the DC–DC converter current; iC is the capacitor current and iinv is the
inverter current.
Knowing that the capacitor current is equal to the capacitance multiplied by the
derivative of the voltage across the capacitor concerning time (2). Substituting (2) in (1) we
obtain (3):
dVc
ic = C (2)
dt
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3674 8 of 16

dVc
Idc = C + iinv (3)
dt
where C is the decoupling capacitance; dVc
dt is the ratio of voltage change with respect to time.
The capacitance C is solved from (3) and (4) assuming the derivatives as an increase in
voltage value, C is obtained with (5).

Idc − iinv (∆t)

C= (4)
∆Vc

Idc − iinv (t)

C= (5)
∆Vc
Subsequently, the ratio of the nominal power of the system with the power of the case
study is determined, in which the critical point of returned energy is carried out because
under this circumstance the capacitor must be able to handle the maximum variation. The
above relation is performed employing proportionality factors, obtaining (6).

Pmxreq
K= (6)
Pnom

where K is the general proportionality factor; Pnom s is the nominal power of the system
and Pmáxreq is the worst-case power (case study).
Deducting Pmáxreq from (6) (7) and (8) are obtained:

Pmxreq = KPnom (7)

Pmxreq = Imxreq Vdc (8)

where Imáxreq is the worst case current (study case) and VDC is the DC–DC converter voltage.
Equaling (7) and (8) we obtain (9). From this, the maximum current required in the worst
case is obtained according to (10).

KPnom = Imxreq Vdc (9)

KPnom
Imxreq = (10)
Vdc
Considering the intervals discussed at the end of the previous section where the case
study was selected. It is solved iinv of (11), considering the study times, obtaining (12):
Z T
1
Iinv = Imxreq (t)dt (11)
T 0

t4 Z t5 Z t6
Z 
1
Iinv = Imxreq4 (t)dt + Imxreq5 (t)dt + Imxreq5 (t)dt (12)
T t3 t4 t5

However, as presented in Figure 9 the current Imáxreq5 of the intervals t4 and t5 are zero.
Considering this solution (12) is obtained (13).

1  
Iinv = Imxreq4 t4 + Imxreq6 t6 (13)
∆t
To obtain the inverter current in terms of power, (10) is substituted into (13), and (14)
is obtained:
1 −K4 Pnom −K6 Pnom
 
Iinv = t4 + t6 (14)
∆t Vdc Vdc
The proportionality factors K4 and K6 have a negative value derived from the direction
of the current, which is returned from the load to the source.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3674 9 of 16

Subsequently, it is sought to obtain a relationship between the intervals used in

(14), concerning the inverter switching frequency used. This is because when varying
said frequency, the duration of the intervals used in the capacitance equation developed
is modified.
Through the analysis of the intervals in which the critical case occurs under the
conditions established in the work. as well as the influence of the modulation in them, is
obtained (15), which is used to calculate the time in which the maximum energy of the
critical case is returned. Equation (15) represents the ratio of the complete interval, from T0
to T6 concerning the switching frequency.

1
∆t = (15)
f sw (2.4)

where f sw is the modulation switching frequency.

Once the dimension of the interval increment ∆t is defined, the relation concerning
t4 and t6 where the energy return occurs was determined, with (16) and (17), respectively.
Equations (16) and (17) show the relation between the inverter switching frequency and
the intervals in which energy is returned to the decoupling system. This returned energy is
added to the energy managed by the DC-link, resulting in the critical case of maximum
energy storage by the DC-link (critical case).

3∆t
t4 = (16)
10
∆t
t6 = (17)
3.03
Equations (15)–(17) are used to determine the exact duration of the intervals when the
switching frequency in the inverter varies.
Finally, substituting (14) in (5) and considering (18), the required capacitance equation
is obtained with (19).
K Pnom
Idc = Idc (18)
VCd
h  h ii
−K4 Pnom −K6 Pnom
[∆t] KdcVPCdnom − ∆t 1
VCd t 4 + VCd t 6
C= (19)
∆Vc
The negative sign of the K-factors represents the energy returned from the load to the
source, which is added to the energy delivered by the source and together they represent
the total energy stored in the link capacitor at that instant.

3. Results
This section presents simulation results to validate the capacitance equation developed
in this work, considering the selected critical operating case when the highest energy return
occurs. This occurs when the motor accelerates from 0% to 100% of its rated speed at maxi-
mum load in the shortest possible time, using the established design specifications (Table 4)
for the three-phase full-bridge inverter with SPWM modulation using a modulation index
of 0.9 and a switching frequency of 3300 Hz. These specifications contribute to establishing
the operating limits of the critical case mentioned and thus delimit the analysis of the
system behavior through the graphs and results presented in this paper. The schematic
diagram of the system is shown in Figure 11.
In this work, because it works with a multiphase DC boost converter (five phases),
the switching frequency of each phase is 50 kHz, so the output presents a signal with
a frequency of 250 kHz, which compared to the switching frequency of the inverter designed
(3.3 kHz) is considerably higher, so the behavior of the waveform concerning the switching
of the converter does not interfere significantly with the objective of the analysis of the
power flow between the decoupling capacitor and the inverter, addressed in this article.
 (Table 4) for the three-phase full-bridge inverter with SPWM modulation using a modu-
lation index of 0.9 and a switching frequency of 3300 Hz. These specifications contribute
to establishing the operating limits of the critical case mentioned and thus delimit the
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3674 10 of 16
analysis of the system behavior through the graphs and results presented in this paper.
The schematic diagram of the system is shown in Figure 11.

Table 4.
Table 4. Design
Design specifications
specifications used.
used.

ParameterParameter Value Value

DC sourceDC source 320 V 320 V
Modulating
Modulating signal frequency
signal frequency 60 Hz 60 Hz
Carrier signal frequency
Carrier signal frequency 3300 Hz 3300 Hz
Modulation index
Modulation index 0.9 0.9
Power load (Motor) 3 HP
Power load (Motor) 3 HP

Figure 11. Schematic system diagram.

To
In carry out the
this work, validation
because of thewith
it works minimum requiredDC
a multiphase capacitance equation
boost converter obtained
(five in
phases),
this work, presented at the end of the previous section, the following steps are
the switching frequency of each phase is 50 kHz, so the output presents a signal with a performed:
frequency
1. Average of 250 kHz,
values which compared
of K-parameters to the switching
are proposed frequency
to be used in (19). of the inverter de-
signed
2. (3.3 kHz)
Voltage is considerably
ripples are proposedhigher,
and usedsoin
the behavior
(19) togetherofwith
the the
waveform concerning
K parameters the
obtained
in theofprevious
switching step and
the converter doesminimum required
not interfere capacitance
significantly withvalues are obtained.
the objective of the analysis
3.
of theThe simulation
power of the complete
flow between systemcapacitor
the decoupling is carriedand
outthe
using the minimum
inverter, addressed required
in this
capacitance
article. values obtained.
4. To Thecarry
voltageoutripples are obtained
the validation of thebyminimum
simulation using the
required minimumequation
capacitance capacitance value
obtained
obtained
in this previously.at the end of the previous section, the following steps are per-
work, presented
5. The error percentage between the values initially proposed and the values obtained
formed:
using (19)
1. Average is calculated.
values of K-parameters are proposed to be used in (19).
2. Firstly,
Voltagetoripples
obtainare
theproposed
K parameters of (19),
and used different
in (19) 3 HP
together motors
with the Kwere simulated,
parameters ob-
considering the selected application and critical case. The obtained values are presented
tained in the previous step and minimum required capacitance values are obtained.
in
3. Table
The5.simulation of the complete system is carried out using the minimum required
capacitance values obtained.
Table 5. K parameters obtained.
4. The voltage ripples are obtained by simulation using the minimum capacitance value
obtained previously.
3 HP Induction Motor Proportionality Factors
5. The error percentage between the values initially proposed and the values obtained
KDC K4 K6
using (19) is calculated.
Motor 1 43/14 10/7 17/14
Firstly, Motor 2
to obtain the K parameters2.96
of (19), different 31.4HP motors were1.19
simulated,
considering the selected application and critical case. The 1.48
Motor 3 2.85 obtained values are1.24
presented
Motor 4 2.91 1.45 1.21
in Table 5.

The average value of these parameters K in the case study is used in the capacitance
equation of (19), resulting in (20), (21), and (22):

Kdc = 2.947 (20)

K4 = 1.439 (21)
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3674 11 of 16

K6 = 1.213 (22)
Emphasizing that the obtained values belong to the critical case selected and to the
proposed application.
Subsequently, different voltage ripples are proposed to verify the good performance
of the capacitance equation developed. Table 6 shows different proposed voltage ripples
and the minimum capacitances obtained using these values in (19).

Table 6. Proposed voltage ripples and obtained minimum capacitance.

Proposed Voltage Ripple Capacitance Obtained Using the Proposed

(%) Equation µF
3 361.2
4 270
5 217
6 180.6
7 155.8
8 136

The calculated capacitance under the different proposed voltage ripples is imple-
mented in the complete system. Figure 12 shows the voltage ripples obtained using the
different capacitance values calculated with the developed equation. The purpose is to com-
pare the initially proposed voltage ripples with those obtained using the minimum required
capacitance equation developed in this work, to obtain a percentage error between them.
Considering the voltage ripple values obtained in simulations using the theoretically
developed minimum required capacitance values, a comparison with the initially proposed
voltage ripple is carried out; Figure 13 presents this comparison.
The data in the previous table were used to calculate the error percentages between
what was proposed and what was obtained in simulations under the minimum capacitance
equation developed, obtaining the results shown in Table 7.

Table 7. Percentage error between proposed voltage ripples and ripples obtained in simulation.

Measurement Number Error Percentage (%)

1 4.6
2 3.75
3 4.8
4 5.51
5 5.4
6 6.25

As shown in Table 7, the highest error percentage obtained using the proposed equa-
tion is 6.25%, with respect to the proposed initial value of voltage ripple.
Once the correct operation of the equation has been validated, Table 8 shows a com-
parison between the capacitance value obtained using the proposed equation and the
capacitance value required using the following existing equations in the literature [30,31],
respectively.
Po
C= (23)
2 f Vdc V
Ic,RMS
CDC−link = (24)
VRipple 2π f sw
 The calculated capacitance under the different proposed voltage ripples is imple-
mented in the complete system. Figure 12 shows the voltage ripples obtained using the
different capacitance values calculated with the developed equation. The purpose is to
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3674 compare the initially proposed voltage ripples with those obtained using the minimum
12 of 16
required capacitance equation developed in this work, to obtain a percentage error be-
tween them.

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 16

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)
Figure12.
Figure 12. Voltage
Voltageripples
ripplesobtained
obtainedinin simulation,
simulation, using
using the
the capacitance
capacitance with
with the
the proposed
proposed equation:
equation:
(a) 3%; (b) 4%; (c) 5%; (d) 6%; (e) 7%; (f) 8%.
(a) 3%; (b) 4%; (c) 5%; (d) 6%; (e) 7%; (f) 8%.

Table Considering thevalues

8. Capacitance voltage ripple
using valuesequations
existing obtainedand
in simulations using
the proposed the theoretically
equation, with a 3%
developed minimum
voltage ripple. required capacitance values, a comparison with the initially pro-
posed voltage ripple is carried out; Figure 13 presents this comparison.
Capacitance Obtained
Equation Used
µF
8 Proposed 365
7 [30] 967
[31] 552.62
Percentage (%)

6
5
The minimum capacitance value required by the system using the equation developed
4in this paper is lower by 2.6 and 1.51 times, compared with [30] and [31], respectively.
3
2
1
0
Measurement Measurement Measurement Measurement Measurement Measurement
1 2 3 4 5 6
Proposed voltage ripple 3 4 5 6 7 8
Voltage ripple obtained 2.86 3.85 4.76 6.35 7.4 7.5
 Figure 12. Voltage ripples obtained in simulation, using the capacitance with the proposed equation:
(a) 3%; (b) 4%; (c) 5%; (d) 6%; (e) 7%; (f) 8%.

Considering the voltage ripple values obtained in simulations using the theoretically
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3674 developed minimum required capacitance values, a comparison with the initially13pro- of 16
posed voltage ripple is carried out; Figure 13 presents this comparison.

8
7

Percentage (%)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Measurement Measurement Measurement Measurement Measurement Measurement
1 2 3 4 5 6
Proposed voltage ripple 3 4 5 6 7 8
Voltage ripple obtained 2.86 3.85 4.76 6.35 7.4 7.5

Figure
Figure13.
13.Comparison
Comparisonbetween
betweenproposed
proposedvoltage
voltageripples
ripplesand
andvoltage
voltageripples
ripplesobtained
obtainedwith
withdevel-
devel-
oped
opedminimum
minimumcapacitance
capacitanceequation.
equation.

Is important
The data in thetoprevious
emphasize that
table the used
were developed equation
to calculate can be
the error applied in between
percentages different
applications
what only by and
was proposed modifying
what wasthe proportionality factors. For
obtained in simulations example,
under for applications
the minimum or
capaci-
scenarios where an induction motor service factor of 1.25
tance equation developed, obtaining the results shown in Table 7.is required (whose specifications
are described in the previous section), only the proportionality factors are recalculated,
resulting in (25), (26), and (27); these factors are used in the minimum capacitance equation
developed in this paper, resulting in (28), proposing a voltage ripple of 3%.

Kdc = 2.900 (25)

K4 = 1.950 (26)
K6 = 1.800 (27)
C = 378 µ (28)
Finally, the process to achieve the transfer of the analysis and the developed equation
is listed below:
1. Select the application for which the induction motor will be used. Select the applica-
tion for which the induction motor will be used to obtain the design specifications for
the system.
2. Identify the study intervals. That is the intervals of maximum energy return to the
decoupling system.
3. Calculate the proportionality factors through (6), considering the intervals established
in the previous point.
4. Substitute the obtained values of proportionality factors and the design specifications
of the selected application in the developed main equation of minimum required
capacitance (19).

4. Conclusions
This paper presents a solution to avoid oversizing the decoupling system belonging to
the electric vehicle propulsion system by using an equation that optimally calculates the
minimum capacitance required for the decoupling element, analyzing the energy flow in
the system’s power electronic converters.
The equation is based on the critical scenario of the highest energy return in the electric
vehicle motor mode operation, which occurs when the motor speed varies from 0% to 100%
of its rated speed, at maximum load, in the shortest possible time, ensuring the correct
operation in less demanding scenarios. Employing this equation reduced the capacitance
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3674 14 of 16

required in the decoupling system by 49.9% to 62.2%, compared to existing equations in the
literature. In addition, errors of 3.75% to 6.25% were obtained between what was obtained
theoretically and in simulation using the equation proposed in conjunction with a full
three-phase bridge inverter with SPWM modulation using a modulation index of 0.9, and
a switching frequency of 3300 Hz.
The implementation of the equation developed allows selecting and using capacitors
with more reliable technologies and with a longer useful life in the decoupling element
belonging to the propulsion system, and at the same time avoiding its oversizing, which
has a positive impact on the performance of the electric vehicle propulsion system.
Finally, it is important to emphasize that the minimum capacitance equation devel-
oped in this paper is easily scalable for its implementation in different working schemes,
broadening its application spectrum.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.P.-S., G.C.-L. and L.M.C.-S.; methodology, L.M.C.-S.,

M.P.-S., G.C.-L., L.H.-G.; software, L.M.C.-S., Y.R.-S., G.C.-L.; validation, L.M.C.-S., M.P.-S., G.C.-L.
and L.H.-G.; formal analysis, L.M.C.-S., M.P.-S., Y.R.-S., G.C.-L.; investigation, M.P.-S., L.H.-G., G.C.-L.;
resources, L.H.-G., Y.R.-S., O.U.J.-S., G.C.-L.; data curation, Y.R.-S., O.U.J.-S., G.C.-L.; writing—original
draft preparation, L.M.C.-S., M.P.-S., Y.R.-S., G.C.-L.; writing—review and editing, L.M.C.-S., M.P.-S.,
L.H.-G., G.C.-L.; visualization, Y.R.-S., O.U.J.-S., G.C.-L.; supervision, M.P.-S., L.H.-G., Y.R.-S., G.C.-L.;
project administration, M.P.-S., L.H.-G., G.C.-L.; funding acquisition, M.P.-S., L.H.-G., O.U.J.-S., G.C.-L.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data obtained in this study are available on request from the authors.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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