Material Específico de Abogacía, CCPP, RRII y Martillero 2020

Material específico para las carreras de Abogacía, CCPP,
RRII y Martillero
Textos y actividades
Facultad de Derecho y Ciencias Políticas
Asignatura: Inglés
Autor: Profesor Javier Núñez
Año: 2020
Material específico para las carreras de Abogacía, CCPP, RRII y Martillero.
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INDEX
Law. English I.
Text 1
Text 2 3
Text 3 4
Text 4 5
Law. English II.
Text 1
Text 2 12
Text 3 13
Text 4 24
Political Science and International Relations. English I.
Text 1
Text 2 29
Text 3
Text 4 30
Political Science and International Relations. English II.
Text 1
Text 2 32
Text 3 33
Text 4
Political Science and International Relations. English III.
Text 1
Text 2
Text 3
Text 4 41
Political Science and International Relations. English IV.
Text 1
Text 2 45
Text 3 46
Text 4 49
Public auctioneer. English I.
Text 1
Text 2
Text 3
Text 4
Public auctioneer. English II.
Text 1
Text 2
Text 3
Text 4
1
Law
English I
Text I
Constitutional Principles
The constitution is the frame of the society. It is the document that organizes a society.
A constitution is a law that establishes permanent institutions. The objectives of a
constitution are to limit the arbitrary action of the government and to guarantee the
rights of the governed.
The constitutions are unitary or federal, written or unwritten, and flexible or rigid.
In a unitary state, the powers of the central government are not restricted. The
government is indivisible. In a federal state, different states are members of a big
state. The states are united because they have some characteristics in common:
language, culture, interests. They have geographical contiguity. However, they are
different in some aspects. The provinces or states are represented in the congress in
the countries that have a bicameral system. Each province has its own government.
The constitution is the supreme law of a state and ordinary laws are under the
constitution.
Some constitutions are written (The United States, Argentina) and some constitutions
are unwritten (UK, New Zealand). In England the constitution has written statutes and
in The Unites States the constitution has also unwritten guidelines (custom).
The flexible constitutions are modified by using the method to create ordinary laws.
The rigid constitutions are modified by using a specific procedure.
Activity
-Answer these questions
1-What is a constitution?
2-Which are the objectives of a constitution?
3-Classify the different types of constitutions.
4-What is the difference between a federal and a unitary constitution?
2
5- Where are the provinces represented?
6-What is the difference between a written and an unwritten constitution?
7-What is the difference between a flexible and a rigid constitution?
8- How can you modify a rigid constitution? And a flexible one?
Text II
Criminal Law Principles
The criminal
Some people see criminality as a factor internal to the criminal. Other people see
criminality as a result of many other factors such as factory work, the urbanization
process, the destruction of neighborhood units, material possessions and the raise in
the level of aspirations.
The punishment. Theories
1-Some people think that the punishment is the reciprocation of evil with evil. A
person who commits a crime must suffer in proportion to his or her criminal act. This
theory is immoral because the assessment of culpability is difficult to determine
2-Other people think that it is possible to associate fear with the contemplation of the
criminal in prison. So people can be afraid of suffering the consequences of committing
the crime. But treating the individual as a means towards an end outside of himself is
questionable.
3-An understanding of the social-psychological causes of crime can produce an
emphasis on ‘reprogramming’ some members of society. In some societies offending is
rewarding. In other societies respectability is rewarding. The idea is to teach values
such as respectability
4-Another point of view thinks that a penal system must have two effects: the
compensation of the victim and society and the appreciation by the criminal of the
extent of suffering caused.
Activity
1- Match the name of the penal philosophy with the corresponding paragraph
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a) Deterrence, b) Reparation, c) Retribution, d) Reformation
2-Select two important words from each one of the paragraphs
3-These four speakers believe in one of these theories. Which one?
a) Education is the only way to eradicate crime from society:
b) He must be in prison forever to pay for his crime:
c) The criminal must understand his act and compensate the victim:
d) Oh god, a terrible nightmare, I am a prisoner in a high security penitentiary:
4-What is a crime? Provide a definition
Text III
Alternative Dispute Resolution Systems
ADR is the English acronym for "Alternative Dispute Resolution" which is a way to solve
conflicts without court litigation. The resolution of these disputes often requires court
proceedings in different jurisdictions, time, money and the possibility of conflicting
outcomes.
Instead of taking someone to court, disputes are solved using other mechanisms.
Arbitration and mediation are common ADR procedures:
Arbitration
In arbitration, the dispute is settled by an impartial expert (the arbitrator), who gives a
binding decision that can be enforced without a review on the merits.
Mediation
Mediation is a more amicable system because there is no binding decision but a third
party (also an expert on the matter) who helps parties to bring their positions closer.
Main features:
a) Consensual and single procedure
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Parties have a lot of control over the settlement of their dispute. They decide who will
arbitrate or mediate the dispute. Parties may decide the applicable law to their
arbitration, language of the procedure and the location of the meetings.
b) High expertise of the third party

The third party who settles the dispute (arbitration) or helps the parties to do it
(mediation) is an expert in the technical field of the dispute. In many jurisdictions,
judges lack specialized knowledge. They generally need to consult experts during the
proceedings.
c) Time and cost

ADR procedures can be quick. According to some statistics, many mediations end,
successfully, after the parties' first meeting with the mediator.
d) Secrecy
Confidentiality is one of the reasons that leads companies to choose ADR. Many firms
prefer, in cases where internal issues are discussed, not to be involved in public
hearings that could damage their image.
Types and Features of Alternative Dispute Resolution
ADR is generally classified into at least four types: negotiation, mediation, collaborative
law, and arbitration. ADR can be used alongside existing legal systems.
The features of each type are as follows:
1. In negotiation, participation is voluntary and there is no third party who

facilitates the resolution process or imposes a resolution. A third party like a
social worker or a skilled friend may be coaching one or both of the parties.
2. In mediation, there is a third party, a mediator, who facilitates the resolution
process, but does not impose a resolution on the parties.
3. In arbitration, participation is typically voluntary, and there is a third party who
imposes a resolution. Arbitrations often occur because parties agree that any
future dispute concerning the agreement must be resolved by arbitration.
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Tendencies in Argentine Justice Administration
Argentina statistics always show a high level of litigation, which means that legal
matters are generally solved in court. That characteristic implies a slow solution of
problems, involving higher costs.
However, the situation is changing. As a matter of fact, there is a federal law called
mediation law, which requires the parties to undergo a stage of negotiation before
taking the case to court.
Therefore, individual arrangements are reached, resulting in lower legal costs and
better use of resources.
Activity
1-What is ADR for?
2-What are the benefits of using ADR procedures?
3-What is the difference between mediation and arbitration?
Text IV
Defenses to Criminal Liability
There are conditions that can relieve a defendant of criminal liability. The important
ones are: infancy, intoxication, insanity, justifiable use of force, and the statute of
limitations.
Infancy. A person who hasn’t got the age of majority is an infant. Children up to the
age seven are considered incapable of committing a crime because they do not have
the sense to understand their acts. Children between seven and fourteen are
presumed to be incapable. If the child is fourteen or more, he or she is presumed to be
competent. In some states, a child is treated as an adult if he or she is above fourteen
and is guilty of murder.
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Intoxication. There are two types of intoxication: involuntary (a person is forced to
ingest or inject an intoxicating substance or doesn’t know that the substance contains
drugs or alcohol) and voluntary. Many courts do not allow voluntary intoxication as a
defense to a crime because the defendant chooses to put himself or herself into an
intoxicated state.
Insanity. The defendant has a defense when a person’s mental illness or defect rises to
the level of legal insanity. A person is not responsible if at the time of committing the
crime he or she does not have the substantial capacity to conform his conduct to the
requirements of the law. Some judges state that a person is not responsible if he or
she does not know the nature of the act or does not know that the act is wrong.
Justifiable use of force. Self defense is the right to protect oneself or one’s property
against injury by another. There are other situations that justify the use of force: the
defense of one’s house, the defense of other property and the prevention of a crime.
People may use the amount of non-deadly force (force that appears necessary to
prevent the imminent use of criminal force) that is necessary to protect themselves,
their houses, other property or to prevent the commission of a crime. However, deadly
force (force that may cause death or serious harm) can be used if there is a belief that
imminent death or serious harm may result, if the attacker uses unlawful force, and if
the defender does not initiate or provoke the attack.
Statute of Limitations. These statutes provide that the state has only a certain
amount of time to prosecute the crime. If the state does not prosecute within the
allotted time, the suspect is free from prosecution. Most statutes do not apply to
murder.
Activity
Answer these questions
1-What are defenses for?
2-What does infancy consist of?
3-What is the difference between voluntary and involuntary intoxication?
4-Why is insanity a defense?
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5-What’s the difference between deadly and non-deadly force?
6-What is the statute of limitations?
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Law
English II
Text I
Criminal Procedures
-A person is innocent until proved guilty, and guilt must be proved beyond a
reasonable doubt. The system is designed to protect the presumption of innocence.
There are specific safeguards for those accused of crimes. These safeguards apply by
virtue of the due process clause of the fourteenth amendment and are the following:
-Protection from unreasonable searches and seizures (fourth amendment). The police
cannot search you, unless you are under arrest or the police have a search warrant.
The police can obtain an arrest or search warrant signed by a judge and based upon
probable cause (belief that a person committed a crime or is about to commit a crime).
The police can perform a warrant-less arrest based upon probable cause, or upon the
belief that a person is armed. A warrant to search your home must be obtained from a
judge, but there are some exceptions: the police are in hot pursuit of a suspect, the
police have probable cause, the item is in plain view of the police, the police make a
proper arrest and search the surroundings of the arrested person, the police obtain
consent from the suspect, the police search national borders or airports
-Warrants for a search or an arrest cannot be issued without probable cause (fourth
amendment)
-No one can be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law (fifth
amendment)
-Double jeopardy is prohibited (fifth amendment)
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-The right to a speedy trial, trial by jury, a public trial, to confront witnesses, and to a
lawyer (sixth amendment)
-Compulsory self incrimination is prohibited (fifth amendment). You cannot be forced

to testify against yourself
-Excessive bails and fines and cruel punishment are prohibited (eight amendment)
-According to the case Miranda vs. Arizona, a person in custody must be informed in
clear and unequivocal terms that a) he has the right to remain silent and anything that
he or she says can be used against him or her in a court of law, b) he has the right to an
attorney and to have one present during interrogation, c) he has the right to have a
lawyer appointed by the State if he cannot afford one.
-All evidence obtained in violation of the constitutional rights must be excluded. All
evidence derived from the illegally obtained evidence must be excluded too.
Activity
1-What is the presumption of innocence?
2-How many safeguards are there in the US Constitution?
3-Can the police perform a warrant-less arrest? When? How?
4-Can the police perform a warrant-less search?
5-How should warrants be issued?
6-What is double jeopardy? Investigate
7-Can you be forced to testify against yourself?
8-What are the Miranda warnings?
9-What type of evidence is generally excluded?
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Text II
The Separation of Powers
The separation of powers exists to guarantee the liberty of the subject. Different
powers prevent the abuse of power. This separation must exist to guarantee that each
one of the powers exercise control over the others. The following principles must be
remembered: a) The legislative, executive and judicial functions must be exercised by
different persons or bodies, b) No organ of government must exercise the functions of
another, c) No organ of government must exercise influence over the other.
For example: the congress has power to legislate; this power is checked by the
president’s veto; this is balanced by the power of the congress to override the veto;
and the Supreme Court can decide that the final legislation is unconstitutional.
Activity. Answer these questions

1-Why does the separation of powers exist?
2-Which principles must be remembered?
Activity. Compare the three powers of Argentina. Make two sentences using the
comparative and the superlative forms. Use the adjective powerful.
Text III
The Constitution
Comparison between the Argentine Constitution and the U. S. Constitution
Constitution of the United States, Preamble
‘We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish
justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the
general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do
ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America’
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Constitución de la Nación Argentina, Preámbulo
‘Nos los representantes del pueblo de la Nación Argentina, reunidos en Congreso

General Constituyente por voluntad y elección de las provincias que lo componen, en
cumplimiento de pactos preexistentes, con el objeto de constituir la unión nacional,
afianzar la justicia, consolidar la paz interior, proveer a la defensa común, promover el
bienestar general, y asegurar los beneficios de la libertad, para nosotros, para nuestra
posteridad, y para todos los hombres del mundo que quieran habitar en el suelo
argentino: invocando la protección de Dios, fuente de toda razón y justicia:
ordenamos, decretamos y establecemos esta Constitución para la Nación Argentina’
Activity
Compare both preambles
1-Are there similar phrases or ideas? Underline them.
Amendments to the U. S. constitution
Activity
Read the amendments to the U.S. Constitution. Try to find the corresponding
equivalent sections in the Argentine Constitution
ARTICLE I
Congress respects no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the
free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right
of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of
grievances.
ARTICLE VI
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused party enjoys the right to a speedy and public
trial by an impartial jury of the State and district where the crime was committed,
which district was previously ascertained by law, to be informed of the nature and
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cause of the accusation, to be confronted with the witnesses against him, to have
compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of
counsel for his defense.
ARTICLE IX
The enumeration of the Constitution of certain rights is not construed to dent or
disparage others retained by the people.
ARTICLE X
The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it
to the states, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.
ARTICLE XIII
Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as punishment for crime whereof the
party was convicted, exists within the United States, or any place subject to their
jurisdiction.
ARTICLE XV
The right of citizens of the United States to vote is not denied or abridged by the
United States or any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
ARTICLE XIX
The right of citizens of the United States to vote is not denied or abridged by the
United States or by any State on account of sex.
The constitution of Argentina
The constitution of Argentina is one of the primary sources of existing law in

Argentina. Its first version was written in 1853 in Santa Fe, and some concepts were
taken from the United States Constitution. It was reformed in 1860, 1866, 1898, 1949,
1957 and 1994. The Constitution establishes rights and guarantees for all individuals;
the inviolability of the right to live, to be free and equal, and to have security and
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property. The second chapter, added in 1994, deals with environmental protection and
consumer rights.
Civil rights are recognized to all inhabitants with no distinction of nationality. This is a
consequence of the traditional interest of Argentina in the affluence of foreigners and
foreign investment. Labor rights are also acknowledged (this is part of the legacy of
Juan Peron, resulting in the 1949 reform). These include limited labor shift, just salary,
right to organize and social security benefits.
The constitution declares that no one can be deprived of property, except in case of
judicial sentence based on previously enacted legislation, or through expropriation for
reasons of public utility, qualified by law and previously indemnified.
What the law does not forbid is permitted. Individuals have complete freedom to do or
refuse to do anything in private, except if that interferes with public order or causes
damage to third parties.
The 1994 reform introduces the amparo judicial (an injunction), the habeas corpus and
the habeas data. Injunctions protect citizens from imminent damage (rights and
guarantees are affected); the habeas corpus protects the citizen's physical freedom;
and the habeas data guarantees the person's right to access information about him or
herself, and request its confidentiality, change or suppression.
Another innovation introduced in 1994 is that citizens can introduce bills before the
House of Deputies that must be considered by Congress within the next twelve
months.
Article 41 establishes that all inhabitants are entitled to the right to a healthy and
balanced environment fit for human development in order to have productive
activities to meet present needs without endangering those of future generations. All
inhabitants have the duty to preserve it. Environmental damage brings about the
obligation to repair it. The authorities must provide legislation for the protection of
this right, the rational use of natural resources, the preservation of the natural and
cultural heritage and of the biological diversity. The authorities must also provide
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environmental information and education. The entry into the national territory of
potential dangerous wastes, and of radioactive ones, is forbidden. There are also
precise provisions referring to: protection of consumers rights, defense of competition,
control of natural or legal monopolies and of public services’ quality and efficiency.
Declarations
Declarations state the independence of the country and the organization of political
institutions.
Guarantees
They are institutional methods to protect the exercise of rights. Most Guarantees are
in sections 18 and 43.
The Constitution expressly declares that no inhabitant of the Nation can be convicted
without a court ruling based on a law sanctioned before the fact object of the claim or
judged by special commissions or judged by other judges than those invested with
jurisdiction by the law before the fact object of the claim.
Rights
The rights are divided in four groups: civil, patrimonial, political and social.
● Civil rights are related to the people as individuals: the right to live, to have a
name, and to express opinions.
● Patrimonial rights protect men in relation to their goods: the right to own
property, to sell and to build legal industries.
● Political rights allow people to take part in the government, by themselves or
by elected representatives: the right to choose and be chosen for government

and to make or join a political party.
● Social rights are related to people as part of society: the right to work, to have
fair wages, to know, to learn and to teach.

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In Argentina, freedom is one of the most important rights. Section 19 states that
private actions of men that do not harm the public order or another man cannot be
judged by authorities. Moreover, it holds the principle of legality: No inhabitant of the
Nation will be forced to do what the law does not order nor forbidden to do what the
law does not forbid. Equality is as important as freedom. Section 16 states that there
are no noble titles and all its inhabitants are equal before the law.
Form of government
According to the Constitution, Argentina is a representative federal republic, divided in

provinces. Each province has the right and duty to dictate its own constitution.
Judicial system
Justice is administered by both federal and provincial courts. The federal courts deal
only with cases of a national character or those in which different provinces or
inhabitants of different provinces are parties. The Supreme Court, which supervises all
other federal courts, is composed of seven members nominated by the president and
confirmed by the Senate. The federal courts may not decide political questions.
Provincial courts include supreme courts, appellate courts and courts of first instance.
A 1991 law provides a fund for compensating prisoners who were illegally arrested
during the 1976–83 military dictatorship.
In practice, there is not a truly independent judiciary. Some judges are influenced by
certain economic groups and corporations and by the government. Federal judges who
pursue charges of police or military corruption are sometimes pressured.
The constitution prohibits torture and cruel punishment but police corruption remains
a serious problem. The judicial system is slow. Moreover, some sentences are not
severe enough to satisfy the population and the mechanism to free criminals before
the end of their conviction is not considered fair.
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Activity
1-When was the Argentine Constitution reformed?
2-Why are civil rights recognized to all inhabitants with no distinction of nationality?
3-What does the habeas corpus protect?
4-Can citizens introduce bills before the House of Deputies?
5-What is the principle of legality?
6-Which form of government did Argentina adopt?
Text IV
New civil code
In 2011, 140 years after the original code, Argentina initiated the procedure to have a
new civil code. This project brought and reflected some of the changes in the culture.
The executive power signed a decree in 2011 to establish the creation of a commission
in charge of the reform. The decree summoned specialists, judges and representatives
to discuss and write a draft.
In 2012, The Supreme Court wrote a draft and presented it in March. The Congress
analyzed the draft and, finally, the bicameral commission of the Congress issued the
final version for the updating and unification of the Civil and Commercial Code. The
first round of debates and interaction started in August and 29 public meetings were
organized to assure citizens’ participation. The Congress passed the new Civil and
Commercial Code (2.671 sections) in October 2014.
Some Civil Law Changes
Assisted fertilization which is practiced and allowed in Argentina is contained in the

new code. However, the use of a surrogate mother is not permitted. According to the
new code, the donation of gametes (sperm or ovum) is allowed and the identity of the
donor is protected. There is no bond creation with the protected donor and its identity
can be disclosed only by judicial authority. The filial bond is established by the
intention to procreate. The new code guarantees that the children conceived through
assisted fertilization are legally recognized by both parents, regardless of whose
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gametes were used. This prevents one partner from claiming that he or she has no
legal responsibility for the child as his/her gametes were not used. The new code also
states that a person’s existence starts with the conception and that is an obstacle for
some procedures of artificial fertilization. As regards this last topic the Congress
surrendered to the pressure of the church.
The new code simplifies the adoption procedure and permits one person or unmarried
couples to adopt. The judge has 90 days to solve the adoption. It also grants priority to
the child's interest. The child has now the right to give his or her opinion. He also has
the right to know his identity.
You can now register native Latin American names and children can now choose to
have the mother´s or father´s last name or both.
Couples living together can register the union (cohabitation agreement) and receive
similar rights as married ones. The economic relations between the partners are
registered in the form of a pact.
The parties can agree before the marriage on the distribution of assets in case of
divorce. They have the possibility to sign a premarital agreement to have a system of
separation of assets. The community property system (everything gained during
marriage is split in half) is effective if there is not an agreement. The code establishes
compensation in case one of the spouses is in a difficult financial situation after the
divorce. Any of the parties can file for divorce (voluntary divorce) after the celebration
of the marriage. The obligation to wait for a period of time is eliminated. The
protection of the marital dwelling and alimony is maintained.
Finally, the decision over the custody of children also changes, moving away from a
bias towards the mother to providing an equal opportunity to be given custody. Today,
the mother is typically given custody with visitation rights granted to the father.
The new code recognizes the right to equality and diversity and accompanies the
gender identity act and the same sex marriage act.
Some Commercial Law Changes
The civil law hopes to codify the interactions between people in a community. The
commercial law applies to all commercial transactions.
One of the changes to the commercial law is the recognition of indigenous communal
property. The aim is to preserve cultural identity. Registered indigenous communities
now own land in rural areas and the use of natural resources requires the consultation
of indigenous communities. In this way, the law protects these communities from
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companies coming onto an area rich in natural resources, claiming the land and taking
advantage of the weak legal situation of indigenous people. The new code empowers
these communities to resist on legal grounds.
As regards foreign currency contracts, the debtor can pay the debt in the national
currency according to the official exchange rate at the time of payment. So if you
have the obligation to give a certain amount of money which is not the national
legal tender, you can fulfill your obligation by giving the national legal tender
according to the official rate at the time of payment.
The code establishes the peso as the legal national currency, as established by de
previous code. The national currency is part of the identity of a nation. All deposits
in foreign currencies are guaranteed by the code. According to the new code, the
Government or Banks cannot ‘pesify’ the deposits.
The code protects consumers who sign or accept a contract via email, skype, or
smart phones, and regulates the massive online market that is generally evolving
too fast. You can now create a one person company and new contract types.
These issues motivate investment. As regards the responsibility of the state and its
officials, the statute of limitations is three years.
Opposition
Although the changes to the civil and commercial code were supported throughout the
country, there were those who disagreed, including the Catholic Church.
Effectiveness
Unlike the Velez Sarsfield code, this code has a clearer and simpler language and
has more components of the Argentinean culture. The new civil code is effective
starting in January 2016
Activity
1) Describe the process used to create the new code
2) Describe some of the civil and commercial law changes
Political Science and International Relations

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English I
Text 1
History of Political Science
Antecedents I
Political science is a late arrival in terms of social sciences. However, the discipline has
antecedents such as moral philosophy, political philosophy, political economy, history,
and other fields concerned with normative determinations of what the characteristics
and functions of the ideal state are. In each historic period and in almost every
geographic area, we can find someone increasing political understanding.
In ancient India, Chanakya (c. 350-275 BC) becomes a professor of political science at
Takshashila University. Chanakya is one of the earliest political thinkers, and is known
as the Indian Machiavelli. He writes the Arthashastra, which is one of the earliest
treatises on political thought, economics and social order. It discusses monetary and
fiscal policies, welfare, international relations, and war strategies, among other topics
on political science.
The ancient literary work Thirukkural is 2000 years old and deals with political science.
The topics discussed by Thirukkural include the art of public administration, warfare,
political diplomacy, civil society, qualifications for public office, public revenue and
financial and local administration. The Thirukkural is a masterpiece. It is in the form of
couplets (two line poems). Thiruvalluvar writes the Thirukkural 10 years before Jesus.
He is an artist, moral philosopher, political scientist and master of public
administration. Thirukkural's immortality is unquestionable. Its ethics and values are
applicable to all religions, countries and time.
Any actions which a man knows would harm himself

He should not inflict on others. (316)
He who understands his duty to society truly lives

All others shall be counted among the dead. (214)
The whole purpose of maintaining a home

And earning wealth is to provide hospitality to guests. (081)
Those who cannot live in harmony with the world

Though they have learned many things, are still ignorant. (140)
It is always good to endure injuries done to you

But to forget them is even better. (152)
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As water changes according to the soil through which it flows
So does a man assimilate the character of his associates. (452)
Investigate well, show favor to none, maintain impartiality

Consult the law, then give judgment—that is the way of justice. (541)
What is old friendship? It is when neither friend objects

To the liberties taken by the other. (801)
Activity
Try to mention ideas that are related or connected to the couplets in the Thirukkural
Text 2
History of Political Science
Antecedents II
The antecedents of Western politics appear before Plato and Aristotle, particularly in
the works of Homer, Thucydides, and Euripides. Later, Plato analyzes political systems,
abstracts their analysis from literary and history oriented studies and applies an
approach closer to philosophy. Similarly, Aristotle includes historical empirical
evidence in his analysis.
During the rule of Rome, famous historians such as Polybius and Plutarch document
the rise of the Roman Republic, and the organization of other nations, while statesmen
like Julius Caesar provides us with examples of the politics of the republic and Rome's
empire. The study of politics during this age is oriented toward understanding history,
methods of governing, and governments operations.
With the fall of the Roman Empire, monotheism and, particularly for the western
tradition, Christianity, brings to light a new space for politics. Works such as Augustine
of Hippo's The City of God synthesizes current philosophies and political traditions with
those of Christianity, redefining the borders between religion and politics. During The
Middle Ages, the study of politics is widespread in the churches and courts. Most of
the political questions surrounding the relationship between church and state are
studied in this period.
In the middle east, works such as the Rubaiyat by Khayyam and Epic of Kings by
Ferdowsi provide evidence of political analysis, while the Islamic Aristotelians such as
Avicenna and Maimonides, continue Aristotle's tradition.
During the Italian Renaissance, Machiavelli establishes the emphasis of modern

political science on direct empirical observation of political institutions. Later, the
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expansion of the scientific paradigm during the Enlightenment pushes the study of
politics beyond normative determinations.
Activity
Mention important thinkers who contribute to Political Science in chronological order
Text 3
Studies
Political science as a university discipline is evidenced by the naming of university

departments and chairs with the title of political science in the 1860s. The history of
political science provides a rich field for the growth of both normative and positive
political science. The American Political Science Association (1903) and the American
Political Science Review journal (1906) are an effort to distinguish the study of politics
from economics and sociology.
In the 1950s and the 1960s, a behavioral revolution stressing on the systematic
scientific study of individual and group behavior characterizes the discipline. Political
science moves toward a great depth of analysis, more sophistication, and toward a
working relationship with other disciplines, especially sociology, economics, history,
anthropology, psychology, public administration and statistics. Increasingly, students of
political behavior use the scientific method to create an intellectual discipline based on
the postulating of hypotheses followed by empirical verification and the inference of
political trends that explain individual and group political actions. The discipline then
places an increasing emphasis on the use of new approaches and methodologies to
solve political and social problems.
Activity
Translate the text
Text 4
Contemporary Issues
Political scientists study the transfer of power in the making of decisions, the roles and
systems of governance including governments and international organizations, political
behavior and public policies. They measure the success of governance and specific
policies by examining many factors, including stability, justice, material wealth, and
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peace. Some political scientists advance positive theses by analyzing politics. Others
advance normative theses by making specific policy recommendations.
The study of politics is complicated by the occasional involvement of political scientists

in the political process, since their teachings occasionally provide the frameworks
within which other commentators, such as journalists, special interest groups,
politicians, and the electorate analyze issues and select options. Political scientists can
serve as advisers to specific politicians, or run for office as politicians themselves.
Political scientists can work in governments, in political parties or as civil servants. They
can be involved with non-governmental organizations (NGOs) or political movements.
People educated in political science can add value and expertise to corporations.
Private enterprises such as think tanks, research institutes, corporations, groups
organized for interdisciplinary research (for solving technological and social problems),
polling and public relations firms often employ political scientists. Political scientists
analyze a variety of information.
Activity
Mention all the different tasks that a political scientist can perform.
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English II
Text 1
International Relations
International relations is the study of foreign affairs and global issues among states
within the international system, including the roles of states, inter-governmental
organizations (IGOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and multinational
corporations (MNCs). It is both an academic and public policy field, and can be either
positive or normative as it both seeks to analyze as well as formulate the foreign
policy of particular states.
IR resorts to such diverse fields as economics, history, law, philosophy, geography,

sociology, anthropology, psychology, and cultural studies. It involves a diverse range of
issues, from globalization and its impact on societies and state sovereignty to
ecological sustainability, nuclear proliferation, nationalism, economic development,
terrorism, organized crime, human security, and human rights.
The history of international relations is traced back to the Peace of Westphalia of

1648, where the modern state system was developed. Prior to this, the European
medieval organization of political authority was based on a hierarchical religious order.
Westphalia instituted the legal concept of sovereignty, which meant that legitimate
sovereigns, would recognize no internal equals within a defined territory and no
external superiors. Classical Greek and Roman authority at times resembled this
system, but both lacked the notion of sovereignty.
Westphalia encouraged the rise of the independent state, the institutionalization of

diplomacy and armies. This particular European system was exported to the Americas,
Africa, and Asia via colonialism. The contemporary international system was finally
established through decolonization during the Cold War. The nation-state system is
considered "modern". Further, some states have moved beyond the nation-state
system and can be considered "post-modern". The level of analysis is a way of looking
at the international system, which includes the individual level, the domestic nation-
state as a unit, the international level of transnational and intergovernmental affairs,
and the global level.
Activity
1) What does IR resort to?
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2) What was the “peace of Westphalia”?
3) What were the consequences of the “peace of Westphalia”?
Text 2
International Relations Theory
Positive or Normative
IR theory has a long tradition of resorting to the work of other social sciences. Many
cite Thucydides as the inspiration for the realist theory, with Hobbes' "Leviathan" and
Machiavelli's "The Prince" providing further elaboration. Similarly, liberalism resorts to
the work of Kant and Rousseau, cited as the first elaboration of the Democratic Peace
Theory. Though contemporary human rights are different from the type of rights
envisioned under natural law, Francisco de Vitoria, Hugo Grotius and John Locke
offered the first explanations for the universal entitlement to certain rights on the
basis of common humanity.
In 1919, the Chair in International Politics established at the University of Wales

became the first academic position dedicated to IR. In 1927 the first university
institution entirely dedicated to the study of IR, the Graduate Institute of International
Studies, was founded in Geneva, Switzerland. The first graduate school of international
relations in the United States was the Fletcher School. Schools dedicated to the study
of IR were founded in Asia and South America, but IR as a discipline of study remained
centered chiefly in Europe and North America.
IR theories can be divided into one of two epistemological camps: "positivist" and
"post-positivist". Positivist theories aim to replicate the methods of the natural
sciences by analyzing the impact of material forces. They typically focus on features of
international relations such as state interactions, size of military forces and balance of
powers. Post-positivist theories reject the idea that the social world can be studied in
an objective and value-free way. They reject the central ideas of neo-realism and
liberalism, such as the rational choice theory, on the grounds that the scientific
method cannot be applied to the social world and that a 'science' of IR is impossible.
An important difference between the two positions is that while positivist theories
offer causal explanations (such as why and how power is exercised), post-positivist
theories focus instead on constitutive questions, for instance, what is meant by
'power', what makes it up, how it is experienced and how it is reproduced. Often, post-
positivist theories promote a normative approach to IR, by considering ethics. This is
something which has been ignored under traditional IR as positivist theories make a
distinction between 'facts' and normative judgments or values.
25
Activity
What is the difference between positivist theories and post positivist theories?
Text 3
Positivist Theories
Liberalism/Idealism
Liberal international relations theory arose after World War I in response to the
inability of states to control and limit war in their international relations. Woodrow
Wilson argued that states mutually gained from cooperation and that war was
destructive. Liberalism was not recognized as a coherent theory as such until it was
termed idealism by E. H. Carr.
Realism
Realism was a response to liberalism that chiefly denies that states seek to cooperate.
Realists such as E. H. Carr, argued that, for the purpose of increasing their security,
states are self-interested, power-seeking rational actors. Any cooperation between
states is explained as purely incidental. Realists saw World War II as the vindication of
their theory. It should be noted that classical writers such as Thucydides, Machiavelli,
and Hobbes are often cited as the "founding fathers" of realism.
Neo-realism
Neo-realism is the work of Kenneth Waltz. While retaining the empirical observations
of realism, that international relations are characterized by antagonistic interstate
relations, neo-realists point to the anarchic structure of the international system as the
cause. They reject explanations that take account of states' domestic characteristics.
States are compelled by relative gains and balance against concentration of power.
Unlike realism, neo-realism seeks to be scientific and more positivist.
Neo-liberalism
Neo-liberalism seeks to update liberalism by accepting the neorealist presumption that

states are the key actors in international relations, but still maintains that non-state
actors (NSAs) and intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) matter. Proponents argue
that states will cooperate irrespective of relative gains, and are thus concerned with
absolute gains. Nations are free to make their own choices and they conduct policy
without any international organizations blocking a nation's right to sovereignty. Neo-
liberalism also contains an economic theory that is based on the use of open and free
markets with little government intervention to prevent monopolies from forming.
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Activity
Summarize the ideas of each of the theories
Text 4
Post-positivist Theories
International Society Theory (The English School)
International society theory focuses on the shared norms and values of states and how
they regulate international relations. Examples of such norms include diplomacy,
order, and international law. Unlike neo-realism, it is not necessarily positivist.
Theorists focus particularly on humanitarian intervention, and are subdivided between
solidarists and pluralists.
Social Constructivism
Social Constructivism includes a broad range of theories that aim to address questions
of ontology, such as the structure (social class, religion, gender, ethnicity, customs
which seem to limit or influence the opportunities that individuals have) and agency
(capacity of individual humans to act independently and to make their own choices) as
well as questions of epistemology, such as the debate that concerns with the relative
role of material forces versus ideas.
Common to all varieties of constructivism is an interest in the role that ideational

forces play. The most famous constructivist scholar, Alexander Wendt, said that the
anarchical structure that neo-realists claim governs state interaction is in fact a
phenomenon that is socially constructed and reproduced by states. Anarchy in this
view is constituted by state interaction, rather than accepted as a natural and
immutable feature of international life as viewed by neo-realists.
Critical Theory
Proponents focus on the need for human emancipation from States. Hence, it is
"critical" of IR theories that tend to be state-centric.
Marxism
Marxist and Neo-Marxist theories reject the realist/liberal view of state conflict or
cooperation, focusing instead on the economic and material aspects. It makes the
assumption that the economy defeats other concerns; allowing for the elevation of
class. Marxists view the international system as an integrated capitalist system in
pursuit of capital accumulation.
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Linked in with Marxist theories is dependency theory which argues that developed
countries, in their pursuit of power, penetrate developing states through political
advisors, missionaries, experts and MNCs to integrate them into the integrated
capitalist system in order to appropriate natural resources and promote dependence
by developing countries on developed countries.
Poststructuralist theories
Poststructuralist theories developed in the 1980s. Post-structuralism explores the

deconstruction of concepts in IR, such as 'power' and 'agency' and examines how the
construction of these concepts shapes international relations. The examination of
'narratives' plays an important part.
Activity
Summarize the ideas of each of the theories
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English III
Text 1
Concepts in International Relations
Power
The concept of Power in international relations can be described as the degree of

resources, capabilities, and influence in international affairs. It is often divided into the
concepts of hard power and soft power, hard power relating primarily to coercive
power, such as the use of force, and soft power commonly covering economics,
diplomacy and cultural influence.
Polarity
Polarity in International Relations refers to the arrangement of power within the

international system. The concept appeared during the Cold War, with the
international system dominated by the conflict between two superpowers. The
balance of power was a concept prevalent in Europe prior to the First World War. They
thought that the balance of power would create stability and prevent war. Unipolarity
can control the occurrence of wars but it can also create one.
Interdependence
Many believe that the current international system is characterized by growing

interdependence. Advocates of this view point to growing globalization. The role of
international institutions, and widespread acceptance of a number of operating
principles in the international system, reinforces these ideas.
Dependency
Dependency theory is a theory most commonly associated with Marxism, stating that a
set of Core states exploit a set of weaker periphery states for their prosperity. Various
versions of the theory use it to highlight the necessity for change.
Tools of International Relations
● Diplomacy is the practice of communication and negotiation between

representatives of states. To some extent, all other tools of international
relations can be considered the failure of diplomacy.
● Sanctions are usually a first resort after the failure of diplomacy and are one of
the main tools used to enforce treaties. They can take the form of diplomatic or
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economic sanctions and involve imposition of barriers to communication or
trade.
● War, the use of force, is often thought of as the ultimate tool of international
relations. There is a growing study into 'new wars' involving actors other than
states.
● The mobilization of international shame is also a tool of International Relations.
This is attempting to alter states actions through 'naming and shaming' at the
international level.
● The allotment of economic and/or diplomatic benefits.
Regime Type
It is often considered that a state regime type can dictate the way that a state interacts
with others in the international system.
Democratic Peace Theory is a theory that suggests that the nature of democracy
means that democratic countries will not go to war with each other. The justifications
for this are that democracies externalize their norms and only go to war for just
causes, and that democracy encourages mutual trust and respect.
Communism justifies a world revolution, which similarly would lead to peaceful

coexistence, based on a proletarian global society.
Revisionism/Status Quo
States can be classified by whether they accept the international status quo, or are
revisionist, i.e. want change. Revisionist states seek to change the rules and practices
of international relations, feeling disadvantaged by the status quo. They see the
international system as a western creation which serves to reinforce current realities.
Japan is an example of a state that went from being a revisionist state to one that is
satisfied with the status quo, because the status quo is now beneficial to it.
Religion
It is often considered that religion can have an effect on the way a state acts within the
international system. Religion is an organizing principle particularly for Islamic states,
whereas secularism is based on the separation of state and religion.
Institutions in International Relations
International institutions form a vital part of contemporary International Relations.

Much interaction at the system level is governed by them, and they outlaw some
traditional institutions and practices of International Relations, such as the use of war.
As humanity enters the planetary phase of civilization, some scientists see a global
hierarchy of institutions replacing the existing system of sovereign nation-states as the
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primary political community. They argue that nations are an imagined community that
cannot solve such modern challenges like the Dogville effect (strangers in a
homogeneous community), the legal and political status of stateless people and
refugees, and the need to address concerns like climate change and pandemics.
Activity
1) What are the tools of International Relations?
2) What is the difference between revisionism and status quo?
3) What is a the Dogville challenge?
Text 2
Political Geography
Political geography is the field of human geography that is concerned with the study of
both the spatially uneven outcomes of political processes and the ways in which
political processes are themselves affected by spatial structures. Political geography
adopts a three scale structure for the purposes of analysis with the study of the state
at the center, above this we find the study of international relations (or geopolitics),
and below we can find the study of localities. The primary concerns of the sub-
discipline are the inter-relationships between people, state, and territory.
Activity
Translate the paragraph
Text 3
History of Political Geography
The origins of political geography lie in the origins of human geography and the early
practitioners were concerned with the military and political consequences of the
relationships between physical geography, state territories, and state power. In
particular there was a close association with regional geography, with its emphasis on
the characteristics of regions, and environmental determinism with its emphasis on
the influence of the physical environment on human activities. This association found
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expression in the work of the German geographer Friedrich Ratzel who, in 1897, linked
the cultural growth of a nation with territorial expansion, and which was used to
provide academic legitimate for the expansion of the German Third Reich in the 1930s.
The British geographer Halford Mackinder was also influenced by environmental

determinism and in developing his concept of heartland (1904) he argued that the era
of sea power was coming to an end and that land based powers were ascending.
Whoever controlled the heartland of 'Euro-Asia' would control the world. The
heartland theory implied the possibility of a huge empire being created which didn't
need to use transoceanic transport to supply its military industrial complex, and that
this empire could not be defeated by the rest of the world united against it. This
perspective proved influential throughout the period of the Cold War, supporting
military thinking about the creation of buffer states between East and West in central
Europe.
Mackinder claimed that whoever controlled the Heartland would have control of the
world. He used this warning to influence events such as the Treaty of Versailles, where
buffer states were created between the USSR and Germany. At the same time, Ratzel
was creating a theory of states based around the concepts of ‘living space’ and Social
Darwinism. He argued that states were 'organisms' that needed sufficient room in
which to live.
Pre-World War II political geography was concerned with global power struggles and
influencing state policy, and the above theories were taken on board by German geo-
politicians such as Karl Haushofer who influenced the Nazi political theory.
The close association with environmental determinism and the freezing of political
boundaries during the Cold War led to a considerable decline in the importance of
political geography. As a result much political geography of this period was descriptive
with little attempt to produce generalizations.
Activity
Explain the concept of “Heartland”
Text 4
Areas of Study
From the late-1970s onwards political geography underwent a renaissance. In part this
growth was associated with the adoption by political geographers of the approaches
taken up earlier in other areas of human geography by Robert Sack and Peter Taylor.
However, the recent growth is also related to changes in the world as a result of the
32
end of the Cold War, including the appearance of a new world order, and the
development of new research studies, such as the more recent focus on social
movements and political struggles going beyond the study of nationalism. Recently,
there was interest in the geography of green politics, including the capacity of our
existing states and political institutions to address contemporary environmental
problems.
Political geography extended the scope of traditional political science approaches by

acknowledging that the exercise of power is not restricted to states and bureaucracies,
but is part of everyday life. This resulted in the concerns of political geography
overlapping with those of other human geography disciplines such as economic
geography, and with those of social and cultural geography. Although contemporary
political geography maintains many of its traditional concerns, the multi-disciplinary
expansion into related areas is part of a general process within human geography
which involves the blurring of boundaries between the areas of study.
In particular, then, modern political geography often considers:
● How and why states are organized into regional groupings, both formally (e.g.
the European Union) and informally (e.g. the Third World)
● The relationship between states and former colonies, and how these are
propagated over time, for example through neo-colonialism
● The relationships between a government and its people
● The relationships between states including international trades and treaties

● The functions, demarcations and policing of boundaries
● How imagined geographies have political implications
● The influence of political power on geographical space
● The study of election results (electoral geography)
Activity
What does modern political geography consider?
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English IV
Text 1
Political Philosophy
Political philosophy is the study of fundamental questions about the state,

government, politics, liberty, justice, property, rights, law and the enforcement of a
legal code by the authority: what they are, why they are needed, what makes a
government legitimate, what rights and freedoms it should protect and why, what
form it should take and why, what the law is, and what duties citizens owe to a
legitimate government and when it may be legitimately overthrown.
Three central concerns of political philosophy were the political economy by which
property rights are defined and access to capital is regulated, the demands of justice in
distribution and punishment, and the rules of truth and evidence that determine
judgments in the law.
History of Political Philosophy
Antiquity
Plato's Republic and Aristotle's Politics secured the two Greek philosophers as two of
the most influential political philosophers.
Western political philosophy has its origins in the ancient Greek society, when city-
states were experimenting with various forms of political organization including
monarchy, tyranny, aristocracy, oligarchy, and democracy. One of the first works of
political philosophy is Plato's The Republic, which was followed by Aristotle's Politics.
Independently, Confucius and the Legalist school in China, and Chanakya in India, all
wanted to find means of restoring political unity and stability through the cultivation of
virtue or by imposition of discipline. Ancient Chinese and Indian civilization resembled
Greek in that there was a unified culture divided into rival states. In the case of China,
philosophers were obliged to confront social and political breakdown, and looked for
solutions to the crisis.
The early Christian philosophy of Augustine of Hippo was important. The main change
that Christian thought brought was to moderate the Stoicism and theory of justice of
the Roman world, and emphasize the role of the state in applying mercy as a moral
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example. Augustine also preached that one was not a member of just a city, but was a
citizen of the City of God.
Islam from the 7th to 14th Centuries
The Islam, based on both the Quran and Muhammad altered the power balances and
perceptions of origin of power in the Mediterranean region. Early Muslim philosophy
emphasized a link between science and religion and it was "political" as it had real
implications for governance. The West and Christianity were exposed to both Plato’s
Republic and Aristotle’s Politics. Many thought that this was the reason why the
Middle East and the West developed different political systems and ideologies.
Islamic political philosophy was based on the sources of Islam.
The Middle Ages
Medieval political philosophy in Europe was influenced by Christian thinking. It had in

common with the Islamic thinking the fact that that the Roman Catholics also
subordinated philosophy to theology. Perhaps the most influential political
philosopher of the medieval period was St. Thomas Aquinas who helped reintroduce
Aristotle's works and dominated European thought for centuries.
The Renaissance
During the Renaissance secular political philosophy emerged. While the middle Ages
saw secular politics in practice under the rule of the Holy Roman Empire, the academic
field was wholly Christian in nature. One of the most influential works during this
period was Machiavelli's The Prince, published in 1532, after Machiavelli's death. That
work did much to influence modern political thought in the West. Though the work
was written for the Medici family in order to influence them to free him from exile,
Machiavelli supported the Republic of Florence rather than the oligarchy of the Medici
family. Machiavelli presents a pragmatic view of politics, whereby good and evil are
means used to bring about an end. Thomas Hobbes, well known for his theory of the
social contract, goes on to expand this view at the start of the 17th century.
The Age of Enlightenment
During this period, new theories about the definition of reality and how it was
perceived, along with the discovery of other societies in the Americas, and the
changing needs of political societies (especially in the wake of the American Revolution
and the French Revolution) led to new questions by thinkers like Rousseau,
Montesquieu and Locke.
These theorists asked themselves two questions: by what right people form states,
and, what the best form for a state can be. These questions involved a conceptual
35
distinction between the concepts of "state" and "government". "State" would refer to
a set of institutions through which power would be distributed and its use justified.
"Government" would refer to a group of people who would occupy the institutions of
the state, and create the laws by which the people, themselves included, would be
bound. This distinction continues to operate in political science today.
Industrialization and the Modern Era
Karl Marx and his theory of Communism proved to be one of the most influential
political ideologies of the 20th century. The industrial revolution produced a parallel
revolution in political thought. Urbanization and capitalism reshaped society. During
this same period, the socialist movement was formed. In the mid-19th century,
Marxism was developed, and socialism gained popular support, mostly from the urban
working class. By the late 19th century, socialism and trade unions were established
members of the political landscape.
World War I was a terrible event in human history. The Russian Revolution of 1917
(and similar revolutions in other European countries) brought communism on the
world stage. At the same time, social democratic parties won elections and formed
governments for the first time. In response to the social changes that occurred after
the war, ideologies such as fascism began to take shape, in particular, the rise of the
Nazis in Germany. All political thought was affected by the Great Depression, which led
many theorists to reconsider ideas. In Europe, both the extreme left and the extreme
right gained popularity.
Activity
Summarize the ideas of the paragraphs
Text 2
Contemporary Political Philosophy
After World War II political philosophy moved into a temporary eclipse in the Anglo-
American academic world, as analytic philosophers expressed skepticism about the
possibility that normative judgments had cognitive content, and political science
turned toward statistical methods. A handful of continental European emigrants to
Britain and the United States, including Hannah Arendt and Karl Popper, encouraged
continued study in the field.
Communism remained an important focus especially during the 1950s and 60s.
Zionism, racism and colonialism were important issues that arose. In general, there
was a marked trend towards a pragmatic approach to political issues, rather than a
36
philosophical one. Feminism and the end of the colonial rule and of the political
exclusion of such minorities as African Americans in the developed world has led to
feminist, postcolonial, and multicultural thought.
In Anglo-American academic political philosophy the publication of A Theory of Justice

by John Rawls in 1971 is considered a milestone. Rawls used a thought experiment, the
original position, in which representative parties choose principles of justice for the
basic structure of society from behind a veil of ignorance. Rawls also offered a criticism
of utilitarian approaches to questions of political justice.
In Europe several new lines of philosophy directed to criticize existing societies and
took elements of Marxist economic analysis but combined them with a more cultural
emphasis. Thinkers like Marcuse, Adorno and Habermas combined Marxian and
Freudian perspectives. Other continental thinkers, also influenced by Marxism, put
emphases on structuralism. Within the post-structuralist line are thinkers such as
Michel Foucault and Jean Baudrillard.
Text 3
Influential Political Philosophers
Listed below are a few of the most important political philosophers.
Confucius : The first thinker to relate ethics to the political order.
Chanakya : Founder of an independent political thought in India, created guidelines for

social, law and political order in society.
Socrates/Plato: These philosophers set the relation between knowledge on the one
hand, and a just and good society on the other. Socrates is considered founder of
Western political philosophy. Socrates never wrote anything, much of what we know
about him and his teachings comes through his most famous student, Plato.
Aristotle: He wrote his Politics and was notable for the theories that humans are social
animals, and that the polis existed to bring the good life appropriate to such animals.
His political theory is based upon an ethics of perfectionism.
Machiavelli: First systematic analyses of how consent of a population is negotiated

between and among rulers rather than simply a naturalistic (or theological) given of
the structure of society.
Hobbes: Generally considered the creator of the concept of a social contract that
justifies the actions of rulers (even when they are contrary to the individual desires of
governed citizens).
37
Locke: He also described a social contract theory based on citizens' rights in the state
of nature. He departed from Hobbes in that, based on the assumption of a society in
which moral values are independent of governmental authority and widely shared, he
argued for a government with power limited to the protection of personal property.
His arguments were influential to the formation of the United States Constitution.
Montesquieu: He analyzed protection of liberty by a "balance of powers" in the

divisions of a state.
Rousseau: He analyzed the social contract as an expression of the general will, and
controversially argued in favor of absolute democracy where the people would act as
sovereign.
Kant: He argued that participation in civil society is undertaken not for self-
preservation, but as a moral duty. He was the first modern thinker who analyzed the
structure and meaning of an obligation. He also argued that an international
organization was needed to preserve world peace.
Smith: The founder of modern economics explained the emergence of economic

benefits from the self-interested behavior (the invisible hand) of artisans and traders.
While praising its efficiency, Smith also expressed concern about the effects of
industrial labor (repetitive activity) on workers. His work tried to explain social bonds
outside the economic sphere.
Adams: He defended the American cause for independence. He defended the

American form of republicanism over the French liberal democracy. He is considered
the founder of the American conservative thought.
Paine: Enlightenment writer who defended liberal democracy, the American

Revolution and the French Revolution.
Bentham: The first thinker to analyze social justice in terms of maximization of

aggregate individual benefits. He founded the school known as utilitarianism.
Stuart Mill: A utilitarian, and the person who named the system; he created the
foundation for liberal democratic thought and modern liberalism.
Marx: He added the historical dimension to an understanding of society, culture and

economics. He created the concept of ideology in the sense of beliefs that shape and
control social actions. He analyzed the fundamental nature of class as a mechanism of
governance and social interaction.
Dewey: Founder of pragmatism, he analyzed the essential role of education in the

maintenance of democratic government.
Marcuse: One of the thinkers within the Frankfurt School, and important in efforts to
fuse the thought of Freud and Marx. He introduced the concept of repressive de-
38
sublimation, in which social control can operate not only by direct control, but also by
manipulation of desire. He analyzed the role of advertising.
Arendt: She analyzed the roots of totalitarianism and introduced the concept of the
"banality of evil" (how ordinary technocratic rationality comes to deplorable fruition).
She brought revisions to the philosophy of Heidegger into political thought.
Rawls: He revitalized the study of normative political philosophy in Anglo-American

universities with his book A Theory of Justice, which uses a version of social contract
theory to answer questions about justice and to criticize utilitarianism.
Activity
Choose one of these thinkers and write a brief biography
Text 4
Revision of International Relations and Political Science Theories
International relations theory attempts to provide a conceptual model upon which

international relations can be analyzed. Each theory relies on different sets of
assumptions respectively. A defender of realism may completely disregard an event
that a constructivist might consider crucial.
International relations theories can be divided into "positivist/rationalist" theories

which focus on a state-level analysis, and "post-positivist" ones which incorporate
meanings of security, ranging from class, to gender, to postcolonial security. Many
conflicting ways of thinking exist in IR theory, including Constructivism,
Institutionalism, Marxism and others. However, two positivist schools of thought are
most prevalent: Realism and Liberalism.
Realism
It assumes that nation-states are unitary, geographically-based actors in an anarchic

international system with no authority above capable of regulating interactions
between states as no true authoritative world government exists. Secondly, it assumes
that sovereign states, rather than IGOs, NGOs or MNCs, are the primary actors in
international affairs. Thus, states, as the highest order, are in competition with one
another. As such, a state acts as a rational actor in pursuit of its own self-interest with
a primary goal to maintain and ensure its own security and its survival. Realism holds
that, in pursuit of their interests, states will attempt to obtain resources, and that
relations between states are determined by their relative levels of power. That level of
power is determined by the state's military and economic capabilities.
39
Some realists believe that states are aggressive, that territorial expansion is
constrained only by opposing powers, while others believe that states are obsessed
with the security and continuation of the state's existence. This leads to a security
dilemma where increasing one's own security can bring greater instability as the
opponent builds up its own arms, making security a zero-sum game with only relative
gains.
Liberalism
The precursor to liberal IR theory was "idealism”. Idealism in international relations

usually refers to the school of thought personified by Woodrow Wilson. Idealism holds
that a state should make its internal political philosophy the goal of its foreign policy.
For example, an idealist might believe that ending poverty at home should be coupled
with tackling poverty abroad.
Liberalism holds that state preferences, rather than state capabilities, are the primary
determinant of state behavior. Unlike realism where the state is a unitary actor,
liberalism allows for plurality in state actions. Thus, preferences will vary from state to
state, depending on factors such as culture, economic system or government type.
Liberalism also holds that interaction between states is not limited to the
political/security field, but also includes the economic/cultural field. Thus, instead of
an anarchic international system, there are plenty of opportunities for cooperation and
broader notions of power, such as cultural capital (for example, the influence of films
leading to the popularity of the country's culture and creating a market for its exports
worldwide). Another assumption is that absolute gains can be made through
cooperation and interdependence, thus peace can be achieved.
Democratic Peace Theory
The democratic peace theory argues that democracies never made war on one
another. This is seen as contradicting especially by the realist theories. Numerous
explanations have been proposed for the democratic peace. It is argued that
democracies conduct diplomacy differently from non-democracies.
Institutionalism
Institutionalism in international relations holds that the international system is not

anarchic, but that it has an implicit or explicit structure which determines how states
will act within the system.
Institutions are rules that determine the decision-making process. Institutionalism

holds a group of beliefs arising from the central proposition that institutions "matter”.
There are four reasons for this: They structure choices, they provide incentives, they
distribute power and they define identities and roles.
Critical theories
40
Many schools of thought in international relations criticized the status-quo both from
other positivist positions as well as post-positivist positions. The former include
Marxist and Neo-Marxist approaches. The latter include postmodernist, postcolonial
and feminist approaches.
Marxist theory
Marxist and Neo-Marxist international relations theories are positivist paradigms

which reject the realist/liberal view of state conflict or cooperation; instead focusing
on the economic and material aspects. It assumes that the economic concerns
transcend others; allowing for the elevation of class as the focus of study. Marxists
view the international system as an integrated capitalist system in pursuit of capital
accumulation.
Constructivism
Constructivism concerns itself with the role of ideas in shaping the international
system. By "ideas" constructivists refer to the goals, threats, fears, identities, and other
elements of perceived reality that influence states and non-state actors within the
international system. Constructivists believe that these factors can have far-reaching
effects. For example, constructivists note that an increase in the size of the US military
is likely to be viewed with much greater concern in Cuba than in Canada. Therefore,
there must be perceptions at work in shaping international outcomes. As such,
constructivists do not see anarchy as the foundation of the international system, but
rather argue, that "anarchy is what states make of it". Constructivists also believe that
social norms shape and foreign policy over time rather than security.
Functionalism
Functionalism is a theory of international relations that arose from the experience of

European integration. Rather than the self-interest that realists see as a motivating
factor, functionalists focus on common interests shared by states. Integration develops
its own internal dynamic: as states integrate in limited functional or technical areas,
they find the moment for further rounds of integration in related areas. This "invisible
hand" of integration is termed "spill-over". Although integration can be resisted, it
becomes harder to stop integration's reach as it progresses.
More commonly, however, functionalism is a term used to describe an argument

which explains phenomena as functions of a system rather than an actor or actors. A
functionalist theory is employed to argue that the Westphalian international political
system appeared to secure and protect the developing international capitalist system.
This theory says that an event was a function of the preferences of a system and not
the preferences of an agent. Functionalism is different from structural or realist
arguments, all of them look to broader, structural causes, but realists (and
41
structuralists) say that the structure gives incentives to agents, while functionalists
attribute causal power to the system itself.
Activity
Summarize the ideas presented in the paragraphs
Public auctioneer
English I
Text 1
Sales Techniques:
A
Sell benefits, not features
When you are selling, the customer doesn´t want to know about the features of a
product. They want to know how it is going to benefit them. Is it going to make it more
attractive? Or save time? Or help them to work more efficiently?
B
Differentiate your product
You must come up with at least three ways in which your product is different from the
competition. These are called USPs – Unique Selling Points. For example, your product
could be faster, cheaper, and smaller than the competition.
C
Meet your customer face-to-face
You need to meet your customers, especially if you are new. It is not worth spending a
fortune on newspaper advertising or direct mailing for first-time entrepreneurs.
D
Let the customer tell you what they want
You need to understand your customer before you can sell him or her something. Don
´t start “selling” something until your customers have talked about themselves.
E
Learn to listen
Sales people who do most of the talking usually lose the sale! Listen carefully and don´t
jump to conclusions. Take notes and concentrate on what your customer is saying.
Find out what your customer really wants by asking a lot of questions.
F
Sell to people who buy
42
If you are trying to sell a product, don´t try and sell it to someone who has never
bought it before. Sell your product to someone who already has one. Show your clients
how yours is superior to the competition.
G
Turn your customer into salespeople
If your customers are happy, they are going to tell other people. Nearly 85% of sales
are the result of word of mouth. So think about how you can create satisfied
customers. They will do your advertising for you!
Texto del libro “Oxford English for Careers: Commerce 1” Martin Hobbs and Julia Starr
Keddle – Oxford University Press
Text 2
Trade Fairs and Exhibitions:
Trade fairs are an effective way for businesses to make face-to-face contacts with
potential suppliers and customers. They provide a chance to demonstrate and launch
products, test new markets, and find out what customers want. You can also find out
about new competition, and get new ideas.
There are trade fairs for every business sector to make sure you attend the right one.
You should make a profile of the customers you want to attract and the products and
services they want to know about. You should look at a trade fair´s statistics. How
many people attend? How big is the exhibition space? Who are the major exhibitors?
Planning is the secret of success. You should book well in advance to get a good
position for your stand. Then prepare materials and stand furniture, and book
accommodation and transport. There is a lot to do at a trade fair so make sure enough
staff attend.
Your staff should be well prepared and ask appropriate questions so they can identify
potential clients.
Text 3
How to Market
43
It´s not enough for a business to make a great product – they have to find customers
and then sell it! That´s where marketing comes in. Marketing is essential because it
helps companies decide on their goals and strategies. Marketing is all about identifying
and meeting customer needs.
The marketing mix – the “four Ps”

Marketing concerns every aspect of a business and can be divided into four areas – the
“four Ps” (Product, Price, Promotion and Place). Every business achieves a different
balance between them to make a marketing mix.
Product
A high quality product that is right for the market is the key to marketing success. If it
is a mobile phone, it needs to look and feel right, be fashionable and easy to use, and
offer the right services. It must reflect the end-user´s needs and wants and offer
something different from its competitors.
Price
Price is an important factor. A quality or luxury product can have a higher price.
Organic food can be priced high because it offers customers guarantees of safety and
taste. But if you are entering a new market you may set a low price to compete better.
Low price may also be used by supermarkets for economy brands, and shopping sites
such an Amazon promote with aggressive pricing strategies.
Promotion
This includes advertising, publicity and selling. Personal selling by sales representatives
is an effective way to sell products such as cars. Advertising is essential and is used by
most companies. It may be on the Internet, TV, radio, on posters or in newspapers and
magazines and on mobile phones. Some companies target specific customer groups
and send direct mail ads.
Place
It´s not good having a perfect product if you can´t get it to your customer. A business
has to distribute its products effectively. They can be distributed directly to your
customer, via a shop, or indirectly through a wholesaler.
Wholesalers act as a link between a company and retailers. Direct selling is becoming
increasingly important on the Internet.
Text 4
44
What is an auction?
Sale
There's something about that word that gets people's attention. You can almost see
the raised eyebrows and the dollar signs in their eyes. It means they have an
opportunity to buy quality products at fair and reasonable prices. It makes them
anxious and excited.
What about when you hear the word "auction", what do you think of? Does it conjure
up the same images for you? Do you think "opportunity?" Do you think "rare and
unusual items”?
Well, we are here to tell you that an auction is all of the above and more. In fact, an
auction is not only the best and most exciting kind of "sale", it is also the most
advantageous type of sale for both buyers and sellers. And through the years, it has
become the sale of "choice" by many, many people throughout the country.
Auction Myths
Auctions are a choice for today's buyers and sellers. They are not a "last option." Many
people think that auctions are only held when someone has died or has had their
property, such as their home or car, repossessed. The reasons for auctions are as
varied as the materials and possessions sold there.
Another myth is that you have to be an "experienced" auction goer to buy and sell.
Everyone is welcome and the staff are great about helping first timers to understand
how auctions work, how to make a bid, etc. Understanding the chant is what some
people find the most intimidating. Here's a tip: listen carefully to the caller for a while
and get used to his chant method.
Auction Method of Marketing

We refer to our method of selling as "The Auction Method of Marketing". This means
much more than just making a sale. It means orchestrating a business transaction and
entering into a commitment to meet the needs of both our client and our buyers. We
take responsibility for the entire auction. We dedicate many long hours to prepare for
and orchestrate the sale so that when that auction gavel falls, the outcome is positive
for both the buyer and seller. Some of our responsibilities include:
● Rendering appraisals on merchandise.

We get to know your property. We use our expertise to look at all the items up
for bid and assess their value.
● Advertising the sale.
It is part of our responsibility to ensure that people know about the auction, so
we work hard to reach as many of them as possible through ads in the
newspaper, fliers and posters and web site postings.
45
● Repairing and cleaning up items for display.
We want your goods to look the best they can so we spend time fixing them,
polishing them up and displaying them so they will be appealing to bidders.
● Keeping a financial record of items sold.
We keep a log of items sold and their sale prices.
● Cleaning up the site after the sale.
When the sale is over, we help tidy up the auction location, picking up bidder
numbers, debris and other items. We want to leave it as we found it before the
sale.
Background on Auction Industry

The term "auction" is derived from the Latin word "auctus”, which means "increasing
or gradual increase". Today the word as we have come to know it means a public sale
of property to the highest bidder.
Rome is said to have been the first country to license auctioneers.
George Washington liked to attend auctions and is said to have selected all of the
furnishings for Mt. Vernon through auctions.
The Auctioneer
Auctioneering is a solid and reputable career.
Auctioneers are educated marketing professionals versed in their field. They are detail-
oriented, technology savvy and leaders in their community. They just keep getting
better at their trade and that's a plus for consumers.
Many auctioneers attend auction school to learn their trade, then become licensed in
their profession.
Continuing education classes are another part of the auction business. Auctioneers
attend classes to keep up on current trends and to learn new methods such as video
auctioneering and live internet auctioneering. Some auctioneers take classes to earn
specialized designations in fields such as real estate, personal property, agri-business,
legal and more.
Texto extraído de National Auctioneers Association http://www.auctioneers.org/
46
Public auctioneer
English II
Text 1
A Different Kind of Intelligence
Your best friend has said something that upset you, your team mate hasn´t done
enough work, you´d like to ask your boss for a rise. In these situations you have to deal
with emotions. We feel emotions every day of our lives. But did you know they can
make or break a career?
We often think that intelligence guarantees a successful life, but it isn´t always enough.
In fact, psychologists have found that people with a high IQ (Intelligence Quotient) don
´t necessarily have better lives than those with an average IQ. People who can manage
their emotions have a better chance of success. And this skill isn´t linked to how clever
you are.
In 1995, the psychologist Daniel Goleman wrote a book called “Emotional

Intelligence”. It explained that understanding your emotions and managing your
relationships with other people was an essential skill. How well you manage your
emotions is called your Emotional Quotient (EQ). Amazingly, people who have high IQs
but low EQs often work for people who have lower IQs but higher EQs. So being clever
can get you a job, but to succeed you need to understand emotions. What happens if
you find out you´ve got a low EQ?. don´t worry – you can improve it.
People with high emotional intelligence are aware of the link between their feelings
and their actions. They understand other people´s feelings, show sensitivity to other
47
people´s needs, and are good communicators. A study of more than 300 top
executives in global companies showed that people with a high EQ performed better.
Sales staffed with high EQs selected by L´Oreal sold much more than their colleagues.
And after supervisors in a factory were trained in listening skills, they exceeded
productivity goals.
Nowadays businesses recognize that emotional intelligence is essential to their

success. In fact, a $40 billion EQ training industry helps to improve performance,
productivity, and customer relations. Many companies now use EQ tests when they
are recruiting new staff. So if you are looking for a job, improve your EQ!
Text 2
Glocalization, thinking globally, acting locally
Glocalization (local + globalization) is a new word. It describes the strategy of being

global and being responsive to local conditions at the same time. It occurs for example
when global corporations customize their global products to suit the local culture.
While globalization has been criticized for causing problems, glocalization seeks to
improve relations between the big international companies and their local customers.
The American fast food chain McDonald´s is often the target of the anti-globalization
movement. However, it is trying to be more sensitive to local needs. The French
attacked McDonald´s for its Americanization of French culture. So McDonald´s got rid
of its American mascot, Ronald McDonald, and adopted Asterix, a French cartoon hero,
as its local company mascot. It also serves French-style coffee in its restaurants. To
avoid offence in Hindu or Muslim countries, McDonald´s does not serve beef or pork –
the Big Mac has become the vegetarian Maharaja Mac.
Coca-Cola also creates products suited to local markets by producing local versions of
the drink. Even Yahoo, the web portal, uses local teams of people to analyze the
content in each of its international sites.
If a company wishes to be internationally successful, it has to market its products in

different ways for each country. Revlon, the cosmetics company, used Cindy Crawford
to advertise its products in Asia, while L´Oreal used a local Chinese star – Revlon lost
sales to its rival. The modern globalized world is often depersonalized, and a business
that can communicate better will increase its market share.
48
Large charities, such as Oxfam, also create local solutions for individual countries
instead of simply handing out money. So glocalization is not just about big business – it
is a concept that can help the fight against poverty and inequality around the world.
Text 3
E-commerce
You probably use your internet to send emails, download music and films, or look for
information. But did you know the Internet is transforming the business world?
Electronic commerce (e – commerce) is the buying and selling of products and services
on the Internet instead of using shops, phones, faxes and letters. It creates
opportunities for companies to sell more and to improve more customer service. It
also gives customers a greater choice.
There are three main types of e-commerce. The first is:

● Business to consumer (B2C)
The consumer buys goods or services from a company on the Internet. Many
consumers now buy books, music, or tickets on the Internet.
The second type of e-commerce is:
● Consumer to consumer (C2C)
People buy and sell directly on sites such as eBay.
The third type is:
● Business to business (B2B)
That is commerce between companies. They use the Internet to order goods, get
services, and manage their business. It is fast and efficient.
In the past the car manufacturer Ford ordered thousands of parts from hundreds
of different companies. They told the suppliers which parts they wanted and the
supplier sent a proposal to supply them. It was a long and expensive process. These
days, Ford uses special B2B electronic exchanges to order their parts and then the
suppliers put in electronic bids for the job. This process is much quicker and cuts
costs.
Companies don´t need large Purchasing departments and suppliers have to cut
their prices to be competitive.
49
So, which parts of the world are most “e-active”? Europe is number one, the US
comes second, while Hong Kong is the biggest in Asia, particularly in e-business
services. In fact, in 2006, Europe´s three major markets – the UK, Germany, and
France- carried out around 25% of their sales online. This figure is increasing from
year to year.
Text 4
What is management? Management theories
Business, and therefore management too, is changing rapidly in a vast-moving global

economy, and these changes are not going to slow down in the 21 st century.
Full time jobs are in decline and lifelong employment is being replaced by short term
contracts and series of “tasks”. There will be increasing demand for managerial skills
on a “project” basis, so most of us will have to become effective managers.
It is important, however, to understand the background to this. All human societies

depend on business activity to provide the goods they need. Despite the importance of
business, however, it was only in the 20 th century that analysts began the systematic
study of business and management.
One of the earliest thinkers on management was an American engineer called F.W.
Taylor. He worked in a large steel factory in America. Taylor believed that the purpose
of management was to increase efficiency. The good manager, therefore, had to:
* increase productivity
* reduce costs
* increase revenue
Taylor published an important book called “Scientific Management” in 1911. In this

book he argued that the secret of good management was to define the jobs that had
to be performed by factory workers. He studied the most efficient factory workers as
they carried out various jobs. He observed very carefully the exact physical movements
that they made when they were working. Then he trained the other workers in the
factory to perform their jobs in the same way.
50
Taylor´s methods were followed by analysts. Some of these developed “scientific”
procedures for selecting the best workers, and introduced special payment schemes to
reward productivity.
Taylor´s scientific management was very popular with factory managers, but
sometimes it could lead to problems with factory workers.
In Europe, however, a different approach to management was suggested by Henri

Fayol. He published an important book in 1916. he suggested that there were five
essential managerial functions:
● Planning
● Organizing
● Commanding
● Coordinating
● Controlling
Fayol´s theories of management were so important that most writers on management

still accept these definitions of managerial functions. Other approaches to
management in the early years of the 20th century included the first attempts to use
the new scientific discipline of psychology. Munsterberg was one of these authors.
Munsterberg wanted to find out:

● How to match mental qualities with specific jobs
● The psychological conditions for maximizing output

● How an organization could increase its employees´ output
One very important study was carried out in the USA between 1924 and 1927. This
began as a series of experiments at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric
Company. The original purpose of the study was to find out how factory lighting
systems could affect worker productivity. The study consisted of increasing the lighting
systems in some areas of the plant, and decreasing in other areas.
George Mayo and his researchers made a very surprising discovery. They found that
worker productivity increased in both areas of the plant. At first they did not
understand why this happened.
After further research, they decided that the presence of the researchers in the plant
was responsible for the workers´ increased productivity. They concluded that the
workers felt that they were important because they were being studied by scientists.
This made them work harder. The “Hawthorne effect” encouraged a significant area of
management study – the social effect of organizations on productivity.
51
Scientific management had assumed that workers could be motivated to work harder
by offering them more money. The Hawthorne studies showed that there were other
factors that motivated workers, such as how managers treated them.
Before the 1950´s most writers on management were managers and businessmen.
They wrote about their own experiences. Since then, however, most writers on
management have been academics in universities. Studies of management have come
from a wide variety of disciplines.
Texto del libro “Getting on in Business: Management” Jeremy Fitzgerald -Black Cat SBS
52

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Facultad de Derecho y Ciencias Políticas

Autor: Profesor Javier Núñez

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Arbitration and mediation are common ADR procedures:

a) Consensual and single procedure

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b) High expertise of the third party

c) Time and cost

Types and Features of Alternative Dispute Resolution

The features of each type are as follows:

1. In negotiation, participation is voluntary and there is no third party who

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1-What is ADR for?

2-What are the benefits of using ADR procedures?

3-What is the difference between mediation and arbitration?

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Material específico para las carreras de Abogacía, CCPP, RRII y Martillero.

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-Double jeopardy is prohibited (fifth amendment)

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-Compulsory self incrimination is prohibited (fifth amendment). You cannot be forced

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Activity. Answer these questions

Constitution of the United States, Preamble

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‘Nos los representantes del pueblo de la Nación Argentina, reunidos en Congreso

Amendments to the U. S. constitution

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The constitution of Argentina

The constitution of Argentina is one of the primary sources of existing law in

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name, and to express opinions.

property, to sell and to build legal industries.

● Political rights allow people to take part in the government, by themselves or

by elected representatives: the right to choose and be chosen for government

fair wages, to know, to learn and to teach.

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According to the Constitution, Argentina is a representative federal republic, divided in

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Answer these questions

1-When was the Argentine Constitution reformed?

3-What does the habeas corpus protect?

4-Can citizens introduce bills before the House of Deputies?

5-What is the principle of legality?

6-Which form of government did Argentina adopt?

New civil code

Some Civil Law Changes

Assisted fertilization which is practiced and allowed in Argentina is contained in the

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