10/30/2012 Lecture Outline + Introduction + Networking Equipment BIT 1305 — Computer Networks Repeaters Hub , Bridges . Networking Devices ~ Switehes (Network Eleetronies) + Internetworking Equipment Teen . — Routers : — Brouters ~ Gateways Repeaters Repeaters + Network repeaters regenerate incoming electrical, wireless or optical signals. + With physical media like Ethernet or Wi-Fi, data transmissions can only span a limited distance before the quality of the signal degrades. + Repeaters attempt to preserve signal integrity and extend the distance over which data can safely travel + Actual network devices that serve as repeaters usually have some other name. Active hubs, for example, are repeaters. Active hubs are sometimes also called "multiport repeaters,” but more commonly they are just "hubs." , + Other types of "passive fnubs" are not repeaters. In Wi-Fi, access points function as repeaters only when operating in so-called “repeater mode. Repeaters + All repeaters are technically OSI physical layer devices. Repeaters EXTEND network segments. They amplify the incoming signal received from one segment and send it on to all other attached segments. This allows the distance limitations of network cabling f0 be extended. There are limits on the number of repeaters that can be used. The repeater counts asa single node in the maximum node count associated with the Ethernet standard, Repeaters + Repeaters also allow isolation of segments in the event of failures or fault conditions, + Disconnecting one side of a repeater effectively isolates the associated segments from the network. + Using repeaters simply allows you to extend your network distance limitations. It does not give you any more bandwidth or allow you to transmit data faster.10/30/2012 Repeater - Image Repeater - Implementation RARAA Repeaters - Summary + Increase traffic on segments + Have distance limitations + Limitations on the number that can be used + Propagate errors in the network + Cannot be administered or controlled via remote access Cannot loop back to itself (must be unique single paths) + No traffic isolation or filtering Hubs + A special type of network device called the hub can be found in many home and small business networks. + Though they've existed for many years, the popularity of hubs has exploded recently, especially among people relatively new to networking, Hubs + A hub isa small rectangular box, often made of plastic, which receives its power from an ordinary wall outlet. + A hub joins multiple computers (or other network devices) together to forma single network segment, + On this network segment, all computers ean ‘communicate direetly with each other. Ethernet hubs are by far the most common ype. Hubs — General Characteristics A hub includes a series of ports that each accept a network cable. Small hubs network four computers. They contain four or sometimes five ports, the filth port being reserved for "upli connections to another hub or similar device. + Larger hubs contain eight, 12, 16, and even 24 ports10/30/2012 Hubs — Key Features + Hubs are classified as Layer 1 devices in the OSI model + Atthe physical layer, hubs ean support little in the way of sophisticated networking. + Hubs do not read any of the data passing through them and are not aware of their J source or destination. Hubs — Key Features + Essentially, a hub simply receives incoming packets, possibly amplifies the electrical signal, and broadcasts these packets out to all devices on the network - including the one that originally sent the packet! Hubs — Types Technically speaking thc deen ype of hubs exist: Passive hubs donot amplify the electrical signal of incoming packets before broadcasting them out to the rework These types of hubs do nthe in rectifyng/enhancng * the signals thy pas on in the network, in fhe tems, they donot elp in enhancing the performance ofthe rework LAN. A passive hb simply recive and broadcast it (hem) on the even rectifying it (hem). nals) on input ports)» atput ports) without Hubs + Active hubs, on the other hand, do perform this amplification. Some people use the terms ‘concentrator when referring to passive hub and ‘multiport repeater when referring to an active hub. Types + Active hubs also help in troubleshooting ata certain level. I there is a bottleneck within the network/LAN, active hubs can be used to find out the problem to a ‘erin exten, Active hubs have some benefits over the use of passive hubs: however, active hubs are more expensive than passive hubs as they provide ‘aditional features. Hubs ~ Types + Intelligent hubs add extra features to an active hub that are of particular importance to businesses. An intelligent hub typically is stackable. It also typically includes remote management capabilities via SNMP and virtual LAN (VLAN) support. : Hubs — Types + Intelligent hubs also help in managing the data communication within the network, it recognizes the slower devices automatically and helps them to transmit the data with their own speed, and during this time, the hub manages the traffic within the network effectively + This feature also improves the performance of the network. An intelligent hub also adopts the changes in the network very easily and it also supports different technologies without the need of changing anything in configuration10/30/2012 Hubs ~ Shorteoming + In standard Ethernet, all stations are ‘connected to the same network segment in bus configuration. Traffic on the bus is controlled using the CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access) protocol, and all stations share the available bandwidth. sa8as Hubs — Implementation an L my Hubs - Summary + Each port has exclusive access to its a bandwidth (no CSMA/CD) + Hubs may be cascaded to add additional ports + SNMP managed hubs offer good ‘management tools and statisties + Utilize existing cabling and other network ‘components + Becoming a low cost solution Bridges + Bridges operate at the data link level ofthe (OS! model (level 2) and are used to connect ‘wo separate networks to form a single large continuous LAN. + The bridge only divides the network up into ‘wo segments, each with its own collision domain and each retaining its full bandwidth. + Broadcast transmissions are seen by all nodes, ‘on both sides of the bridge. Bridges + The bridge exists as an independent node on cach network and passes only valid messages across to destination addresses on the other network + Bridges interconnect Ethernet segments. Most > bridges today support filtering and forwarding, + The IEEE 802.1 spec standard for bridges. tion is the \ Bridges + During initiatization, the bridge teams about the network and the routes. Packets are passed onto other network segments based on the MAC layer. Each time the bridge is presented with a frame, the source address (level 2 address, ie. MAC address) is stored, J10/30/2012 Bridges Bridges - Transparent + The bridge builds up a table which ‘| + Transparent bridges (also known as , identifies the segment to which the device ‘spanning tree, IEEE 802.1 D) make all is located on. This internal table is then routing decisions. The bridge is said to be used to determine which segment incoming = ‘transparent (invisible) to the workstations. J frames should be forwarded to. The size of + The bridge will automatically initialize itself this table is important, especially if the and configure its own routing information network has a large number of . after it has been enabled. 4 workstations/servers Bridges Bridges Bridges are ically used Jn eae + A bridge works atthe MAC layer by looking workgroups, each operating more or less al the destination address and forwarding the independent of each other, with occasional frame tothe appropriate segment upon which access to servers outside of their localized the destination computer resides. . ‘workgroup of network segment, Bridges do not offer performance improvements when used in diverse or scattered workgroups, where the majority of access occurs outside ofthe local segment. Bridges Network Problem - Traffic + Operate at the MAC layer (layer 2 of the OSI model) + Can reduce talc on other segments , Broadass are forwarded to every segment + In the most basie type of network found today, nodes are simply connected together {Mast allow ero aoe and configuration using hubs. As a network grows, there are + Often SNMP (Simple Network Management some potential problems with this Protocol enabled . Soot as . Smal delays introduced Faultoleran by isolating fault seements and reconfiguring pas inthe event of aire [Noteficient with complex networks Shortest path is not always chosen by spanning tree algorithm =10/30/2012 Network Problem - Traffic Sealability -In a hub network, limited shared bandwidth makes it difficult to ‘accommodate significant growth without sacrificing performance, Applications today need more bandwidth than ever before. Quite often, the entire network must be redesigned periodically to accommodate growth, Network Problem - Traffic + Lateney - This is the amount of time that it takes @ packet to gett its destination. Since each node in ‘ahub-based network hus to wait For an opportunity to transmit in order to avoid collisions, te latency can increase significantly as you add more nodes. Or, if someone is transmiting a large file across the network, then al ofthe other nodes have to ‘wait for an opportunity to send thei own packets ‘You have probably seen this before at work ~ you try to access a server or the Internet and suddenly ‘everything slows down toa craw Network Problem - Traffic + Collisions - Ethernet uses a process called CSMAICD (Cartier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) to communicate across the network. Under CSMAICD, a node will not send out a packet unless the network is clear of traffic. If two nodes send out packets at the same time, a collision occurs and the packets are lost. Network Problem - Traffic + Network failure - In a typical network, one device on a hub can cause problems for other devices attached to the hub due to incorrect speed settings (100 Mbps on a 10-Mbps hub) or excessive broadcasts, Switches can be configured to limit broadcast levels. The Solution: Adding Switches Think of a hub as a four-way intersection where everyone has to stop. If more than ‘one car reaches the intersection at the same time, they have to wait for their turn to proceed. The Solution: Adding Switches But wouldn't it be amazing if you could take an exit ramp from any one of those roads to the road of your choosing? That is exactly what a switch does for network traffic. A switch is like a cloverleaf intersection — ‘each car can take an exit ramp to get to its destination without having to stop and wait for other traffic to go by.10/30/2012 Switches Switches Switches «Network switches appear neti idental to » Antwort fies WTSEITRES network bs, but aswitch generaly ‘evice that joins multiple computers contains more “intelligence” than a hub. together within one local area network Unlike hubs, network switches are capable (LAN). Technically, network switches , ‘of inspecting data packets as they are . poet ayer v9 (Date Link ayes of recived, determining the sure and cement vee detnation device ofthat packet and forwarding it appropriately. : Switches Switches + Ethernet switches increase network performance pring each meseaa by decreasing the amount of extraneous traffic eae on individual network segments attached to the feo oe eee eee oe switch. They also filter packets abit like @ router network switch conserves network at bandwidth and offers generally better . ‘+ Inaddition, Ethernet switches work and function = performance than a hub. like bridges at the MAC layer, but instead of reading the entire incoming Ethernet frame before forwarding it to the destination segment, usually onty read the destination address in the frame before retransmiting it to the correct cement. Switches — Collision domain Switches — Collision domain + Switches divide the network into smaller + Each segment attached to the switeh is, 5 collision domains [a collision domain is a considered to be a separate collision ‘group of workstations that contend forthe domain, However, the segments are still same bandwidth]. Each segment into the part of the same broadcast domain [a : switch has its own collision domain (where broadcast domain is a group of workstations the bandwidth is competed for by which share the same network subnet, in workstations in that segment). ‘TCPIIP this is defined by the subnet mask].10/30/2012 Switches - Types + Cut-through + Store-and-Forward + Cross-bar + Cell-backplane + Back Pressure Switches — Cut-through Switching Incutthrough switching, the switch copies into its memory only the destination MAC address (fst 6 bytes ofthe frame) ofthe frame before making a switching decision switch operating in eutthrough switching mode reduces delay because the switch stats to forward the fame as soon as it reads the destination MAC address and determines the outgoing switch port. Problem related with cu-through switching is that the switch may forward bad ames Switches — Store-and-Forward Switching + Store-and-Forward Switching refers to a switching technique in whieh frames are completely processed before being forwarded ‘out the appropriate port. + This processing includes calculating the Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) and checking the destination address. In addition, frames must be temporarily stored until network resources are available to forward the message. Switches — Store-and-Forward Switching A switch performing store-and-forward will wait forward a frame until it has received the entire frame. Store-and-forwatd is most often used in environments supporting reliable physical or data Tink protocols. received frame is often checked for ertors before being forwarded. This ype ofswite i inherently slower in environments where upper layer protocols already provide reliable services. The tipofT that you are dealing wth a store and forward style switch is Switches — Cross-bar Switching + A cros-bar witch sa deve thats capable of channeling data between any two devices that are attached o up tts maximum number of pons + The paths set up between devices can be fixed forsome duration or changed when desied and cach devce-ondevice path (going through the swith is usally fixed for some period Fragment-Free switching Fragment-free switching is also known as runtless switching and is a hybrid of cut- through and store-and-forward switching, Fragment-free switching was developed to solve the late-collision problem.10/30/2012 Fragment-Free switching - Operations Multilayer Switching + Fragment-free switching works Tike eut-through switching wit the exeeption that a switch in , fragment-free mode stores the frst 64 bytes of the frame before forwarding, + Fragment-free switching can be viewed as a 7 compromise between store-and-forward switching and cut-through switching. + The reason fragment-free switching stores only the first 64 bytes ofthe frame is that most network errors and collisions occur during the first 64 bytes + Multilayer switching isa switching technique that switches at both the data link (OSI Layer 2) and network (OSI Layer 3) layers To enable multilayer switching, LAN switches ‘must use store-and-forward techniques because the switch must receive the entire frame before it performs any protocol layer operations. ofa frame, Multilayer Switching — Cont'd Multilayer Switching — Cont’d + Similar toa store-and-forward switch, with 7 + Ifthe CRC does not match the frame, the ‘multilayer switching the switch pulls the entire ae CRE Gore received frame into its memory and calculates its CRC. + Because this type of switching waits for + It then determines whether the frame is good or = the cotire frame #9 be secetved before) aa forwarding, port latency times can ‘become high, which can result in some latency, or delay, of network traffic. + Ifthe CRC calculated on the packet matches the CRC calculated by the switch, the destination address is read and the frame is forwarded out the correct switch port.