HYDROLOGY AND DRAINAGE ENGINEERING (CE440)

Section: Surface Water Hydrology

SW-5 (2 hrs)

❖ Runoff: Definition, Portions & Process

❖ Surface runoff
❖ Factors affecting runoff
❖ Runoff cycle & Conditions of runoff cycle
❖ Summary of Rainfall-Runoff process
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After completion of this class discussion the students
will be able to:

❖Explain Runoff/Surface runoff, its Portions and Process

❖Explain Factors affecting runoff
❖Describe Runoff cycle & Conditions of runoff cycle
❖Elaborate precisely the Rainfall-Runoff process

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 Definition of Runoff
❖ Runoff can be defined as:
“portion of the precipitation that makes
it’s way towards rivers or oceans etc., as
surface or subsurface flow”.

❖ Portion which is not absorbed by the

deep strata.

❖ Runoff occurs only when the rate of

precipitation exceeds the rate at which
water may infiltrate into the soil.
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Portions of Runoff
1. Surface runoff
2. Groundwater flow
3. Direct precipitation over the river stream.

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 Can one can say runoff as Surface
Runoff ?
Yes, because:
1) The surface runoff is important for maximum flow.

2) Where as the ground water flow is important for

minimum flow.

3) Direct Precipitation over the river or stream is

negligible.

So, for peak flow, we are generally concerned with

surface runoff and therefore we can say runoff as surface
runoff. SW-5 6
 Runoff Process
◼ When rainfall occurs:
❖ A part of rainfall/precipitation is intercepted by vegetation, called
interception.

❖ Some part is stored in depressions on the ground surface known as

depression storage (Sd), which later infiltrates or evaporates.

❖ Some part of rainfall is absorbed by the soil, the amount of which

depends upon the soil moisture condition at the time of percolation.

❑ Now if the rain continues further;

❖ The water starts infiltrating/percolating to the water table and if the rate of
rainfall or the rate at which the water is reaching the ground exceeds the
infiltration rate (f), resulting the surface detention (D).

❖ This water flow overland and joins the rivers, lakes, streams, oceans, etc.,
and is known as surface runoff.
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 Factors Affecting Runoff

1. Precipitation characteristics
2. Characteristics of the Catchment/Drainage Basin
3. Topography
4. Geological characteristics
5. Meteorological characteristics
6. Character of the catchment surface
7. Storage characteristics

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1. Precipitation characteristics

✓ The most important factor

✓ Runoff depends on the type of storm, it’s duration and intensity.
✓ Low rainfall intensity (i.e. light showers) results into less runoff,
as much of the water will be lost in infiltration & evaporation.
✓ Snowfall results into less runoff.
✓ Rainfall distribution (computation of distribution coefficient)
✓ Soil moisture coefficient
✓ Direction of the prevailing storm
✓ Other climatic conditions

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2. Characteristics of the Drainage Basin

✓ Size, Shape and Elevation of the watershed

✓ Type of arrangement of stream channel

✓ Other factors

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Size of the catchment

✓ Generally more rainfall on

smaller area resulting in
greater runoff.

✓ Less runoff in larger

catchments, because due
to non-uniform rainfall over
the entire area, thus only
few tributaries of the
stream feed water to a
main stream during a
particular storm.
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Shape of catchment

A. Fan shaped catchment

B. Fern leaf catchment

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A. Fan shaped catchment

✓ All the tributaries are

approximately of the same size.

✓ Gives greater runoff because

the peak flood from the
tributaries is likely to reach the
main stream approximately at
the same time.

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B. Fern leaf catchment

✓ The tributaries are generally of

different lengths and meet the
main stream at the regular
intervals.

✓ In such a narrow catchments the

peak flood intensity is reduced
since discharges are likely to be
distributed over a long period of
time.

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Elevation of the Watershed

✓ It governs the amount and type of rainfall.

✓ Its average value is calculated from the contour map as it varies

from point to point.
✓ Area lying between successive contours is measured and
average elevation is calculated as,

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Type of Arrangement of Stream Channels

If the drainage network (i.e. the arrangement of stream channels) of

a catchment is efficient, water will flow rapidly, and will result in a
higher peak, as the concentration time will be less.

Hence, the more efficient is the drainage, the more flashy the
stream flow will be, and vice versa.

The characteristics of the drainage network can be fairly described

by the four factors, i.e.

(i) order of streams;

(ii) length of tributaries;

(iii) stream density; and

(iv) drainage density. SW-5 16

(i) Order of Streams
All non-branching tributaries,
regardless of whether they enter
the main stream or its branches,
are termed as first order streams.

Streams which receive only non-

branching tributaries are of the
second order, and so on.

(ii) Length of Tributaries.

It is an indication of the steepness of the drainage basin, as well as of the
degree/efficiency of drainage.
Steep-well-drained areas generally have numerous small tributaries.
In plains, where soils are deep and permeable, only relatively long
tributaries (generally perennial streams) will be in existence.
Average length of the same type of tributaries, and especially of the first
order of tributaries be considered and compared.
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(iii) Stream Density or stream frequency (Ds)
It is the ratio of number of streams (Ns) per sq. km of the basin to the
total area drained (A).
Ds = Ns/A
Here, only the perennial and intermittent streams are included.

(iv) Drainage density (Dd)

It is length of stream (L) per unit of area (A).
Dd = L/A
Provides some indication of the drainage efficiency of the basin.

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(e) Other factors.
Other factors may be:
❖ Type of the soil in the catchment

❖ Type of vegetative cover

❖ Slope and orientation of the catchment, etc

Actually the stream flow depends upon 15 to 20 factors and in order to

express the stream flow by an equation is very difficult, because such an
equation will involve numerous variables, which are all inter-dependent.
Even with the most complicated mathematics, it seems difficult and rather
impossible to evolve any generalized formula to evaluate the exact
amount of runoff and the peak flow.

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Form factor

Form factor = Average width of the basin/Axial length of the basin

=B/L
L = axial length, the distance from the outlet to the most remote
point on the basin, and
B = average width = A / L

Hence,
Form factor = B / L = (A / L) / L = A / L2

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Compactness coefficient

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3. Topography

◼ Runoff depends on surface smoothness and

slope.

◼ If slope is steep, flow will be quick and less

evaporation and absorption, resulting greater
runoff.

◼ If the catchment is in mountainous area and

on the windward side of the mountain, then
more rain fall resulting more runoff.
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4. Geological characteristics

It is one of the important factor.

◼ It includes the type of surface soil, subsoil, type of rock

and their permeability characteristics.

◼ If soil and subsoil is porous, seepage will be more

resulting reduction of the peak flood.

◼ If the surface is rocky, then absorption will be nil

resulting more runoff.

◼ If rocks have fissures, are porous in nature, have lava

tunnels water will be lost resulting less runoff.
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5. Meteorological characteristics

◼ Runoff may also be affected by temperature,

wind and humidity.

◼ If temperature is low and ground is saturated

then runoff will be greater.

◼ If temperature is high and greater wind

velocity give rise to greater evaporation loss
and resulting in less runoff.
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6. Character of the Catchment surface

◼ Runoff depends upon the surface conditions like

drained, un-drained, natural or cultivated.

◼ If the surface has no natural drainage then absorption

loss will be more.

◼ If more area of a catchment is cultivated resulting

less runoff.

◼ Vegetal cover reduces the runoff in smaller storms.

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7. Storage characteristics

◼ The artificial storage such as dams, weirs, etc

and natural storage such as lakes, ponds, etc
tend to reduce the peak flow.

◼ They also give rise to greater evaporation

losses.

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Runoff Cycle

◼ It is a part of hydrological cycle

◼ The part between the precipitation from the

atmosphere over land areas and it’s
subsequent discharge through streams
channels.

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Conditions of Runoff Cycle

1. End of dry period

2. Shortly after beginning of rainfall

3. Near the end of isolated heavy rainfall

4. After the end of rainfall

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1. End of dry period

◼ At the end of dry period and just beginning of

heavy rainfall all the surface and channel
storage gets depleted (dried) except from
lakes, reservoirs and ponds resulted from the
previous rains.

◼ If there is no flow from storage reservoirs then

the only source of stream flow is the ground
water flow entering the river channel.

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2. Shortly after beginning of rainfall

◼ Shortly after beginning of rainfall and after

interception, depression storage have been satisfied.

◼ The stream flow intercepted by vegetation and

buildings can’t contribute to runoff.

◼ This intercepted water is eventually returned to the

atmosphere through evaporation.

◼ At this stage, a part of precipitation falls directly on

the stream which gives an immediate increment to
stream flow.
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 3. Near the end of isolated heavy rainfall

◼ After many hours of heavy rainfall virtually all depression storage

and interception requirements gets filled up.

◼ The soil moisture deficiency is also satisfied to a considerable

extent.

◼ Infiltration rate is near the minimum.

◼ Flow into the filled depression is essentially balanced by

overland flow and infiltration.

◼ At this stage overland flow mainly contribute to stream flow.

◼ Sub-surface flow also contributes

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4. After the end of rainfall

◼ When rain and overland flow ceases (stops), the stream

flow consists of only base flow and channel storage.

◼ Evaporation takes place quite from soil moisture.

◼ Transpiration also takes place from vegetative cover.

◼ Water from depression storages also continues to

infiltrate.

◼ Also the gravity water still not drained up to the water table
continues its downward journey to join water table.

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Summary of Rainfall-Runoff Process

When a rain starts falling, it is first of all intercepted by buildings, trees,

and other objects, which prevent it from reaching the ground. This
quantity is known as rainfall interception.
Since this quantity is generally very small, it is not of much importance
for intense rains; but many a times, large portions of lighter rains are
disposed of in this manner.

The difference between the total rainfall and that which is intercepted is
called ground rainfall.

when the rainfall rate exceeds the interception rate, water starts reaching
the ground and infiltration into the sub soil starts. The maximum rate at
which the soil in a given condition can absorb water is known as its
infiltration capacity.
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The excess rainwater gets collected into the innumerable small and large
depressions existing in the basin, filling them to their overflow levels.
This quantity is known as depression storage.

All this storage is either evaporated or used by vegetation, or later

infiltrates into the soil. None of it appears as surface runoff.

If after the depression storage is filled, the rain intensity (p) continues to
exceed the infiltration capacity of the soil (f), the difference appears as
rainfall excess, which initially accumulates on the ground as surface
detention (D), and then flows as overland flow on the basin surface
before entering a stream channel.
The water that reaches the stream channel of a basin in this manner is
called surface runoff (SRO) or direct runoff (DRO).
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The surface runoff can, therefore, occur only from those storms, which
can contribute to excess rainfall, and are simply not dissipated in fulfilling
the interception, depression storage, and infiltration needs of the basin.
Hence,
Excess Rainfall = Rainfall – Interception - Depression storage – Infiltration

The sum total of interception and depression storage for a basin is

usually called the initial loss or basin loss or initial basin recharge.

Excess rainfall can therefore be represented as:

Excess rainfall = Rainfall – Initial Basin loss – Infiltration

The sum total of initial basin loss and infiltration, is called potential
infiltration.
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Since for intense rains, the initial loss is very small as compared to
excess rain, it is usually ignored in hydrological analysis of such rainfalls;
or is considered to be included in the infiltration itself.
The excess rainfall is, thus, represented as:
Excess Rainfall = Rainfall – Potential Infiltration

The rain that falls in the beginning of a storm before the depression
storage is completely filled is called the initial rain,
and
the rain that falls near the end of the storm at a rate less than the
infiltration capacity is called the residual rain.
The intervening period is the net supply interval. The infiltration occurring
after the net supply interval is called the residual infiltration.
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Runoff and surface runoff are two different terms and should not be
confused.
Runoff or Discharge or the Stream flow includes all the water flowing
in the stream channel at any given section.
While
Surface Runoff or Direct Runoff includes only the water that reaches
the stream channel without first percolating down to the water table.

Yield of a drainage basin is same as runoff, with the only difference

that it is expressed over long periods (M.m3/year),
while
Runoff is expressed for short periods (m3/sec or m3/hr).

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Runoff =Surface runoff + Ground water inflow (i.e. Base flow).

700.0000

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700.0000

600.0000 Total
Hydrograph

500.0000

Surface
400.0000 Response

300.0000

Baseflow
200.0000

100.0000

0.0000
0.0000 0.5000 1.0000 1.5000 SW-5
2.0000 2.5000 3.0000 3.5000 4.0000 42
Continuous
process
represented with
discrete time
steps

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Thanks.
ANY QUESTION???

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