Introduction to Sociology

Comprehensive and engaging, this textbook introduces students not only to

foundational sociological work, but also to insights from contemporary sociological
theory and research. This combined approach ensures that students become familiar
with the core of sociology: key concepts, theories, perspectives, methods and
findings. Students will acquire the ability to think like a sociologist, to investigate and
understand complex social phenomena.
This text presents a complete sociological toolkit, guiding students in the art of
asking good sociological questions, devising a sophisticated theory and developing
methodologies to observe social phenomena. The chapters of this book build
cumulatively to equip students with the tools to quickly understand any new
sociological topic or contemporary social problem.
The textbook also applies the sociological toolkit to selected key sociological
issues, showing how specific sociological topics can be easily investigated and
understood using this approach. Taking a global and comparative perspective, the
book covers a rich diversity of sociological topics and social problems, such as crime,
immigration, race and ethnicity, media, education, family, organizations, gender,
poverty, modernization and religion.
The book presents a range of helpful pedagogical features throughout, such as:

●● Chapter overview and learning goals summaries at the start of every chapter;
●● Thinking like a sociologist boxes, encouraging students to reflect critically on
learning points;
●● Principle boxes, summarizing key sociological principles;
●● Theory schema boxes, presenting sociological theories in a clear, understandable
manner;
●● Stylized facts highlighting key empirical findings and patterns;
●● Key concepts and summary sections at the end of every chapter; and
●● A companion website providing additional material for every chapter for both
instructors and students, including PowerPoint lecture notes, discussion questions
and answers, multiple-choice questions, further reading and a full glossary of
terms.

This clear and accessible text is essential reading for students taking introductory
courses in sociology. It will also be useful for undergraduate and graduate courses
in other social science disciplines, such as psychology, economics, human geography,
demography, communication studies, education sciences, political science and
criminology.

Frank van Tubergen is Professor of Sociology at Utrecht University, where he teaches

introduction to sociology. His current work is focused on social networks, immigration
and religion.
“Frank van Tubergen’s excellent introduction delivers a fresh and unique approach to the key
challenge of teaching Sociology: how can we combine the fascination for all the many social
phenomena with the virtue of clear and systematic thinking, step by step? It was more than time
to have such a textbook available.”
Frank Kalter, University of Mannheim, Germany

“I’ve been waiting for an introduction like this for years. It introduces students to sociology’s
overarching themes and shows how the principles of asking sociological questions, formulating
and testing sociological ideas, and thus building knowledge applies across the seemingly different
topics in our broad discipline. If you’re looking for an introduction that helps your students
understand and engage with state-of-the-art (academic) sociology, look no further. This is an
excellent introduction for students wishing to understand the key principles of building sound
sociological knowledge and applying the sociological perspective across a wide range of topics.
I will be recommending this to all our graduate students – whether they already took an intro to
sociology or not.”
Christiaan Monden, University of Oxford, UK

“Finally a free-of-dust introduction to state-of-the-art sociology. Van Tubergen presents an

excellent and most engaging overview of the discipline and shows beginners how to think as
sociologists. An indispensable book to teach and learn the sociology that really matters.”
Javier G. Polavieja, University Carlos III of Madrid, Spain

“Frank van Tubergen’s Introduction to Sociology is an invitation to think like a sociologist, written
with a passion for the discipline and a mastery of the sociological toolkit. The book is a beacon
for the aspiring sociology student and an inspiring and positive call for sociology as a science.”
Christofer Edling, Lund University, Sweden

“Prof. van Tubergen’s Introduction to Sociology is very original in the understanding of social
phenomena with the scheme of common themes such as norms, groups, networks, stratification,
etc., which cuts across various institutional lives. The organization of the textbook is also very
innovative and coherent in its approach to introducing students sociological imagination.”
Ping-Yin Kuan, National Chengchi University, Taiwan
Introduction to
Sociology

Frank van Tubergen

First published 2020
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2020 Frank van Tubergen
The right of Frank van Tubergen to be identified as author of this work has been asserted
by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any
form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,
and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Van Tubergen, Frank, 1976- author.
Title: Introduction to sociology / Frank van Tubergen.
Description: Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2020.
| Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019043292 (print) | LCCN 2019043293 (ebook) | ISBN
9780815353843 (hardback) | ISBN 9780815353850 (paperback) | ISBN
9781351134958 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Sociology.
Classification: LCC HM586 .V36 2020 (print) | LCC HM586 (ebook) | DDC
301—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019043292
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019043293
ISBN: 978-0-8153-5384-3 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-8153-5385-0 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-351-13495-8 (ebk)
Typeset in Sabon
by Swales & Willis, Exeter, Devon, UK
www.routledge.com/cw/tubergen
Contents

Prefaceix
Acknowledgmentsxiii
About the author xv
Abbreviationsxvi

Part 1 Thinking like a sociologist 1

1 Questions 3
1.1 The sociological perspective 4
1.2 Social problems 13
1.3 Three aims of sociology 16
1.4 Three types of sociological questions 20
1.5 The art of asking good sociological questions 21
1.6 Sociology and common sense 26
1.7 Sociology as cumulative science 32
1.8 Chapter resources 34

2 Theories 37
2.1 Birth month and success in sports 38
2.2 Theories and explanations 41
2.3 What are useful sociological theories? 46
2.4 Durkheim’s theory of suicide 53
2.5 Concepts 58
2.6 Causality 62
2.7 Conceptual models 64
2.8 Formal models 68
2.9 Chapter resources 70

3 Methods 73
3.1 Is your smartphone making you stupid? 74
3.2 Measurement quality 76
3.3 External validity 82
3.4 Internal validity 87

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Contents

3.5 Exploratory research 88

3.6 Qualitative and quantitative methods 91
3.7 Case study research 91
3.8 Administrative research 94
3.9 Survey research 96
3.10 Big data research 98
3.11 Experimental research 100
3.12 Replication 103
3.13 Chapter resources 106

4 Perspectives 109
4.1 The origins of sociological perspectives 110
4.2 Sociological themes and topics 114
4.3 Causal explaining or subjective understanding? 123
4.4 Multilevel framework 127
4.5 Chapter resources 132

Part 2 Culture 137

5 Opinions 139
5.1 Why is Harry Potter so popular? 140
5.2 Self-fulfilling prophecy 142
5.3 Conformity 146
5.4 Informational and normative social influence 153
5.5 Social learning theory 156
5.6 Popularity of cultural products 162
5.7 Diffusion of innovations 165
5.8 Chapter resources 170

6 Norms 179
6.1 College binge drinking: a social problem? 180
6.2 What are social norms? 182
6.3 Social control theory 183
6.4 Internalized norms 189
6.5 Legal norms 191
6.6 Why do norms emerge? 192
6.7 Cultural maladaptation and norm change 199
6.8 The dynamics of group distinction 206
6.9 Chapter resources 210

Part 3 Social relations 217

7 Networks 219
7.1 The friendship paradox 220
7.2 Personal networks 222

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Contents

7.3 Network size and hubs 226

7.4 Network density and transitivity 230
7.5 The small-world phenomenon 235
7.6 Network change: loss-of-community? 240
7.7 Networks and social cohesion 242
7.8 Networks and social capital 246
7.9 Chapter resources 252

8 Groups 259
8.1 Groups unite and divide 260
8.2 Group segregation 264
8.3 The causes of group segregation 268
8.4 In-group favoritism 274
8.5 Social context and in-group favoritism 277
8.6 Group threat theory 281
8.7 Chapter resources 288

Part 4 Inequality 297

9 Stratification and mobility 299

9.1 What makes you happy? 300
9.2 Social class and status 303
9.3 Income and wealth 307
9.4 Long-term changes in stratification 312
9.5 Social mobility 314
9.6 Ascription and achievement 318
9.7 Modernization and mobility theory 319
9.8 Cultural reproduction theory 322
9.9 The Great Gatsby Curve 324
9.10 Chapter resources 328

10 Resources 333
10.1 Human capital 334
10.2 Social capital 336
10.3 Group affiliation and discrimination 343
10.4 Inequality of outcomes, opportunities and returns 345
10.5 Gender inequality 347
10.6 Chapter resources 359

Part 5 Topics 365

11 Immigration and integration 367

11.1 Immigration and integration: a social problem? 368
11.2 International migration 369
11.3 Integration: what does it mean? 376

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Contents

11.4 Integration: changes over time? 379

11.5 Integration: social context effects? 382
11.6 Case study: culture of honor 385
11.7 Integration: selective or spillover effects? 388
11.8 The dynamics of residential segregation 393
11.9 Chapter resources 397

12 Modernization 407
12.1 Is the world getting worse? 408
12.2 Wealth and health 410
12.3 Peace and safety 413
12.4 Rationalization 415
12.5 Technological progress 417
12.6 Scientization 423
12.7 McDonaldization 429
12.8 Value change 431
12.9 Population change 440
12.10 The dynamics of modernization 444
12.11 Chapter resources 450

13 Religion 457
13.1 What is religion? 458
13.2 Did religions solve the problem of human cooperation? 462
13.3 The stickiness factor of religion 464
13.4 Secularization in Western Europe 468
13.5 Modernization and secularization 471
13.6 Existential insecurity theory 475
13.7 Chapter resources 483

Glossary489
Index501

viii
Preface

Why are today’s youth soccer players of the national teams often born in January and rarely
in December? Why are many people satisfied with their own life, but think the world is get-
ting worse? Why is binge drinking so common in college, whereas the majority of students
are against it? Why are your friends so similar to you? Why are citizens of the United States
more religious than those in Western Europe?
Sociology is a science that studies a wide range of fascinating topics such as these. I have
had the pleasure of giving introductory courses for many years, sharing sociological insights
with first-year students. However, I have always felt uncomfortable with the completely out-
of-date sociological ideas and findings presented in textbooks. As has been frequently noted
by others as well, there are “two sociologies.” On the one hand, there is sociological knowl-
edge presented in textbooks, which presents a picture of the discipline of sociology as it was
decades ago and which has long been abandoned by sociologists. On the other hand, there
are sociological insights published in contemporary sociological journals and books, present-
ing cutting-edge theories and research findings, but this state of the art is not incorporated in
sociology textbooks.
I have written this book in the spirit of uniting the “two sociologies,” to write a textbook
which not only addresses foundational sociological work but also integrates insights from
contemporary sociological research. I think this book presents a more accurate picture of
what current sociology is actually about and also proves more useful to students for under-
standing and mitigating social problems. It is written primarily as an introduction to sociol-
ogy, which means that the materials are presented in a highly accessible and engaging way. It
covers a rich diversity of sociological topics and social problems, such as crime, immigration,
race and ethnicity, media, education, family, organizations, gender, poverty, modernization
and religion.
My hope is that, after reading this book, students have become familiar with key knowl-
edge in sociology. This means that students get to know several core sociological concepts,
theories, perspectives, methods and findings. Furthermore, I hope that this textbook will
help students learn to think like a sociologist. My hope is that this book offers students a
“sociological toolkit,” a set of useful insights, tools and principles that will enable them to
do research like a sociologist themselves. Thinking like a sociologist means that students have
not only familiarized themselves with key sociological knowledge, but that, for example, they
are able to develop a new theory themselves, or that they can formulate interesting socio-
logical questions about a certain topic. Being able to think like a sociologist helps to analyze
any sociological topic and any contemporary social problem—even those with which one is
as yet unfamiliar.

ix
Preface

Only you—students and colleagues—can tell whether this textbook has succeeded.
I invite you to let me know your thoughts about the book, whether, for example, important
developments, theories or findings that are currently omitted should be part of this introduc-
tory textbook. Do tell me if I have not explained something clearly, or if I have made mis-
takes somewhere. Please send me your comments and suggestions for improvement. I will
consider your feedback carefully and use it constructively for the next edition. Receiving
your feedback will make this book a collaborative effort, and this “wisdom of the crowd”
will greatly contribute to presenting an accurate picture of the state of the art of sociology
in textbooks.

Frank van Tubergen

textbook.sociology@uu.nl

The structure of the book

Part 1 introduces you to the building blocks of Thinking Like a Sociologist. It covers the
key tools and principles for becoming a sociologist. Thinking like a sociologist means, first,
that you understand the unique sociological perspective on human behavior and that you are
able to ask sociological questions (Chapter 1). Sociological thinking also implies understand-
ing what sociological theories are and that you acquire tools to develop theories yourself
­(Chapter 2). In addition, this part reviews key sociological methods and helps you to under-
stand their pros and cons (Chapter 3). Lastly, thinking sociologically implies that you can
apply different sociological perspectives (Chapter 4). It provides an introduction to the mul-
tilevel perspective, which studies the interplay between individuals (micro) and their social
context (meso and macro). It also introduces three sociological themes that can be used as
unique perspectives on human behavior, namely: Culture, Social relations and Inequality
(CSI). Parts 2, 3 and 4 elaborate on Part 1 as it introduces key sociological knowledge with
respect to each of these three themes.
Part 2 deals with the first of these three themes, namely Culture. This part introduces you
to key sociological knowledge on culture: core concepts, theories and findings. It addresses,
first, sociological knowledge of opinions, which encompasses people’s beliefs, cognition, val-
ues and attitudes (Chapter 5). Subsequently, this part covers the “rules of the game” in soci-
ety, i.e., the informal, moral and formal norms that shape human behavior (Chapter 6).
Part 3 covers the second theme: Social relations. This theme relates to concepts like social
cohesion, cooperation, trust and conflict. Part 3 provides an introduction to key sociological
concepts, theories and findings on social networks (Chapter 7) and groups (Chapter 8).
Part 4 addresses the third general theme in sociology, which is Inequality. It gives an
­overview of core sociological concepts, theories and findings with respect to research on
stratification and mobility (Chapter 9) and to the role resources play in generating inequal-
ity (Chapter 10).
Part 5 deals with Topics. This part brings together all previous parts. It provides an illus-
tration of how thinking like a sociologist (Part 1) and key sociological knowledge that has
accumulated within the three major themes in sociology (Parts 2–4) is used to understand
sociological topics. The three sociological themes of Culture, Social relations and Inequality
(CSI) can be combined and used like a “crime scene investigation,” so that taking differ-
ent perspectives helps in solving puzzles of what happened. This part applies sociological

x
 Preface

thinking and the CSI approach to three sociological topics. These are: immigration and inte-
gration (Chapter 11), modernization (Chapter 12) and religion (Chapter 13).

Pedagogical features
Throughout the book I introduce a rich variety of sociological puzzles, social problems and
sociological topics to make the materials more engaging to students like you. When you read
this book you’ll come across several pedagogical features:
●● Principles
These are boxes that contain useful guidelines, tools, insights or practices for thinking like
a sociologist. You can add these to your sociological toolkit.
●● Stylized facts
Sociologists study many social phenomena. When there is sufficient ground to think they
observe a robust empirical pattern, when the evidence is strong, they call this a “stylized
fact.” I have included a number of stylized facts in this book, also in boxes, and I have
given them names, which makes it easier to refer to them.
●● Thinking like a sociologist
To engage you more while reading the chapters, I have inserted, in boxes, “thinking like
a sociologist” questions.
●● Learning goals
At the beginning of each chapter I mention key learning goals. You can check if, after
reading the chapter, you’re able to respond to these goals.
●● Chapter overviews
Also, at the beginning of each chapter, I have included a short outline so that you can
quickly grasp the content of the chapter.
●● Summaries
At the end of the chapter you can find a summary that highlights the main insights.
●● Key concepts
In each chapter I identify key concepts in bold and give definitions. These are concepts
that are often used in sociology and it is important for you to understand their meaning.

Companion website
There is a companion website for the book that contains much information and resources for
both students and instructors.

For students

●● Multiple-choice questions
These provide a quick test of your knowledge of the key materials of each chapter.
●● Glossary
A list of all key concepts and their definitions for each chapter.
●● Further reading
A list of essential readings for each chapter.

xi
Preface

●● Appendix
Some chapters have an online appendix. These appendices provide coverage of some top-
ics that are not essential to the core argument of the chapter, but which you may find
interesting to read as more in-depth material and for further strengthening your skills to
think like a sociologist.

For instructors
●● Test bank
A collection of multiple-choice questions that can be used to test sociology students’
knowledge of the materials.
●● Discussion questions with answers
Discussion questions (with answers) that more deeply reflect on the materials presented
in the textbook.
●● PowerPoint
For each chapter, customizable PowerPoint slides have been made.

xii
Acknowledgments

Many people contributed to the process of producing this textbook and the companion
­website. I would like to thank the Routledge editorial team, and especially Emily Briggs, for
taking great care of this project. I am incredibly grateful to the reviewers recruited by Rou-
tledge and to other scholars as well for taking the time to thoroughly read the chapters and
give their detailed feedback. I have learned so much from each of you! Special thanks go to
the following people for reviewing the book:

Professor Vincent Buskens, Utrecht University

Dr Rense Corten, Utrecht University
Professor Andreas Flache, University of Groningen
Dr Fenella Fleischmann, Utrecht University
Dr Sara Geven, University of Amsterdam
Professor Nan Dirk de Graaf, Oxford University
Professor Frank Kalter, University of Mannheim
Dr Antonie Knigge, Utrecht University
Professor Ping-Yin Kuan, National Chengchi University
Professor Richard Layte, Trinity College Dublin
Professor Marco van Leeuwen, Utrecht University
Professor Tanja van der Lippe, Utrecht University
Dr Zoltán Lippényi, University of Groningen
Professor Marcel Lubbers, Radboud University Nijmegen
Professor Ineke Maas, Utrecht University
Dr Jornt Mandemakers, Utrecht University
Dr Roza Meuleman, Radboud University Nijmegen
Professor Christiaan Monden, Oxford University
Dr Wojtek Przepiorka, Utrecht University
Professor Werner Raub, Utrecht University
Dr Anne Roeters, The Netherlands Institute for Social Research
Professor Arnout van de Rijt, European University Institute
Professor Stijn Ruiter, Utrecht University
Dr Tobias Stark, Utrecht University
Dr Jordi Tena, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona
Dr Wilfred Uunk, University of Bamberg
Professor Ellen Verbakel, Radboud University Nijmegen

xiii
Acknowledgments

Professor Beate Völker, University of Amsterdam

Professor Herman van de Werfhorst, University of Amsterdam
Dr Pascale van Zantvliet, Fontys University of Applied Sciences

I wish to thank Renae Loh Sze Ming for providing support for creating the graphics of this
book and Judith Harvey for editing the entire book. Several people assisted me in producing
the materials for the companion website. Special credits go to Kevin Wittenberg, Marissa
Bultman, Nick Wuestenenk, Jos Slabbekoorn and Sara Marcora.

xiv
About the author

Frank van Tubergen is Professor of Sociology at Utrecht University (Netherlands), where

he has taught introduction to sociology for many years. His current work is focused on
social networks, immigration and religion. His work has appeared in top journals including
American Sociological Review, American Journal of Sociology, European Sociological
Review and Demography. He has received numerous awards for his scientific work and he is
a Fellow of the European Academy of Sociology.

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