Nerve tissue, neurons and bioelectricity

The nervous system:

1. Building block:
a. Neurons 10^11
b. Glial cells 10^12

The neuron structures:

a. Dendritic zone- the reception

b. Somatic zone- integral chemical encoding
c. Axon hillock zone- electrical encoding
d. Axonal zone- signal propagation
e. Pre-synaptic zone- signal output

The cell membrane

a. Has a lipid bilayer separating the ICF and the ECF.

b. The fluids are electrolytic meaning they have ions and can conduct electricity.
c. The cell membrane is a capacitor, an insulator that is between 2 conductive plates.
d. It can store signals and release them if the is a stimulus.

Due to the unequal distribution of ions this leads to the difference in potential difference the RMP

e. The potential difference across the cell membrane varies with the type of cell, about 70mV.
f. To keep this ionic imbalance nor unequal distribution of ions between the 2 fluids:
1. To keep the temperature at physiological range
2. Maintain the concentration of ions especially the sodium, potassium and chlorine.
3. Maintain the thickness of the membrane at 25 angstroms.

Ionic pumps

These assist in the maintenance of ions especially the sodium and potassium using the Na/K ATPase
pump.

1. This pump has a 3:1 ratio.

2. The sodium binds to receptors inside the cell while potassium binds to 2.
3. Since the inside pf the cell is sensitive to sodium, upon binding the formation of the protein
changes conformation.
4. This then pushes out the sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions inside the cell.
5. This pump has the alpha and beta subunits, the alpha has the ligands and substances binding
to it, the ions, ouabain, cardiac glycosides.
6. While the beta subunit is the glycoprotein that assist in the integrity of the pump.

Another pump is the sodium calcium pump with the 3:1 ratio, which is a therapeutic pump in heart
failure.

GHK and electrochemical equilibrium

1. GHK has the permeability and the concentration of all the ions.
2. While the ECM has only the concentration of the individual ion
3. Out over in
 Three gated channels

1. Chemically regulated channels: these channels need substances/ ligands to bind to their
receptors for the conformation of the channel to change thus letting in the ions.
2. Voltage regulated channels: the voltage across the membrane changes before the channel
changes the conformation and let in ions
3. Mechanically regulated channels: this need pressure, force to be applied or be deformed
before the conformation changes.

All or no law

1. Threshold intensity: for the AP to be initiated the stimulus needs to reach a certain threshold
level. If the stimulus is not strong, it will not reach the threshold level thus not initiate the AP,
this is regarding as subthreshold. On the other hand, when the stimulus is way strong and
even surpasses the threshold level, that is regarded as supramaximum
2. Amplitude: the amplitude remains constant when the stimulus reaches the threshold level.
The amplitude of both the stimulus that reached the minimum required threshold level is
equal to the stimulus that reached the maximal level.
3. Frequency: this is the rate at which the AP are fired, it is directly proportional to the strength
of the of the stimulus. Stronger stimuli have the greatest frequency.
4. The site of AP: miniscule area or the segment of the membrane.

Regulatory periods

1. Divided into 2 periods

2. The absolute: this is where the 2nd AP is not initiated due to the status of the sodium
channels
3. The relative: the 2nd AP is triggered.

Depolarization

1. This is where we experience the influx of sodium ions which increases the positivity of the
cell.
2. The voltage across the membrane reaches the threshold level which in turn initiates the AP.

Points about anesthetics

1. They alter the nerve cells, disrupting the formation and transmission of nerve impulses.
2. Local anaesthetics: they block the Na channels, preventing the initiation of AP.\
3. General anaesthetics: such as ether and chlorofoam, they open the potassium channels a bit
bigger in the bigger to decrease the concentration of the sodium ions disrupting the AP.

Bia phatic AP

1. Measure the AP from the positive electrode/phase to the negative

2. Movement from depolarization to repolarization

The axoplasmic transport

1. The transportation along the axons using the microtubule and the motor proteins.
2. The synthesis of the material being transported is in the soma.
3. Fast anterograde flow: material is moving from the cell body to the axon terminal at
40omm/day. Kinesins.
4. Fast retrograde flow: the material is moving from the axon terminal to the cell body. The
advantage is the material get recycled while the disadvantage could be the toxins and the
viruses that get taken to the cell body. Dynein facilitates this transportation travelling at two
thirds of the kinesin speed.
5. Slow axoplasmic flow: this transport important kinetic components.