Chloride

The term chloride refers either to a chloride ion (Cl−), which is

Chloride anion
negatively charged chlorine atom, or a non-charged chlorine atom
covalently bonded to the rest of the molecule by a single bond
(−Cl). In other words, the term "chloride" refers to a compound of
chlorine as a salt or an ester of hydrogen chloride. The
pronunciation of the word "chloride" is /ˈklɔːraɪd/.[3]
Names
The chloride ion is the anion (negatively charged ion) which is Systematic IUPAC name
formed when the chlorine atom gains an electron or when a
Chloride[1]
compound such as hydrogen chloride is dissolved in water or other
polar solvents. Chloride salts such as sodium chloride are often Identifiers
very soluble in water.[4] It is an essential electrolyte located in all CAS Number 16887-00-6 (https://
body fluids responsible for maintaining acid/base balance, commonchemistry.c
transmitting nerve impulses and regulating liquid flow in and out of
as.org/detail?cas_rn
cells. Other examples of ionic chlorides are calcium chloride CaCl2
=16887-00-6)
and ammonium chloride [NH4 ]Cl.
3D model Interactive image (ht
The chloride is also a neutral chlorine atom covalently bonded by a (JSmol) tps://chemapps.stola
single bond to the rest of the molecule. For example, methyl f.edu/jmol/jmol.php?
chloride CH3 Cl, with the standard name chloromethane (see model=%5BCl-%5D)
IUPAC books) is an organic compound with a covalent C−Cl
Beilstein 3587171
bond in which the chlorine is not an anion. Other examples of
Reference
covalent chlorides are carbon tetrachloride CCl4 , sulfuryl chloride
ChEBI CHEBI:17996 (http
SO2 Cl2 and monochloramine NH2 Cl.
s://www.ebi.ac.uk/ch
ebi/searchId.do?che
Electronic properties biId=17996)

A chloride ion (diameter 167 pm) is much larger than a chlorine ChEMBL ChEMBL19429 (http
atom (diameter 99 pm). This is because the chloride anion has 1 s://www.ebi.ac.uk/ch
more electron than the chlorine atom, reducing the hold of the embldb/index.php/co
nucleus on the valence shell.[5] The ion is colorless and mpound/inspect/ChE
diamagnetic. In aqueous solution, it is highly soluble in most cases; MBL19429)
however, for some chloride salts, such as silver chloride, lead(II)
ChemSpider 306 (https://www.che
chloride, and mercury(I) chloride, they are only slightly soluble in
water.[6] In aqueous solution, chloride is bonded by the protic end mspider.com/Chemi
of the water molecules. cal-Structure.306.ht
ml)

Reactions of chloride Gmelin 14910

Reference
Chloride can be oxidized but not reduced. The first oxidation, as IUPHAR/BPS 2339 (http://www.gui
employed in the chlor-alkali process, is conversion to chlorine gas. detopharmacology.o
Chlorine can be further oxidized to other oxides and oxyanions rg/GRAC/LigandDisp
layForward?tab=su
including hypochlorite (ClO−, the active ingredient in chlorine mmary&ligandId=23
bleach), chlorine dioxide (ClO2 ), chlorate (ClO−3), and perchlorate 39)
(ClO−4). KEGG C00698 (https://ww
w.kegg.jp/entry/C00
In terms of its acid–base properties, chloride is a weak base as
698)
indicated by the negative value of the pKa of hydrochloric acid.
Chloride can be protonated by strong acids, such as sulfuric acid: PubChem 312 (https://pubche
CID m.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/c
NaCl + H2SO4 → NaHSO4 + HCl
ompound/312)

Ionic chloride salts reaction with other salts to exchange anions. UNII Q32ZN48698 (http
The presence of halide ions like chloride can be detected using s://fdasis.nlm.nih.go
silver nitrate. A solution containing chloride ions will produce a v/srs/srsdirect.jsp?re
white silver chloride precipitate:[7] gno=Q32ZN48698)

Cl− + Ag+ → AgCl

InChI
The concentration of chloride in an assay can be determined using
InChI=1S/ClH/h1H/p-1
a chloridometer, which detects silver ions once all chloride in the Key: VEXZGXHMUGYJMC-UHFFF
assay has precipitated via this reaction. AOYSA-M

Chlorided silver electrodes are commonly used in ex vivo SMILES

electrophysiology.[8] [Cl-]

Properties
Other oxyanions −
Chemical Cl
formula
Chlorine can assume oxidation states of −1, +1, +3, +5, or +7.
Several neutral chlorine oxides are also known. Molar mass 35.45 g·mol−1
Conjugate Hydrogen chloride
acid
Thermochemistry
Std molar 153.36 J·K−1·mol−1[2]
entropy
(S ⦵298)
Std enthalpy −167 kJ·mol−1[2]
of
formation
(Δ f H ⦵298)
Related compounds
Other anions Fluoride
Bromide
Iodide
Except where otherwise noted, data
are given for materials in their
standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F],
100 kPa).
Infobox references
 Chlorine oxidation state −1 +1 +3 +5 +7

Name chloride hypochlorite chlorite chlorate perchlorate

Formula Cl− ClO− ClO−2 ClO−3 ClO−4

Structure

Occurrence in nature
In nature, chloride is found primarily in seawater, which has a chloride ion concentration of
19400 mg/liter.[9] Smaller quantities, though at higher concentrations, occur in certain inland seas and in
subterranean brine wells, such as the Great Salt Lake in Utah and the Dead Sea in Israel.[10] Most chloride
salts are soluble in water, thus, chloride-containing minerals are usually only found in abundance in dry
climates or deep underground. Some chloride-containing minerals include halite (sodium chloride NaCl),
sylvite (potassium chloride KCl), bischofite (MgCl2 ∙6H2 O), carnallite (KCl∙MgCl2 ∙6H2 O), and kainite
(KCl∙MgSO4 ∙3H2 O). It is also found in evaporite minerals such as chlorapatite and sodalite.

Role in biology

Chloride has a major physiological significance, which includes regulation of osmotic pressure, electrolyte
balance and acid-base homeostasis. Chloride is present in all body fluids,[11] and is the most abundant
extracellular anion which accounts for around one third of extracellular fluid's tonicity.[12][13]

Chloride is an essential electrolyte, playing a key role in maintaining cell homeostasis and transmitting
action potentials in neurons.[14] It can flow through chloride channels (including the GABAA receptor) and
is transported by KCC2 and NKCC2 transporters.

Chloride is usually (though not always) at a higher extracellular concentration, causing it to have a negative
reversal potential (around −61 mV at 37 °C in a mammalian cell).[15] Characteristic concentrations of
chloride in model organisms are: in both E. coli and budding yeast are 10–200 mM (dependent on
medium), in mammalian cells 5–100 mM and in blood plasma 100 mM.[16]

The concentration of chloride in the blood is called serum chloride, and this concentration is regulated by
the kidneys. A chloride ion is a structural component of some proteins; for example, it is present in the
amylase enzyme. For these roles, chloride is one of the essential dietary mineral (listed by its element name
chlorine). Serum chloride levels are mainly regulated by the kidneys through a variety of transporters that
are present along the nephron.[17] Most of the chloride, which is filtered by the glomerulus, is reabsorbed
by both proximal and distal tubules (majorly by proximal tubule) by both active and passive transport.[18]

Corrosion
The presence of chlorides, such as in seawater, significantly
worsens the conditions for pitting corrosion of most metals
(including stainless steels, aluminum and high-alloyed materials).
Chloride-induced corrosion of steel in concrete lead to a local
breakdown of the protective oxide form in alkaline concrete, so that
a subsequent localized corrosion attack takes place.[19]

Environmental threats

Increased concentrations of chloride can cause a number of

The structure of sodium chloride,
ecological effects in both aquatic and terrestrial environments. It
revealing the tendency of chloride
may contribute to the acidification of streams, mobilize radioactive
ions (green spheres) to link to
soil metals by ion exchange, affect the mortality and reproduction of
several cations.
aquatic plants and animals, promote the invasion of saltwater
organisms into previously freshwater environments, and interfere
with the natural mixing of lakes. Sodium chloride has also been shown to change the composition of
microbial species at relatively low concentrations. It can also hinder the denitrification process, a microbial
process essential to nitrate removal and the conservation of water quality, and inhibit the nitrification and
respiration of organic matter.[20]

Production
The chlor-alkali industry is a major consumer of the world's energy budget. This process converts sodium
chloride into chlorine and sodium hydroxide, which are used to make many other materials and chemicals.
The process involves two parallel reactions:

2 Cl− → Cl2 + 2 e−
2 H2O + 2 e− → H2 + 2 OH−

Basic membrane cell used in the electrolysis of brine. At the anode (A), chloride (Cl−) is oxidized to
chlorine. The ion-selective membrane (B) allows the counterion Na+ to freely flow across, but prevents
anions such as hydroxide (OH−) and chloride from diffusing across. At the cathode (C), water is
reduced to hydroxide and hydrogen gas.

Examples and uses

An example is table salt, which is sodium chloride with the chemical formula NaCl. In water, it dissociates
into Na+ and Cl− ions. Salts such as calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, potassium chloride have varied
uses ranging from medical treatments to cement formation.[4]

Calcium chloride (CaCl2 ) is a salt that is marketed in pellet form for removing dampness from rooms.
Calcium chloride is also used for maintaining unpaved roads and for fortifying roadbases for new
construction. In addition, calcium chloride is widely used as a de-icer, since it is effective in lowering the
melting point when applied to ice.[21]

Examples of covalently-bonded chlorides are phosphorus trichloride, phosphorus pentachloride, and thionyl
chloride, all three of which are reactive chlorinating reagents that have been used in a laboratory.

Water quality and processing

A major application involving chloride is desalination, which involves the energy intensive removal of
chloride salts to give potable water. In the petroleum industry, the chlorides are a closely monitored
constituent of the mud system. An increase of the chlorides in the mud system may be an indication of
drilling into a high-pressure saltwater formation. Its increase can also indicate the poor quality of a target
sand.

Chloride is also a useful and reliable chemical indicator of river and groundwater fecal contamination, as
chloride is a non-reactive solute and ubiquitous to sewage and potable water. Many water regulating
companies around the world utilize chloride to check the contamination levels of the rivers and potable
water sources.[22]

Food

Chloride salts such as sodium chloride are used to preserve food and as nutrients or condiments.

See also
Halide (compounds of halogens)
Renal chloride reabsorption

References
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 7. "Testing for halide ions - Group 0 and testing ions - GCSE Chemistry (Single Science)
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8. Molleman, Areles (2003). "Patch Clamping: An Introductory Guide to Patch Clamp
Electrophysiology". Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-48685-5.
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(PDF). colombia.edu. 8 September 2011. Retrieved 8 January 2023.
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