Lecture Note 6-1

İSTANBUL AYDIN ÜNİVERSİTESİ
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
- II -
Lecture Note - 6
Prof. Dr. Tuncer TOPRAK

INTERNAL FORCES
Consider the cantilever beam (One end fixed, the other end free beam), if
the internal loadings acting on the cross section at point B are to be
determined, we can seperate the beam into two parts by cutting at B with a
perpendecular plane to the axis of the beam. The internal loadings acting at
B will be external unkonowns on the free body diagram of the segment.
Cantilever Beam
3D Case : Internal Forces and Moments on a Cross Section for Three

Dimensional Case can be define as follows;
Mx G
Fkx Mz
x FN
My
F z
y ky
Mx G
Fkx Mz
x FN
My
Fky z
y
Fx and Fy Shear Stresses txy and tyx
Fz Normal Stress sz
Mx and My Normal Stress sz
Mz Shear Stress t
Transformation of Plane
Stresses
Plane-Stress Transformation
In general state of stress (3 Dimensional stress case) at a point is
characterized by six normal and shear-stress components, shown in the
figure belove. This state of stress, however, is not often encountered in
engineering practice. Instead, most loadings are coplanar (2-Dimensional)
, and so the stress these loadings produce can be analyzed in a single
plane. When this is the case, the material is then said to be subjected to
plane stress.
In 3-Dimensional stress case;

Normal Stresses sx, sy, sz
Shear Stresses txy, tyz, txz
2 - Dimensional Stress Case

If the F1, F2 , F3 ,..., Fn force system acting on an object is in the same
plane, then the stresses that will arise on the object will also remain in
this plane. At a point A of the body, if we take a small differential
element and remove it from the body, the stresses are shown in the
second figure. From the equilibrium of this element we find txy = tyx.
So we can say that shear stresses on the perpendecular directions are
equal
Fn F1
F2
A A
F3
The general state of plane stress at a point,

shown in the figure, is therefore represented by
a combination of two normal-stress components,
sx , s y , and one shear-stress component, txy,
tyx which act on only four faces of the element.
As it is mentioned before shear stresses on the
perpendecular plane are equal, so txy = txy
At the same point of the structure, if we rotate
the (x,y) coordinate system by angle q, then
at the same point there will be three different
stress components, sx’, sy′ , tx′y′, measured
relative to the x′, y′ axes.
Let us try to find the relations for the stresses

as function of angle q .
General equations of Plane - Stress Transformation

The method of transforming the normal and shear stress components
from the x, y to the x′, y′ coordinate axes, can be developed in a general
manner and expressed as a set of stress-transformation equations.
Sign Convention.
In order to apply these equations,
we must first establish a sign
convention for the stress
components.
If we take the stresses only on the

right face of the element, as shown
in the figure, sx and sx′ are positive
when they act in the positive x and
x′ directions, and txy and tx′y′ are
positive when they act in the
positive y and y′ directions
Let us assume that, stress components at a point of a body (sx, sy and

txy) are known, at the same point, what will be the normal stress and shear
stress on the plane which makes angle q with vertical axis ?
Using this established sign convention, the element in the figure is

sectioned along the inclined plane and the segment shown in next figure is
isolated. Assuming the inclined area is ΔA, then the horizontal and vertical
faces of the segment have an area of ΔA sinq and ΔA cos q, respectively.
The resulting free-body diagram of the

segment is shown in the figure.
If we apply the equations of equilibrium
along the x′ and y′ axes, we can
obtain a direct solution for sx′ and tx′y′.
To simplify these two equations, use the trigonometric identities
We get;
If the normal stress acting in the y′ direction is needed, it can be obtained

by simply substituting q + 90° for q
Example
The state of plane stress at a point is
represented on the element shown in
figure. Determine the state of stress at this
point on another element oriented 30°
clockwise from the position shown.
Solution
Stress components;
sx = - 80 MPa sy = 50 MPa txy = - 25 MPa
To obtain the stress components on plane CD, the positive x′ axis must
be directed outward, perpendicular to CD, and the associated y′ axis is
directed along CD. The angle measured from the x to the x′ axis is
q = - 30° (clockwise).
Application of the formula, for plane CD,
= - 4.15 MPa
Results are shown in the following element,

Example
Determine the state of stress on an
element at the same point oriented 60°
clockwise with respect to the element
shown. Sketch the results on the element.
Solution
Example
Determine the normal stress and
shear stress acting on the inclined
plane AB.
Show the result on the sectioned
element.
Solution
Shear stress on the inclane plane can be calculated as;
Normal stress and the Shear stress

on the inclined plane can be shown
on an element as on the figure
Principal Stresses
sx + sy sx − sy
s= + cos 2 + t xy sin 2
2 2
sx − sy
t=− sin 2 + t xy cos 2
2
These two relations define the normal and shear stresses in the inclined
plane, which makes any angle f with the vertical, in terms of known
values, if the stresses in the direction of the chosen axis set are known.
As the angle defining the inclined plane changes, stress pairs occurring
in different planes can be found by these relations.
Among the stresses occurring in an infinite number of planes to be

defined in this way, we wonder in which planes the stresses take their
extreme (maximum and minimum) values.
As the angle defining the inclined plane changes, stress pairs

occurring in different planes can be found by these relations.
Among the stresses occurring in an infinite number of planes to be

defined in this way, we wonder in which planes the stresses take
their extreme (maximum and minimum) values.
Fn F1
y
X’ F2
Y’ f A
x
A
F3
smax,min = ?
tmax,min = ?
Principal Stresses
Principal Stresses
In order to find the maximum and minimum values of the normal stresses
defined by the expression and the planes on which they are applied, we
take the derivative and make it equal to zero.
sx + sy sx − sy
2 2
s /  = 0
sx − sy
−2 sin 20 + 2 t xy cos 20 = 0
2
or
2 t xy
2 t xy 1
0 = arctan( )
tan 20 = 2 s x −s y
s x −s y
Principal Normal Stress Directions
Principal Stresses
We substitude the value of the angle into the variation form of the
stress,
sx + sy sx − sy
2 2
After simplifications, we find the maximum and minimum values

of normal stress as in the following form.
sx + sy  sx − sy
2

s1, 2 =    + t 2xy
2  2 
Principal Normal Stresses

Principal Shear Stresses

Similarly, we take derivative of shear stress formula,
sx − sy
2
t /  = 0 We get,
s x −s y s x −s y
−2 cos 20 − 2 t xy sin 20 = 0 tan 20 = −
2 2 t xy
Then Principal Shear Directions and Principal Shear Stresses will be

as;
 s x −s y 
2
1 2 t xy
0 = arctan( ) t 1, 2 =    + t xy2
2 s x −s y  2 
Principal Shear Directions Principal Shear Stresses
Example
For the state of plane stress shown in
figure, determine
(a) The principal planes,
(b) the principal stresses,
(c) the maximum shearing stress..
Solution
a-) Stress components for the given element,
Principal Planes will be defined by the angle q ,

b-) Principal Normal Stresses,
c-) Principal Shear Stresses,

Example
The state of stress at a point is shown on
the element. Determine
(a) the principal normal stresses and their
directions
(b) the principal shear stress at the point..
Solution
Given stresses from the figure,

Directions of Principal Normal Stresses

Example
Determine the equivalent state of
stress on an element at the point
which represents;
(a) the principal normal stresses and
their directions
(b) The principal shear stresses.
Solution
From the given figure, known stresses,
Directions of Principal Stresses;
b- ) Principal Shear Stresses,

Graphical Method – Mohr Circle

Normal and shear stress variations as function of f are,
sx + sy sx − sy
2 2
sx − sy
2
If we take the first term to the left hand side and take square of each
side we get,,
s x +s y   s x −s y 
2 2

s −  = 
 
 cos 2
2 +
 2   2 
s x −s y
2 cos 2 t xy sin 2 + t 2 xy sin 2 2
2
We repeat it for the second equation (shear stress relation), we get;
 s x −s y  s x −s y
2
t = 
2
 sin 2 − 2 2
sin 2 t xy cos 2 + t 2 xy cos2 2
 2  2
Summation of these two relations side by side, after some
simplifications and using the trigonometric relations, we get;
sx + sy   sx − sy
2 2
  This is equation of
s −  + t =   + t 2xy
2
circle on (s,t) plane
 2   2 
Radius of this circle is, Coordinates of the center of the circle
 sx − sy
2

R =   + t 2xy C( ; 0)
 2 
Equation of circle
C(x1 , y1) Coordinates of the center of circle on x, y

coordinate system
r Radius of the circle
If y1 is zero, center of the circle is on x axis.
sx + sy   sx − sy
2 2
 
s −  + t =   + t 2xy
2
 2   2 
Radius of this circle is, Coordinates of the center of the circle
 sx − sy
2

R =   + t 2xy C( ; 0)
 2 
 sx − sy
2
This circle is called as 
Mohr Circle R =   + t 2xy C( ; 0)
 2 
Coordinates of the
Radius
Center
Principal
Directions
A
Results
➢ Where normal stresses are maximum and minimum (Extremum),

the shear stresses are zero.
➢ In planes where shear stresses are maximum and minimum,

normal stress is not zero and equal to
➢ Turning on the clockwise direction of angle 2f0 from the point

showing the stress state of the S0 surface, we get the surface
represent the first principal stress.
➢
Shear Stress Sign on the Mohr Circle

when the shearing stress exerted on a given face tends to rotate the
element clockwise, the point on Mohr’s circle corresponding to that face
is located above the s axis. When the shearing stress on a given face
tends to rotate the element counterclockwise, the point corresponding to
that face is located below the s axis
Example
For the state of plane stress shown on the
element,
(a) construct Mohr’s circle,
(b) determine the principal stresses,
(c) determine the maximum shearing stress
and the corresponding normal stress.
Solution
From the given elemen, stresses are;
sx = 50 MPa, sy = - 10 MPa txy = 40 MPa
Center of the Mohr Circle will be on the s axis and the location is;
The radius of the circle is;
Since the coordinates of the center and radius of the Mohr Circle are
known, then we can easily draw the circle with a scale on (s ; t ) plane.
Intersections of the circle with s

axis (points A and B) will be the
D
maximum and minimum values
of the normal stress.
On the graph, we can measure

the values OA and OB with the
same selected scale.
OA = smax and OB = smin
E CD = tmax and CE = tmin

Principal Normal stresses,
OA = smax = OC + CA = 70 MPa and OB = smin = OC – CB = - 30 Mpa
Principal shear stresses,
CD = tmax = + 50 MPa and CE = tmin = - 50 Mpa
As it is shown on the drawing of Mohr Circle, at the points where the

normal stress has extremum values (points A and B, max and min
values) shear stres is zero.
But , at the points where the shear stress has extremum values
(Points D and E, max an min values) normal stress is not zero it is
equal to the avarage value, 20 MPa.
Transformation of Plane
Strains
Deformation of Elastic Bodies
Under the effect of external forces, elastic body can change its
dimensions and also shape, in other words has deformation. In this
case, the distance between any two points of the body and the angle
between any two lines on the body changes.
E' E''
F' F''
E
F
A' A''
B'
A
B G G' G''
D C D' C' D'' C''
Before
Change of Change of
application of
dimensions shape
external forces
Assume that a state of plane strain exists at point a Q and that it is

defined by the strain components ex, ey, and gxy associated with the x
and y coordinate system.
A differential square element of center Q with sides of a length Ds and

parallel to the x and y axes is deformed into a parallelogram where
the sides are now equal to Ds (1 + ex) and Ds (1 + ey), forming angles
of ( p/2 - gxy ) and ( p/2 + gxy ) with each other
Let us assume that ex, ey, and gxy are known, then element also rotates
by angle q during the deformation.
Now our purpose is to determine ex’ , ey’ , and gx’y’ , in terms of known
strain components (ex, ey, and gxy ) and q associated with the frame of
reference x’y’ obtained by rotating the x and y axes through angle q.
Which is call Transformation of Strains.
After calculations and using some trigonometric relations, we get;
In order to find ey’, we substitute q = q + p/2 on the above relation and get,
Shear strain can be found in similar way as,

Example
The state of plane strain at a point has components of
ex = 500(10-6), ey = - 300(10-6), gxy = 200(10-6).
Determine the equivalent strains acting on an element of the material
oriented clockwise 30°.
Solution
Since q is positive counterclockwise, then for this problem q = - 30°.
Thus,
The strain in the y’ direction can be obtained from the related equation
with q = -30°.
Shear Strain can be calculated as;

Principal Strains.
Since strain component at any point of the body is function of q (defining

the direction) we can find the extremum values (Maximum and minimum)
of strain by taking derivative of e = e(q) with respect to q and make it
equal to zero. This will give us the values of q on which normal strains wil
have the extremum values. These directions are called as Principal
Strain Directions (Principal Planes). Then we substitute the values of q
on the strain relation and find the maximum and minimum values of
normal strain which are called as Principal Normal strains.
Principal Normal Strain

Directions
Principal
Normal Strains
Similarly we can find the directions defined by q for Principal

Shear Strains.
Principal Shear Strain

Directions
Principal
Shear Strains
Example
The state of plane strain at a point has components of
ex = - 350(10-6), ey = 200(10-6), gxy = 80(10-6),.
Determine the principal strains and principal directions at the point.
Solution
Principal normal strain directions,
Principal Normal Strains,

Material Property Relations (Stress – Strain Relations)
Generalized Hooke’s Law.

When the material at a point is subjected to a state of triaxial stress,
sx, sy, sz,, then these stresses can be related to the normal strains ex, ey, ez by using
the principle of superposition, Poisson’s ratio, elat = - n elong, and Hooke’s law as it
applies in the uniaxial direction, e = s / E.
Consider the normal strain of the element in the x direction, caused

by separate application of each normal stress. The strain on x
direction as application of stress on different directions will be,
We can obtain the resultant strain ex by adding these three strains

algebraically. Similar equations can be developed for the normal strains
in the y and z directions, and so the final results can be written as
Hooke’s Law for

Triaxial State of Stress
Similarly, the relations between Shear Stress and Shear Strain

components will be ,
Hooke’s Relations For Two Dimensioanl Case
sy sx sy 1
txy
ex = −n  ex = ( sx − n sy )
E E E
sx
sx sy sx 1
txy ey = −n  e y = ( sy − n sx )
sy
E E E
txy
g xy =
G
Relationship Involving E, n, and G.

The relation between material constants (modulus of elasticity E ,
Poisson Ratio n and Shear Modulus G) ,
END

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İSTANBUL AYDIN ÜNİVERSİTESİ

Prof. Dr. Tuncer TOPRAK

3D Case : Internal Forces and Moments on a Cross Section for Three

In 3-Dimensional stress case;

2 - Dimensional Stress Case

The general state of plane stress at a point,

Let us try to find the relations for the stresses

General equations of Plane - Stress Transformation

If we take the stresses only on the

Let us assume that, stress components at a point of a body (sx, sy and

Using this established sign convention, the element in the figure is

The resulting free-body diagram of the

To simplify these two equations, use the trigonometric identities

If the normal stress acting in the y′ direction is needed, it can be obtained

sx = - 80 MPa sy = 50 MPa txy = - 25 MPa

Application of the formula, for plane CD,

Results are shown in the following element,

Shear stress on the inclane plane can be calculated as;

Normal stress and the Shear stress

Among the stresses occurring in an infinite number of planes to be

As the angle defining the inclined plane changes, stress pairs

Among the stresses occurring in an infinite number of planes to be

After simplifications, we find the maximum and minimum values

Principal Normal Stresses

Principal Shear Stresses

Then Principal Shear Directions and Principal Shear Stresses will be

Principal Planes will be defined by the angle q ,

b-) Principal Normal Stresses,

c-) Principal Shear Stresses,

Given stresses from the figure,

Directions of Principal Normal Stresses

Directions of Principal Stresses;

b- ) Principal Shear Stresses,

Graphical Method – Mohr Circle

We repeat it for the second equation (shear stress relation), we get;

Radius of this circle is, Coordinates of the center of the circle

C(x1 , y1) Coordinates of the center of circle on x, y

Radius of this circle is, Coordinates of the center of the circle

➢ Where normal stresses are maximum and minimum (Extremum),

➢ In planes where shear stresses are maximum and minimum,

➢ Turning on the clockwise direction of angle 2f0 from the point

Shear Stress Sign on the Mohr Circle

sx = 50 MPa, sy = - 10 MPa txy = 40 MPa

Intersections of the circle with s

On the graph, we can measure

OA = smax and OB = smin

E CD = tmax and CE = tmin

Principal Normal stresses,

OA = smax = OC + CA = 70 MPa and OB = smin = OC – CB = - 30 Mpa

Principal shear stresses,

CD = tmax = + 50 MPa and CE = tmin = - 50 Mpa

As it is shown on the drawing of Mohr Circle, at the points where the

Deformation of Elastic Bodies

D C D' C' D'' C''

Assume that a state of plane strain exists at point a Q and that it is

A differential square element of center Q with sides of a length Ds and

After calculations and using some trigonometric relations, we get;

Shear strain can be found in similar way as,

Shear Strain can be calculated as;

Since strain component at any point of the body is function of q (defining

Principal Normal Strain

Similarly we can find the directions defined by q for Principal

Principal Shear Strain