‫ﻣﻠﺨﺺ اﻷدﺑﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻹﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ‬

‫تم رفع هذه المادة بواسطة‬

‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬

‫ﻟﻤﺰﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻮاد اﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻤﻴﺔ‬

‫زوروا ﻣﻮﻗﻊ اﻟﻤﺘﻘﺪﻣﻮن‪ ،‬وﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﻘﺪﻣﻮن ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫اﻟﻔﻴﺲ ﺑﻮك‬
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

An Introduction to English Literature

Part one
Types of English literature
I
What is literature?

‫ا‬
‫ﻟﻤ‬
Literature is a composition of words in a broad sense inspired by the
man's imaginative faculty in which feelings and emotions play a
predominant role, written in a certain way that makes it able to be
understood by a literary critic.
‫ﺘﻘ‬
There are several kinds of literature such as scientific, medical,
philosophical, historical, and political literature.
There are many examples for literature that back to three thousand
‫ﺪﻣ‬
years ago such as Egyptian, Babylonian, Indian and Greek writing.

Literature and art

‫ﻮن‬

Aristotle who is the first of European critics said that man is by nature
imitative.
Classes of art
There are many classes of art. Literature is a one of them. Other
classes including literature are music, painting, sculpture and
architecture called fine arts.
Music is placed at the top because its medium is pure sound. The
medium of literature is words but words carrying definite meaning. The
painter uses color which is a material substance. The sculptures medium

I
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

is stone or clay or metal.at the end comes the architect who uses a
combination of materials in order to produce a building.
Nature of pleasure in literature
Literary pleasure is something mental. Even if the poem is about
someone's death you might enjoy it because of it style.

‫ا‬
II

‫ﻟﻤ‬
FORMS OF LITERATURE
There are two kinds of literature. One is prose and the other is verse.
Both prose and verse employ words as their medium. The different
‫ﺘﻘ‬
between them is that verse calls for the organization of the words
according to regular patterns in order to produce a harmonious rhythm.
Prose on the other hand dispenses with this king of regularity.
In many kinds of verse, the lines are required to be the same length and
to be ended with the same rhyme. But in prose no need for rhyme.
‫ﺪﻣ‬
Verse and poetry
The distinction between verse and poetry was made by some
people who realized that verse refers to form, whereas poetry is more
concerned with the content of what is said. It is okay to say that what is
‫ﻮن‬

written in metrical language is verse, and what dispense with metrical

regularity is prose.
Types of literature
There are three principal types that we meet in literature, which are
verse or poetry, drama and fiction. Each of these types subdivides into
many categories.
This is how new things are invented and how literature became more
and more vast.
So criticisms began with the beginning of writing. And they started
analyzing literature and gave different names to different types of

II
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

compositions and also wrote down the rules which the writers appeared
to have observed.
III
POETRY: TYPES AND FORMS
There are two recognizable methods of writing poetry. Either the poet
speaks in his own voice and expresses his feelings which called the
personal method, or in the impersonal way he depicts what others might
have felt or suffered without expressing his feelings. In personal form
you can use direct personal pronoun such as "I" like in Westworth's. On

‫ا‬
the other hand, as an example for the impersonal poetry let's say John

‫ﻟﻤ‬
Milton's paradise lost and Dryden's Mc Fleckonone. The personal and
impersonal styles dominate the whole history of poetry from the
beginning to the present day.
Impersonal style in poetry
‫ﺘﻘ‬
There are four types of personal poetry:
Epic b) Ballad c) satire and c) narrative. ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ هﺬﻩ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬ )a
‫ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬
‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬
‫ﺪﻣ‬
‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬

A) Epic
The oldest kind ever is epic. They are a long narrative poetry
written in a certain way, telling stories of old mythical heroes. It's kind of
‫ﻮن‬

imaginative style, so we might find some fictional characters in it like

monsters and gods. The main purpose in epic is to celebrate the
courage, honor, heroism and generosity of a hero.
Epics may be historical, part legendary and part myth. There are two
kinds of epic, first is primary and second is secondary.
I) Primary Epic:
The oldest and mysterious type is primary. What makes this kind
different is that their authors are unknown. For example, the epics called
Iliad and Odyssey, some say that Homer a Greek writer has written this
two, but we are not sure even if there was a writer called Homer. Other

III
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

important characteristic is the nature of life in their time. Things like

swords, shields and wars.
Beowulf which probably was written in the eighth century is an example
of epic poetry.
II) Secondary epic:
We can say that the only different between secondary and primary
epic is that in primary the author is unknown, but in secondary we know
who the author is.

‫ا‬
John Melton's "paradise lost" is the best known secondary epic. It is a

‫ﻟﻤ‬
long narrative poem passed on the biblical story of the fall of man.
III) Philosophical epic:
It is a kind of epic used by philosophers elucidating their theories.
For example, the most famous of this kind "Rerum Nature" by Lucretius
‫ﺘﻘ‬
the roman poet and Dante who wrote an epic in his own style describing
hell from Christian perspective.
IV) Romantic epic:
In that period between 15th and 16th century two Italian poets
‫ﺪﻣ‬
wrote two works which described as romantic epic. Ariosto is the author
of "Orlando Furioso" which talks about the French hero Roland. Tasso
wrote about the first crusade in his "Gerusalemme Lebirata". Another
writer poet is Spenser who wrote "The Faeri Queen" which was classified
‫ﻮن‬

as a romantic epic.

V) Mock-heroics:
A type of epic used for humorous purpose employs to choose a
trivial subject and give it the treatment of a serous theme. Boileau's "Le
Lutrin" and alexander pope's "The Rape of the Lock" are the most
famous poems of this type.
Heroic poetry
It is kind of impersonal poetry that characterizes epics. It deals with
war and military adventure. It was first written in Anglo-Saxon period.

IV
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

For example, widsith, a poem that concerned of great lords and

warriors, Praised by unknown author symbolizing fidelity and generosity.
Some modern poets have imitated this kind of poetry. For example,
Sohrab and Rustum by Mathew Arnold, it is about the killing of a son by
father by mistake.
B) Ballads
It belongs to the same class of impersonal poetry as epics, but with
different technique. The subject doesn’t matter. Ballads are usually short
between fifty to sixty lines, Written in a rhymed verse which could be

‫ا‬
sung. They deal with love, war and everyday experience. An example of

‫ﻟﻤ‬
this kind is Coleridge's "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" a tale about an
ancient mariner who shot a bird unnecessarily and was punished by the
nature. And best of all times Keats's "La Belle Dame Sans Merci". What
make Ballads easy recognizes is that they must be narrative in character,
‫ﺘﻘ‬
impersonal in tone and written in stanzas of four lines in which the first
and the third consist of eight syllables each, and the second and the
fourth contain six syllables each.
C) Satire
‫ﺪﻣ‬
It is a powerful art from which has the ability to point out the
deficiencies in certain human behavior or social issues which result from
them in such a way that they become absurd, even hilarious, which is
therefor entertaining and reaches a wide audience. Chaucer in his
Canterbury tales satirizes a big number of characters in a gentle way,
‫ﻮن‬

what makes him different from Langland in his "Piers Plowman" who
used to satirize in a strong language. Other examples for satire authors
are John Dryden who was the master of the heroic couplet. Dryden's
satire such as Absalom and Achitophel or Mac Flecknoe. Samuel Butler is
another satire writer. He wrote a famous entitled "Hudibras" on the
English puritans.

Irony Definition

V
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

Irony is a figure of speech in which words are used in such a way

that their intended meaning is different from the actual meaning of the
words. It may also be a situation that may end up in quite a different
way than what is generally anticipated. In simple words, it is a difference
between the appearance and the reality.
There are three types of irony:
I) Verbal irony
The use of words to mean something different than what they appear to
mean.

‫ا‬
‫ﻟﻤ‬
For example, when you say" oh great! You broke my new camera".
II) Situational irony
The difference between what is expected to happen and what actually
happens.
‫ﺘﻘ‬
Both characters and the audience are fully unaware of the implicates of
the situation
III) Dramatic irony
‫ﺪﻣ‬
When the audience is more aware of what is happening than a
character.
For example, in "Romeo and Juliet" we know much before the
characters that they are going to die.
Narrative Poetry
‫ﻮن‬

A type of poetry where the writers are concerned to unfold a tale

without expressing his own feelings. What makes it an impersonal style?
The form called the dramatic monologue belongs to this type of poetry.
The nineteenth century poet Browning pretended it to all others. In each
dramatic monologue there is a single speaker whose feelings and
emotions we follow while the author says in background.
There are many examples of this type such as:
I) "My Last Duchess" by Fra Lipo.

VI
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

II) "Ulysses" the best monologue ever known by Tennyson who

recounted the story of how Lucretius, the Roman poet, committed
suicide in a fit of annoyance.
III) "His Idylls of the King" is also a good example of impersonal narrative
verse.
But the best examples of narrative poetry are found in the dramatic
verse of Shakespeare next to Homer's. For example, Shakespeare's
"Julius Caesar".
Another example of impersonal poetry is the fable. Which is a story

‫ا‬
apparently about animals with a human intelligence at the same time

‫ﻟﻤ‬
they return their animal characteristics? The most ancient writer of
fables is Aesop, the Greek. He wrote a large number of stories about
foxes, sheep, storks, etc. they are allegory about the weakness and the
foibles of human.
‫ﺘﻘ‬
The reason why impersonality in certain kinds of poetry is valued is
because it makes greater impartiality and consequently greater
truthfulness. The best of great writer consists in the ability to represent
faithfully a point of view not his own.
‫ﺪﻣ‬
Lyrical poetry
‫ﻮن‬

Poetry of this kind is a direct record of the feelings of the writer. It

is a grief of suffering or joy, the poet speaks in his own voice, not trying
to conceal the fact that it was his personal emotions he was expressing.
Lyrical poetry can assume many forms ranging from short songs meant
to be set to music to long odes and elegies. The following are the most
important types.
A) Lyrics
This term usually applies to short compositions on any subject
recording an outburst of feeling inspired by something immediate. In
each lyric the reader is treated to an outpouring of writer's emotion in
highly charged language. As regards their structure, they do not conform

VII
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

to any definite pattern. Each writer uses a form which he believes to be

best suited to the idea he wishes to express. It is the spontaneity of the
emotion expressed which touches the reader's heart.
B) Sonnet
It belongs to the same form of lyrical poetry as lyrics. But it defines
in pattern; it must follow a definite pattern, written in accordance with
set rules. Its origin traced to an Italian poet of the fourteenth century
called Petrarch. The number of lines in the sonnet is limited to fourteen
divided in two. The first eight is called octave and the last six is called

‫ا‬
sestet. It was introduced to England in the sixteenth century by Sir

‫ﻟﻤ‬
Thomas Wyatt and "The Earl of Surry". They slightly varied the
Petrarchan form by dividing the fourteen lines into three groups of four
(called quatrain) and a couplet at the end. The meter they employed was
the iambic pentameter.
‫ﺘﻘ‬
The greatest writer of al who established the new tradition was
Shakespeare and because of him the form came to be termed
Shakespearian. The best known among the poets who preferred to stick
to the original Petrarchan form is Milton. The rhyme scheme among
‫ﺪﻣ‬
them within the context of the octave and sestet division is found to
vary in numerous ways. The most common schemes are as follows: abba
abba cde cde: abba abba cdcdcd: abba abba ccd cdd: abba abba cddccd.
The sonnet as a form was at the peak of its popularity in the sixteenth
century during the reign of Elizabeth I. poet after poet produced in this
‫ﻮن‬

age collections of sonnet called sequences, trying to unfold a connected

story of which each individual sonnet provided a glimpse. The fashion
started with the publication in 1592 of Philip Sidney's "Astrophel and
Stella". It was followed by about twenty sequences of the same kind.
The best known are "Amoretti" by Spenser, "Idea's Mirror" by Drayton,
"Delia by Samuel Daniel and the collection -without a title- by
Shakespeare.

‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ هﺬﻩ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

‫ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬
‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬
‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬

VIII
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

C)Odes
The ode as a form of lyrical poetry has a longer ancestry than the
sonnet. The most ancient writer of the ode is Pindar, the Greek poet,
who belonged to the sixth century B.C.
An ode in English is a composition in irregular meter expressing lofty
feelings usually in celebration of some special event. In this sense it is
the perfect antithesis of the sonnet which is distinguished by the rigidity
of its form. The writer of an ode is a liberty to use any form he likes and
to vary it as often as he wishes.

‫ا‬
Examples for odes were produced in the 16th, 17th, 18th and 19th

‫ﻟﻤ‬
centuries:
I) To Pinehurst by Ben Johnson.
II) The Bard by Thomas Gray.
‫ﺘﻘ‬
III) Ode to the Western by shelly.
IV) Intimations of Immorality from Recollections of Early childhood by
William Wordsworth.
The most widely read odes in English language are those which
‫ﺪﻣ‬
Keats, the roman poet, wrote in the first quarter of the 19th century.
Keats odes are written in stanziac form and follow a definite pattern.
Odes can be short or long but usually they tend to be lengthy. An
exception is keat's ode "To Autumn" which consists of only three stanzas
‫ﻮن‬

of eleven lines each. But whatever its length an ode is distinguished by

great fervor and passion serving as a vehicle for utterance of strongly
felt emotion.
The ode has no formal structure; the ode is irregular not like the sonnet.
Keats, Gray, Shelly, and Wordsworth, each one of them chose a form
wholly unlike the composition of the others. The tradition of freedom is
respect of form and structure derives form Pindar himself. The odes he
wrote were composed in honor of Victors in the Greek national games
called Olympics. Each single ode that he wrote had its own metrical
individuality. The following passage in English translation will provide
some idea of Pindar's manner.

IX
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

D) Elegy
Elegy is a form of literature which can be defined as a poem or song
in the form of elegiac couplets, written in honor of someone death.
The forms of elegies we see today were introduced in the 16th century.
“Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard” by Thomas Gray and “When
Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloomed” by Walt Whitman are the two most
popular examples of elegy.

‫ا‬
‫ﻟﻤ‬
Pastoral elegy
An elegy is a poem on the death of someone. And pastoral suggest
that the elegy is related to 'shepherd', and rustic life. Pastoral elegies are
‫ﺘﻘ‬
poems in which the poet speaks in the guise of a shepherd in a peaceful
landscape and expresses his grief on the death of another shepherd.
Pastoral poetry
‫ﺪﻣ‬
Pastoral is a mode of literature in which the author employs various
techniques to place the complex life into a simple one.
The most known example of pastoral poetry is Marlow's poem "Come
Live with Me".
Drama
‫ﻮن‬

Definition of Drama
Drama is a mode of fictional representation through dialogue and
performance. It is one of the literary genres, which is an imitation of
some action. Drama is also a type of a play written for theaters,
televisions, radios and films.
In simple words, a drama is a composition in verse or prose presenting a
story in pantomime or dialogue, containing conflict of characters,
particularly the ones who perform in front of audience on the stage. The

X
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

person who writes drama for stage directions is known as a dramatist or

playwright.
According to Aristotle, drama owes its origin directly to the instinct
of imitation which he says is innate in man. Drama divides into two
classes, some with happy endings and some with unhappy endings. The
first type was called comedy, and the second tragedy.
The most important point about the inner content of tragedy is that is
must help purge the emotions of pity and fear.
Structure of drama

‫ا‬
‫ﻟﻤ‬
Aristotle isolated six elements in every tragedy, and this applies in
fact to every form of dramatic writing. These elements are plot,
character, diction, thought, spectacle and song.
‫ﺘﻘ‬ ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ هﺬﻩ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬
‫ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬
‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬
‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬
Plot
Plot is a literary term used to describe the events that make up a
‫ﺪﻣ‬
story or the main part of a story. These events relate to each other in a
pattern or a sequence. The structure of a novel depends on the
organization of events in the plot of the story.
Plot is known as the foundation of a novel or story which the characters
‫ﻮن‬

and settings are built around. It is meant to organize information and

events in a logical manner. When writing the plot of a piece of literature,
the author has to be careful that it does not dominate the other parts of
the story.
Character
It is a person depicted in a narrative or drama. Characters may be
flat, minor characters; or round, and major. The main character in a
story is generally known as the protagonist; the character who opposes
him or her is the antagonist. Character is revealed by how a character
responds to conflict, by his or her dialogue, and through descriptions.

XI
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

Diction
Diction means the language that is used in the play, which must be
suited to the nature of the story. The language of comedy can’t be like
the language of tragedy, and the language of a little child can't be like
the language of an old wise man.
Thought
By thought Aristotle meant the faculty of saying what is possible and
pertinent in given circumstances, That is to say, the sentiments each
character in a drama expresses must be appropriate to the situation or

‫ا‬
mood of which they are a reflection.

‫ﻟﻤ‬
Spectacle
The term refers to the machinery employed in dramatic
representation.
‫ﺘﻘ‬
Drama as has been said before, being a story in action, the way it is
enacted, the dresses, the scenery, anything used on the stage have an
effect on the spectators mind.
Song
‫ﺪﻣ‬
It was very common in Greek drama even though it's not that
important in modern drama. It was performed by a group of singers
called chorus whose function was to provide a lyrical accompaniment of
the actor's performance on the stage.
‫ﻮن‬

‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ هﺬﻩ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

‫ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬
‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬
‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬

Division of Greek drama

A Greek play consisted of six parts;
A prologue spoken by the one man who usually had no other role in
drama. The prologue was followed by a song by the chorus called the

XII
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

Parados. After the parados, comes a dialogue .each section was called an
Episode. A drama consists usually of several parts separated from each
other by the songs of the chorus. Then comes the first stasimon which is
the second song of the chorus came after the first episode, and commos
and the plot was described as the Exodus. Conflict
Conflict Definition
In literature, a conflict is a literary element that involves a struggle
between two opposing forces usually a protagonist and an antagonist.

‫ا‬
Function of Conflict

‫ﻟﻤ‬
Both internal and external conflicts are essential elements of a
storyline. It is essential for a writer to introduce and develop conflict,
internal or external or both, in his storyline in order to achieve a story
‫ﺘﻘ‬
goal i.e. the resolution of a conflict in order to entertain his readers.
Example
Hamlet’s internal conflict is the main conflict in William Shakespeare’s
play “Hamlet”. This internal conflict decides his tragic downfall. He
‫ﺪﻣ‬
reveals his state of mind in the following lines from Act 3, Scene 1 of the
play:
“To be, or not to be–that is the question:
Whether ’tis nobler in the mind to suffer
the slings and arrows of outrageous fortune
‫ﻮن‬

or to take arms against a sea of troubles

and by opposing end them. To die, to sleep…”
The conflict here is that he wants to kill his father’s murderer Claudius
but he also looks for proof to justify his action, ultimately ruining his life
and the lives of his loved ones. Due to his internal conflict, he spoils his
relationship with his mother and sends Ophelia (Hamlet’s love interest)
into such a state of despair that she commits suicide. Hamlet’s internal
conflict, which is regarded as indecisiveness, almost got everyone killed
at the end of the play. The resolution to the conflict came when he killed
Claudius by assuming fake madness so that he would not be asked for

XIII
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

any justification. In the same play, we find Hamlet engaged in an

external conflict with his uncle Claudius.

Differences between Greek and Modern Dramas

Greek Modern

1 Religious Secular

‫ا‬
‫ﻟﻤ‬
2 An open air theatre Building with closed roof

3 Without a curtain With a curtain

4 Divided into episodes Into scenes and acts

5
‫ﺘﻘ‬ Considered the three unities; Changeable
place, time and action.
6 Murders, love, violence and Acted
other brutalities were reported
‫ﺪﻣ‬
7 Derived from myths and Invented
legends
8 Song was necessary Not
‫ﻮن‬

9 Devices were not used They were used as artificial

blood and lights
10 The hero committed his The hero commits his mistake
mistake by his fate by his flaw

XIV
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

Types of Drama
There are two main types in modern drama which was invented
from the 16th century to the present day.

‫ا‬
a)pure comedy; b)tragi-comedy; c)comedy of humors; d)comedy of

‫ﻟﻤ‬
manners; e)sentimental comedy; f) problem play
Comedy
Comedy is a literary genre and a type of dramatic work that is
‫ﺘﻘ‬
amusing and satirical in its tone, mostly having cheerful ending.
The motif of this dramatic work is triumph over unpleasant circumstance
by which to create comic effects, resulting in happy or successful
conclusion.
‫ﺪﻣ‬
Thus, the purpose of comedy is to amuse the audience. Comedy has
multiple sub-genres depending upon source of humor, context in which
an author delivers dialogues, and delivery method, which include
farce, satire and burlesque. Tragedy, in contrast, is opposite to comedy,
as tragedy deals with sorrowful and tragic events in a story.
‫ﻮن‬

a) Examples of pure comedy are found in the writing of Shakespeare and

such modern playwrights as Oscar Wilde. Such Shakespearian play as
Comedy of errors.

b) tragi-comedy; it’s a type of play developed by the Elizabethans which

contain tragic elements but end happily. Shakespeare's Merchant of
Venice fits this description.

XV
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

c)comedy of humors; a type of comedy which was developed by Ben

Johnson that classifies men into four groups depending on the
predominance in their constitution of one of four the humors;
Blood what means passion, phlegm indifference, choler to anger and
melancholy depression.

D) Comedy of manners; this form of dramatic genre deals with intrigues

and relations of ladies and gentlemen, living in a sophisticated society.
This form relies upon high comedy, derived from sparkle and wit of

‫ا‬
dialogues, violations of social traditions, and good manners by nonsense

‫ﻟﻤ‬
characters like jealous husbands, wives and foppish dandies. We find its
use in Restoration dramatists, particularly in the works of Wycherley and
Congreve.
‫ﺘﻘ‬
e) Sentimental comedy; Sentimental drama contains both comedy and
sentimental tragedy. It appears in literary circle due to reaction of
middle class against obscenity and indecency of Restoration Comedy of
Manners. This form gained popularity among the middle class audiences
‫ﺪﻣ‬
in eighteenth century. This drama incorporates scenes with extreme
emotions evoking excessive pity.

f)modern problem play; The problem play is a form of drama that

‫ﻮن‬

emerged during the 19th century as part of the wider movement

of realism in the arts, especially following the innovations of Henrik
Ibsen. It deals with contentious social issues through debates between
the characters on stage, who typically represent conflicting points of
view within a realistic social context.

XVI
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

Tragedy
A) Revenge tragedy; this was the first of the types to appear in English
and was developed to a very high level of perfection by Shakespeare.
The main elements of revenge tragedy are a secret murder, the
discovery of the murderer and the revenge taken against him by
murdered person's relatives. The most famous tragedy at all is
Shakespeare's Hamlet, which is a tragedy about the murder of King
Hamlet by his brother and revenge that was Jr Hamlet planning for. The
two important devices that is used in tragedy used by Shakespeare in

‫ا‬
Hamlet; one is ghost and the other is feigned madness,

‫ﻟﻤ‬
b) Decadent tragedy; it’s a description applied to a certain form of
tragedy which came to be written in the first quarter of the seventeenth
century by such men as John Webster. It differs from revenge tragedy in
‫ﺘﻘ‬
the degree of its emphasis on death, decay and crime. Webster wrote
two plays. The White Devil and The Duchess of Malfi in both of which
crime and wickedness are shown to have a fascinating aspect. The
criminals glory in their criminality and go about committing murder
‫ﺪﻣ‬
without a twinge of conscience. In formal structure; however, it is
identical with revenge tragedy.

c) Historical tragedy; it was produced widely by the Elizabethan

‫ﻮن‬

dramatists. Some of them were plain chronicle plays, that is to say,

straightforward dramatizations of historical events. Though, Marlowe
began a change in the nature of the history play.
It was now shaped to a definite tragic end, exhibiting a purpose in the
evolution of history. Marlowe's Edward the second is the first drama of
this kind. It traced the downfall of Edward to causes which were partly
psychological and partly connected with the events of his reign.
The largest number of historical tragedies came from Shakespeare.
They fall into two classes; those dealing with the history of E England
and those dealing with subjects drawn from the history of Rome. What
Shakespeare concerns himself with in the English histories is the destiny
XVII
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

of England; this acquires an importance to which everything else is

subordinate. Of these plays, the two approximating most closely to the
definition of tragedy are Richard II and Richard III. The best known of
Shakespeare's Roman plays are Julius Caesar and Antony and Cleopatra.
The writers of these historical tragedies took great liberties with
historical truth. Sometimes they disregarded chronology; sometimes
they suppressed certain events altogether. All this was done in order
that history might appear to fit in with the pattern of tragedy; that is a
story illustrating the decline and fall of great men with serious

‫ا‬
shortcomings in their character.

‫ﻟﻤ‬
d)heroic tragedy; it was inspired by the example set by the 17th century
French dramatist Corneille. It shifted the motivation of dramatic action
from revenge to honor, glory and love.
The first of the heroic tragedies in English was the Siege of Rhodes
‫ﺘﻘ‬
by Davenant, a later seventeenth century dramatist. The type was
perfected by Dryden, author of such heroic plays as The conquest of
Granada and Aureng-Zebe. Heroic plays are declamatory in character,
artificial in tone, full of rhetorical speeches and impossible adventures.
‫ﺪﻣ‬
The hero is shown performing fantastic exploits inspired by a high sense
of honor and for the sake of glory and love. The popularity of this type of
drama proved short-lived and it has never been revived after the
eighteenth century.
In structure the heroic tragedy had a five-act division, and was unlike
‫ﻮن‬

revenge tragedies written in rhyming verse.

XVIII
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

Part two
The beginnings of English; old and middle English600-1485
Setting the scene
The first literature appeared in the Anglo-Saxon times between 400 and
1066.
In 410 the romans left England, and in 1066 Norman Conquest began the
medieval period of history.
It was a time of wars and invasions. England was invaded by many

‫ا‬
peoples from Europe; Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Vikings and finally Normans.

‫ﻟﻤ‬
The invasions left many traces in language and culture. The language
known as Old English is the language of the first literature in English.
Even though it was long time before it was written down.
‫ﺘﻘ‬
The stories and poems were spoken. And we don’t know exactly when
these stories were first told. There were two cultures in this period, the
first was the Christian culture, which had arrived in England in 597 with
Saint Augustine, and the second is the heroic culture of leaders and
heroes who defended their land against the invaders.
‫ﺪﻣ‬
The last successful invasion of England was the Norman Conquest and
the battle of Hasting in 1066. The Norman took power and William the
Conqueror became the king of England. French influences were brought
to the language that was called the Old English. The French language
‫ﻮن‬

began to mix with the Old English into a more modern language.
Scandinavian influences were also strong and Latin was still the language
of the Church, so there were many influences on English language and
culture. Out of these influences a new national identity began to
develop. The first parliament was in 1265, and this new language
became the language of national law in 1362. The Magna Carta of 1215
made London the capital of the country. And the local southern dialect
of English became the main spoken form of English. Trade with Europe
became stronger, as they still do today. A new class of traders and
merchants grew up, as trade between nations replaced war.
Old English

XIX
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

The language of the earliest English literature came from many

different places.
The literature itself and its subjects influenced by different countries,
and by different places, peoples and cultures, that is to say England had
many invasions at first, then after peace comes the trade with different
countries what influenced the way of living, culture and language
bringing many classes of literature.
The subjects were not different from what it is now days; war, religion,
personal sadness and happiness. The only people in that time who were

‫ا‬
well educated were the Christian monks in the monasteries who first

‫ﻟﻤ‬
wrote down the words of early literature. They were the only people
who could read and write, and for many centuries they guarded culture
and learning. But only a few fragments remained of all what the writing
that the monks kept. They reflect the two cultures of Christianity and
‫ﺘﻘ‬
heroic actions. Most of the texts from this period are anonymous, but a
couple of names area attached to texts. The very first fragment is called
Caedmon's Hymn.
There is a legend that Caedmon was a shepherd in North Umbria, in
‫ﺪﻣ‬
the far north of England and the voice of god came to him, so his Hymn
is the first song of praise in English literature. Caedmon entered the
monastery, so people started to learn from it.
Two features of most Old English poetry are the caesura which is the gap
in the middle of each line, which is used to show the rhythm of the
‫ﻮن‬

verse, and the alliteration.

Another name from the early medieval period is Deor, but we know
nothing about him, but we know that he is the narrator of the poem that
is called Deor's Lament.
Cynewulf is also an important name from these times. He wrote the
Exeter Book, where Doer's Lament is also written. It is kept in Vercelli
next to Vercelli Book. These two are an example of the work of monks in
the dark ages of England. Cynewulf's four poems are all religious in tone
and celebrating the lives of the saints, and other similar topics.

XX
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

Tow heroic examples are the Battle of Maldon and Beowulf. Battle of
Maldon describes events which are part of the periods memory;
invasions and battles, some historic, some legendary. The poem is set
around the sixth century but probably not written until the eight
century. Beowulf is the first hero in English literature, the man who can
win battles and give safety to his people over long period of time.
Beowulf which is about 3000 lines is a story about a brave young man
from southern Sweden. Beowulf goes to help Hrothgar, king of Danes,
who cannot defend himself or his people against a terrible monster

‫ا‬
called Grendel. One night Beowulf attacks the monster and pulls off his

‫ﻟﻤ‬
arm. Grendel returns to the lake where he lives, but dies there. Beowulf
then is attacked by the mother of the monster and follows her to the
bottom of the lake and kills her too.
Fifty years later, Beowulf has to defend his own people against a dragon
‫ﺘﻘ‬
which breaths fire. Although he kills the dragon, Beowulf dies from an
injury he's got from the battle.
This story is part myth, part history, but the hero is remembered as the
man who can win battles and give safety to his people over long period
‫ﺪﻣ‬
of time.
Prose
The most widely known secular author of Old English was King Alfred the
Great (849–899), who translated several books, many of them religious,
‫ﻮن‬

from Latin into Old English. Alfred, wanting to restore English culture,
lamented the poor state of Latin education: eat (849–899), who
translated several books, many of them religious, from Latin into Old
English. Alfred, wanting to restore English culture, lamented the poor
state of Latin education.
Many of earliest books were histories, rather than imaginative
writings. They give us information about this period. The best known
writer of his time was Bede, who was known as Venerable Bede, was a
monk who lived between 672 and 735.
He wrote many books mostly about the bible, but he was remembered
also for his History of the English church and people written in Latin.

XXI
 ‫تم رفع هذه المادة بواسطة‬

‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬

‫ﻟﻤﺰﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻮاد اﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻤﻴﺔ‬

‫زوروا ﻣﻮﻗﻊ اﻟﻤﺘﻘﺪﻣﻮن‪ ،‬وﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﻘﺪﻣﻮن ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫اﻟﻔﻴﺲ ﺑﻮك‬
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

Bede wrote scientific, historical and theological works, reflecting the

range of his writings from music and metrics to exegetical Scripture
commentaries.
One of the first books of history was The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of annals in Old
English chronicling the history of the Anglo-Saxons. The original
manuscript of the Chronicle was created late in the 9th century,
probably in Wessex, during the reign of Alfred the Great. Multiple copies
were made of that one original and then distributed

‫ا‬
to monasteries across England, where they were independently

‫ﻟﻤ‬
updated. In one case, the Chronicle was still being actively updated in
1154.
The best writer of Old English prose was Aelfric. He wrote Catholic
Homilies and lives of the saints. He used real spoken English, and all the
‫ﺘﻘ‬
features of Old English literature are found in his work. Aelfric is the
greatest figure in Old English prose. He brought excellence of style into
the language and wide knowledge to all his works.
The themes of Old English literature are security, both for the
‫ﺪﻣ‬
individual and society, and in religious faith. This literature gave comfort,
or provided reflection. Usually the poems were sung in the hall of a
castle, and these songs and poems were passed on. Thus, the spoken
tradition led to the first tradition of written literature.
At the same time, Old English was beginning to develop into a different
‫ﻮن‬

language, called Middle English, closer to the English we know today.

Middle English 1150-1485

In the Middle English literature the hero of earlier times now became
the man of romance, as love poetry began to appear more in poetry,
first of all from the south of France. Women began to appear more in
poetry, usually as objects of desire and perfection, but later also as very
human beings with feelings of their own.
The literature of Europe, particularly France and Italy, began to influence
English writers, and there was a clear desire to begin a purely English
XXII
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

tradition in literature and in history. However, wars and tragedies still

took place. There was still to be hundred year's war between France and
England (1337-1453), as well as the wars of roses between the royal
houses of Lancaster and York for the throne of England.
Middle English developed out of Late Old English, seeing many dramatic
changes in its grammar, pronunciation and orthography. Writing
customs during Middle English times varied widely, but by the end of the
period, about 1470, aided by the invention of the printing press, a
standard based on the London dialect (Chancery Standard) had become

‫ا‬
established. This largely forms the basis for Modern English spelling,

‫ﻟﻤ‬
although pronunciation has changed considerably since that time.
Middle English was succeeded in England by the era of Early Modern
English, which lasted until about 1650. By that time, a variant of
the Northumbrian dialect (prevalent in northern England and spoken in
‫ﺘﻘ‬
southeast Scotland) was developing into the Scots language.
During the Middle English period many Old English grammatical features
were simplified or disappeared. This includes the reduction (and
eventual elimination) of most grammatical cases, and the simplification
of noun, adjective and verb inflection. Middle English also saw a mass
‫ﺪﻣ‬
adoption of Norman French vocabulary, especially in areas such as
politics, law, the arts, religion and other courtly language. Everyday
English vocabulary remained mostly Germanic, with Old Norse influence
becoming apparent. Significant changes in pronunciation took place,
‫ﻮن‬

especially in the case of long vowels and diphthongs, which in the later
Middle English period began to undergo the Great Vowel Shift.
Little survives of early Middle English literature, most likely due to the
Norman domination and the prestige that came with writing in French
rather than English. During the 14th century a new style of literature
emerged, with the works of notable writers such as John
Wycliffe and Geoffrey Chaucer, whose Canterbury Tales remains the
most studied and read work of the period. Poets wrote both in the
vernacular and courtly English.
It is popularly believed that William Shakespeare wrote in Middle
English, but he actually wrote in Early Modern English.

XXIII
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

It was a time of historical and mythical poetry, King Arthur myth was a
part of the mythical identity of England. King Arthur was a
legendary British leader who, according to medieval histories
and romances, led the defense of Britain against Saxon invaders in the
late 5th and early 6th centuries AD. The details of Arthur's story are
mainly composed of folklore and literary invention, and his historical
existence is debated and disputed by modern historians. The sparse
historical background of Arthur is gleaned from various sources,
including the Annals, the Historian Brittonum, and the writings of Gildas.
Arthur's name also occurs in early poetic sources such as Y Gododdin.

‫ا‬
‫ﻟﻤ‬
There was also a major text for women, but written by a man, the
Ancrene Riwle or The Ancrene Wisse. Ancrene Wisse is an
anonymous monastic rule (or manual) for anchoresses written in the
early 13th century.
‫ﺘﻘ‬
The work consists of eight parts. Parts 1 and 8 deal with what is called
the "Outer Rule" (relating to the anchoresses' exterior life), while Parts
2–7 deal with the "Inner Rule" (relating to the anchoresses' interior life).
The didactic and devotional material is supplemented by illustrations
and anecdotes, many drawn from everyday life.
‫ﺪﻣ‬
Chaucer
One of the best known names in English literature is Geoffrey Chaucer.
Chaucer is the father of English language, his poems were dream poems.
The house of fame and Canterbury tales are the best series of linked
‫ﻮن‬

stories.
The Canterbury Tale sis a collection of 24 stories that runs to over
17,000 lines written in Middle English by Geoffrey Chaucer. In 1386
Chaucer became Controller of Customs and Justice of Peace and then
three years later in 1389 Clerk of the King's work. It was during these
years that Chaucer began working on his most famous text, The
Canterbury Tales. The tales (mostly written in verse, although some are
in prose) are presented as part of a story-telling contest by a group
of pilgrims as they travel together on a journey from London to
Canterbury in order to visit the shrine of Saint Thomas

XXIV
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

Becket at Canterbury Cathedral. The prize for this contest is a free meal
at the Tabard Inn at Southwark on their return.
Chaucer took the idea of a linked series of stories from the Italian
writings of Boccaccio, but he sets them clearly in the here and now of
late fourteenth-century England. He had planned for one hundred and
twenty stories, but only twenty four of them were written. Many of the
writers of the Middle English period reflect such themes of love and
death, although only Chaucer gives such a wide picture of the society.

‫ا‬
Poetry, Prose and Drama

‫ﻟﻤ‬
Confessio Amantis ("The Lover's Confession") is a 33,000-line Middle
English poem by John Gower, which uses the confession made by an
ageing lover to the chaplain of Venus as a frame story for a collection of
shorter narrative poems. According to its prologue, it was composed at
‫ﺘﻘ‬
the request of Richard II. It stands with the works of Chaucer, Langland,
and the Pearl poet as one of the great works of late 14th-century English
literature. The Index of Middle English Verse shows that in the era
before the printing press it was one of the most-often copied
‫ﺪﻣ‬
manuscripts (59 copies) along with Canterbury Tales and Piers Plowman.
In genre it is usually considered a poem of consolation, a medieval form
inspired by Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy and typified by works
such as Pearl. Despite this, it is more usually studied alongside other tale
‫ﻮن‬

collections with similar structures, such as the Decameron of Boccaccio,

and particularly Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, with which
the Confessio has several stories in common.
Many anonymous texts in Middle English explore the contrasts of
idealism and the new view of human ambition. One of these texts is
Winner and Waister shows even in its title the kind of conflict it
describes. Pearl and Sir Gawain and The Green Night are the best known
of anonymous texts. The first is a dream a father has of his daughter
who died. She is now perfect, in heaven, and the father can see how far
she is from the human level.

XXV

‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

In the days of King Arthur, while he and his knights are celebrating the
New Year, a green knight brings a challenge to the Round Table. One of
the knights must chop off the Green Knight's head with his own ax, only
to have the challenge returned the following year to the day. It
describes how Sir Gawain, a knight of King Arthur's Round Table, accepts
a challenge from a mysterious "Green Knight" who challenges any knight
to strike him with his axe if he will take a return blow in a year and a day.
Gawain accepts and beheads him with his blow, at which the Green
Knight stands up, picks up his head and reminds Gawain of the
appointed time. In his struggles to keep his bargain Gawain

‫ا‬
demonstrates chivalry and loyalty until his honor is called into question

‫ﻟﻤ‬
by a test involving Lady Bertilak, the lady of the Green Knight's castle. Sir
Gawain deceives the Green Knight and so he does not accept the
challenge with true bravery. So Sir Gawain is anti-hero.
‫ﺘﻘ‬
The medieval dramas were set in and around the church at festival
times, and they showed scenes from the Bible for an audience who
perhaps couldn’t understand the Latin of the Bible. The plays were
usually performed on moving carts, by the businessmen of the city, and
the texts which remain are often called by the name of the group of
‫ﺪﻣ‬
businessmen which first performed them(the Fisher and the Mariners)
for example or (hell's mouth).
The major event in literary terms in the fifteenth century was the
inventing of printing, by Gutenberg. the first books to be printed were
‫ﻮن‬

Bibles, but when William Caxton and later his assistant, Wynken de
Worde, brought printing to England in the 1470s, they began to print
literary works, the first of which was a story of King Arthur and the
Knights of the Round Table, called Le Morte d, Arthur by Sir Thomas
Malory, published in 1485.
Lancelot and Guinevere, the search for The Holy Grail, and the myth of
King Arthur from the dark ages, one thousand years before, reached
many new readers in published form, and the consciousness. It is almost
the national myth, and has remained popular until the present day.

XXVI
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

The final figure in the late medieval period is John Skelton, a very
individual poet who wrote short rapid lines of poetry about such
subjects as drinking, alcohol, a pet bird, and low life.

2 The Renaissance 1485-1649

Setting the scene
The Renaissance is a period in Europe, from the 14th to the 17th
century, considered the bridge between the middle Ages and modern

‫ا‬
history. It started as a cultural movement in Italy in the Late Medieval
period and later spread to the rest of Europe, marking the beginning of

‫ﻟﻤ‬
the Early Modern Age.
The Renaissance's intellectual basis was its own invented version
of humanism, derived from the rediscovery of classical Greek
‫ﺘﻘ‬
philosophy, such as that of Protagoras, who said, that "Man is the
measure of all things." This new thinking became manifest in art,
architecture, politics, science and literature. Early examples were the
development of perspective in oil painting and the recycled knowledge
of how to make concrete. Although the invention of metal movable
‫ﺪﻣ‬
type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century, the
changes of the Renaissance were not uniformly experienced across
Europe.
In England where was as important change in religion and politics when
‫ﻮن‬

King Henry VIII made himself the head of the church on England,
bringing church and state together.
After his death, Queen Elizabeth, daughter of the dead king, became the
symbol of the Golden Age, the period from 1558 to 1603. England's
enemies, Spain in particular, were defeated, and the English controlled
the seas of the world, exploring and bringing valuable goods from the
New World. England became the main city of the known world. And
English, in the hands of writers like Shakespeare, became the modern
language we can recognize today. The invention of printing meant that
all kinds of writing were open to anyone who can read. Mane new forms
of writing developed. But the most important form of expression was

XXVII
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

the theatre. This was the age of Shakespeare, and the Golden Age of
English Drama.
William Shakespeare (1564-1616)
The most famous line in all English literature is probably from Hamlet
(1600).
To be or not to be, that is the question
The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, often shortened to Hamlet,
it is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare at an uncertain date

‫ا‬
between 1599 and 1602. Set in the Kingdom of Denmark, the play

‫ﻟﻤ‬
dramatizes the revenge Prince Hamlet is called to wreak upon his
uncle, Claudius, by the ghost of Hamlet's father, King Hamlet. Claudius
had murdered his own brother and seized the throne, also marrying his
deceased brother's widow. Hamlet is Shakespeare's longest play, and is
ranked among the most powerful and influential tragedies in English
‫ﺘﻘ‬
literature, with a story capable of "seemingly endless retelling and
adaptation by others". The play likely was one of Shakespeare's most
popular works during his lifetime, and still ranks among his most
performed, topping the performance list of the Royal Shakespeare
‫ﺪﻣ‬
Company and its predecessors in Stratford-upon-Avon since 1879. It has
inspired many other writers – from Johann Wolfgang von
Goethe and Charles Dickens to James Joyce and Iris Murdoch – and has
been described as "the world's most filmed story after Cinderella".
‫ﻮن‬

William Shakespeare was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely

regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's
pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's national, and the
"Bard of Avon". His extant works, including collaborations, consist of
approximately 38 plays, 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a
few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been
translated into every major living language and are performed more
often than those of any other playwright.
History and roman plays
In the First Folio, the plays of William Shakespeare were grouped into
three categories: comedies, histories, and tragedies. The histories help

XXVIII
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

define the genre of history plays, along with other contemporary

renaissance playwrights. The histories might be more accurately called
the "English history plays" and include the outliers King John and Henry
VIII as well as a continuous sequence of eight plays covering the Wars of
the Roses. These last are considered to have been composed in two
cycles. The so-called first tetralogy, apparently written in the early
1590s, deals with the later part of the struggle and includes Henry VI,
parts one, two & three and Richard III. The second tetralogy, finished in
1599 and including Richard II, Henry IV, Part 1, Henry IV, Part
2 and Henry V, is frequently called the Henriad after its

‫ا‬
protagonist Prince Hal, the future Henry.

‫ﻟﻤ‬
The folio's classifications are not unproblematic. Besides proposing other
categories such as romances and problem plays, many modern studies
treat the histories together with those tragedies that feature historical
‫ﺘﻘ‬
characters. These include Macbeth, set in the mid-11th century during
the reigns of Duncan I of Scotland and Edward the Confessor, and also
the Roman plays Coriolanus, Julius Caesar, Antony and Cleopatra and the
legendary King Lear.
Soliloquies and structure
‫ﺪﻣ‬
Of course, not all the heroes are good men. The opening words of
Richard III present the evil Richard. He is the Shakespearian character
most often describes as Machiavellian, meaning someone who tricks and
divvies others, after the Italian Renaissance political writer Machiavelli,
‫ﻮن‬

whose works were always regarded with disapproval in England,

Richard, as a wicked man, immediately shows his character to the
audience by commenting on his enemy, his elder brother, the Duke of
York, who is now King Edward IV.
A soliloquy is a device often used in drama when a character speaks to
him or her, relating thoughts and feelings, thereby also sharing them
with the audience, giving off the illusion of being a series of unspoken
reflections. If other characters are present, they keep silent and/or are
disregarded by the speaker.

XXIX
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

The term soliloquy is distinct from a monologue or an aside: a

monologue is a speech where one character addresses other characters;
an aside is a (usually short) comment by one character towards the
audience, though during the play it may seem like the character is
addressing him or herself.
Soliloquies were frequently used in dramas but went out of fashion
when drama shifted towards realism in the late 18th century.
The first theater in London was built in 1576, to Shakespeare's own
Globe in the 1590s, had a thrust stage, and many of the audience stood

‫ا‬
around the stage. They paid one penny to see the play. Others paid

‫ﻟﻤ‬
more to sit is the rows looking over the heads of the audience to the
stage. All the audience was very near to the actors.
Shakespeare plays were written to be performed; he didn’t intend them
to be published.
‫ﺘﻘ‬
The Tragedies
‫ﺪﻣ‬
Tragedy
Is a form of drama based on human suffering that invokes an
accompanying catharsis or pleasure in audiences? While
many cultures have developed forms that provoke
this paradoxical response, the term tragedy often refers to a
‫ﻮن‬

specific tradition of drama that has played a unique and important role
historically in the self-definition of Western civilization. That tradition
has been multiple and discontinuous, yet the term has often been used
to invoke a powerful effect of cultural identity and historical continuity—
"the Greeks and the Elizabethans, in one cultural
form; Hellenes and Christians, in a common activity," as Raymond
Williams puts it.
From its origins in the theatre of ancient Greece 2500 years ago, from
which there survives only a fraction of the work of Aeschylus,
Sophocles and Euripides; through its singular articulations in the works

XXX
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

of Shakespeare, Lope de Vega, Jean Racine, and Friedrich Schiller to the

more recent naturalistic tragedy of August Strindberg; Samuel
Beckett's modernist meditations on death, loss and
suffering; Müller's postmodernist reworking of the tragic canon;
and Joshua Oppenheimer's incorporation of tragic pathos in his
nonfiction film, The Act of Killing (2012), tragedy has remained an
important site of cultural experimentation, negotiation, struggle, and
change.
In the wake of Aristotle's Poetics (335 BCE), tragedy has been used to

‫ا‬
make genre distinctions, whether at the scale of poetry in general

‫ﻟﻤ‬
(where the tragic divides against epic and lyric) or at the scale of the
drama (where tragedy is opposed to comedy). In the modern era,
tragedy has also been defined against drama, melodrama, the tragicomic
and epic theatre. Drama, in the narrow sense, cuts across the traditional
‫ﺘﻘ‬
division between comedy and tragedy in an anti- or a-
generic reterritorialization from themid-19th century onwards.
Both Berthold Brecht and Augusto Boal define their epic theatre projects
against models of tragedy. Tuxedo, however, reads epic theatre as an
incorporation of tragic functions and its treatments of mourning and
‫ﺪﻣ‬
speculation.

‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ هﺬﻩ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

‫ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬
‫ﻮن‬

‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬
‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬

The Difference between Greek and English Tragedies

We notice the following differences between the tragedies by the Greek
playwrights and those written by English playwrights:
1. Greek tragedies focused on a single theme and plot. English tragedies,
on the other hand, have several story lines developing into plots and
sub-plot.

XXXI
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

2. Greek tragedies depicted “great” characters in their tragedies who

were mortals but equal to gods and goddesses in their significance.
Heroes of English tragedy may come from all walks of life.
3. Greek tragedies had a serious subject matter that was treated in a
most dignified manner. English tragedies, on the other hand, tend to mix
tragic with comic. Modern playwrights argue that such depiction is
nearer to life as our life is a mixture of good and bad fortunes.
4. The performance of a Greek tragedy was a religious affair while
English tragedies may intend to instruct or touch upon a religious or

‫ا‬
ethical issue but their main objective is to entertain.

‫ﻟﻤ‬
Christopher Marlowe (1564-93) and Ben Jonson (1572-1673)
The Golden Age of English Drama produced a great many plays and
playwrights. Marlowe and Jonson are the two whose names are most
closely connected with Shakespeare.
‫ﺘﻘ‬
Poetry from Renaissance to Metaphysical
It began at the 16th century influenced by the Italian Renaissance. The
most famous influence is the sonnet, which was invented by the Italian
‫ﺪﻣ‬
poet Petrarch. Sir Thomas Wyatt has written the first sonnet in English
language and the sonnet is a form of poetry that is made from 14 lines
divided to octave and sestet. The first eight is called octave, the last six is
called sestet.
It was developed by Henry Howard, the earl of Surry. The common
‫ﻮن‬

rhyme in English is (ababcdcdefefgg).

Shakespeare wrote 154 sonnets about many subjects such as love and
loss, loneliness and change, usually containing a dark lady and fair man
who could be seen as male and female ideas of love, showing that
women are bad and men are fair.
Sir Philip Sidney was the first major poet of renaissance in many ways;
he was the ideal of renaissance figure. The three qualities of renaissance
poetry are the solder, a man of learning and a romantic lover.

XXXII
 ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬: ‫ﺗﻢ رﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬

In the rest of seventeenth century there were many poets who are
grouped with Donne and Herbert as metaphysical, but each of them is
very different.

‫ا‬
‫ﻟﻤ‬
‫ﺘﻘ‬
‫ﺪﻣ‬
X
Mohammed Dabous
‫ﻮن‬

st;120152794

XXXIII
 ‫تم رفع هذه المادة بواسطة‬

‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬ ‫ﺻﺒﺎح ﻗﺮﻳﺒﻪ‬

‫ﻟﻤﺰﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻮاد اﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻤﻴﺔ‬

‫زوروا ﻣﻮﻗﻊ اﻟﻤﺘﻘﺪﻣﻮن‪ ،‬وﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﻘﺪﻣﻮن ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫اﻟﻔﻴﺲ ﺑﻮك‬