Revitalising Indigenous Names in Balancing Environmental Science A Case of Ignored Names of Places in Rusitu Valley

DZIMBAHWE JOURNAL OF
MULTIDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH
2023
© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

ISSN 2518 - 4334
EDITORIAL PAGE
Editor-in-Chief Prof V. Z. Nyawo (Management)

Co-Editors Prof M. Musengi (Content)
Dr S. Naidoo (Language)
Text Formatier Dr C. P Mudzengi (Structure)
Consulting Editors
Prof J. Gwamuri GZU
Prof M. Manyanga GZU
Prof J. Mufunda GZU
Prof B. Chazovachii GZU
Dr L. Chimwai GZU
Dr X. Poshiwa GZU
Prof M. Mawere GZU
Prof P Gwirayi GZU
Dr L. Chapungu UNISA
Dr I. Nyambiya GZU
Dr T. Maravanyika GZU
Dr H. Hogo GZU
Dr. U. Saidi MSU
Advisory Board
Prof M. J. Chimbari GZU
Prof G. Pwiti UP

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Disclaimer
Opinions expressed in the journal are those of the authors, and not necessarily the Editorial
Board or publisher. The journal does not guarantee the appropriateness, for any purpose, of any
method, product, process or device described or identified in an article. Ultimate responsibility
in interpretation of published material lies with the authors concerned. Neither the Editorial
Board nor the publishers can accept any liability whatsoever in respect of a claim for damages
arising from any publication.
Publisher
Great Zimbabwe University

Off Old Great Zimbabwe Monument Road
P. O. Box 1235
Masvingo
Zimbabwe
Contact details
Telephone: +263 392 266841

E-mail: dzimbahwe@gzu.ac.zw
Journal URL: ir.gzu.ac.zw
Website: www.gzu.ac.zw

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Table of Contents
EDITORIAL .............................................................................................................................. 6
A Critical Examination of the Realisation of the Right to Mental Health for Children with
Mental Disabilities in Zimbabwe. .............................................................................................. 9
Musebenzi Douglas ................................................................................................................ 9
A World in Flux: Options for Africa ....................................................................................... 28
Shuvai Wutawunashe ........................................................................................................... 28
Revitalising Indigenous Names in Balancing Environmental Science: A Case of Ignored
Names of Places in Rusitu Valley ............................................................................................ 52
Matsapa Wiseman ................................................................................................................ 52
Labour Brokering as a Corporate Strategy for Sustaining Joblessness in Zimbabwe’s Mining
Sector ....................................................................................................................................... 73
Kajongwe C .......................................................................................................................... 73
Goat marketing challenges for smallholder communal farmers: The case of Beitbridge,
Matabeleland South Province, Zimbabwe ............................................................................... 87
Mutimukuru-Maravanyika, T1 and Chimwai, L2 ................................................................. 87
A Review on the Invasiveness, Uses and Opportunities of Rusakadzi (Helichrysum kraussii)
in Zimbabwe. ......................................................................................................................... 117
Charakupa Takudzwa LeeMarvin1; Mudzengi Clarice Princess1; Poshiwa Xavier1;
Clapperton Chakanetsa Mavhunga2. .................................................................................. 117
A mini-review of conservation challenges and sustainable use of Lippia javanica (Zumbani):
A case of developing countries .............................................................................................. 133
Sawunyama Lawrence........................................................................................................ 133
Potential of Bambara groundnut in improving food and nutritional security: A review ....... 145
Faith M Ruzengwe ............................................................................................................. 145
Diamond in the Dirt: Repositioning the Teaching and Learning of Music Theory in
Secondary Schools in Zimbabwe ........................................................................................... 156
Praise Zinhuku.................................................................................................................... 156
A study of the impact of sound checking in Sungura live performances in Harare .............. 169
Chimbudzi Weston and Muranda Richard ......................................................................... 169
EDITORIAL POLICY ........................................................................................................... 183

ISSN 2518 - 4334
5

ISSN 2518 - 4334
EDITORIAL
We welcome Dzimbahwe Journal of Multi-Disciplinary Research Volume 4 Issue 1 of 2023.

We bemoan unforeseen publication challenges that the host of this journal, the Research and
Postgraduate Studies Department continue to face in the production of the journal. This
volume, meant for December 2023, was slightly delayed, but we celebrate its eventual
arrival. This particular volume follows the Dzimbahwe Journal of Multi-Disciplinary
Research Volume 3, Issue 1 of 2022. We would want to assure contributors that there shall be
a publication annually, prospective contributors should look out for the 2024 Dzimbahwe call
on the GZU website. Journal operations have been revised to align with the contemporary
Heritage based Education 5.0, a renewed shift from Education 3.0 that previously drove
Zimbabwean education. This is a second issue after the journal became an online journal. The
revamped editorial policy, editorial board and University publications policy come with a
promise of rigour, efficiency, compliance and relevance.
This issue contains ten articles which are coming from GZU faculty and beyond. To start the
ball rolling Musebenzi Douglas’s article ‘A Critical Examnation of the Realisation of the
Right to Mental Health for Children with Mental Disabilities in Zimbabwe’ evaluated
Zimbabwe’s current legal frameworks that are in place for the realisation of the right to
mental health for children living with mental disabilities. This article also interrogated the
international and regional instruments that promote the right to mental health observing that
mental health has fallen down the importance list in Zimbabwe as; cancer, COVID 19 and the
AIDS menace have taken precedence and higher consideration. Shuvai Wutawunashe in ‘A
World in Flux: Options for Africa’ comes to contribute options for the repositioning of Africa
to end its marginalisation and underdevelopment against the backdrop of a changing world
order. She observes that Africa is widely perceived as a stepchild of global diplomacy,
always on the fringes of benefits and marginalised at diplomacy’s top table despite numerous
efforts to reverse the trend.

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Wiseman Nyakatsapa with his ‘Revitalising Indigenous Names in Balancing Environmental
Science: A Case of Ignored Names of Places in Rusitu Valley’examined how narrow options
for survival and challenges in the Rusitu Valley have continued to expose the vulnerable
Ndau community to a direct conflict with nature. The study employed the re-imagination of
nature theory as a lens in revitalizing indigenous names of places that have been ignored by
the Ndau community. Kajongwe C, writing on ‘Labour Brokering as a Corporate Strategy for
Sustaining Joblessness in Zimbabwe’s Mining Sector showed that in the mining industry, the
labour broker acts as a catalyst for workers who are absent for short periods of time due to
illness, maternity leave, or other reasons. The research observed that mining firms regularly
employ recruitment agencies like FC Platinum Labour Brokers to acquire cutting-edge know-
how and expertise. Findings suggested that brokers were employed by mining corporations to
reduce the potential for human mistake and danger while also overcoming inefficiencies and
risks.
Mutimukuru-Maravanyika Tendai and Chimwai Ledwin in ‘Goat marketing challenges for

smallholder communal farmers: The case of Beitbridge, Matabeleland South Province,
Zimbabwe’ note that goats contribute to household food, nutritional security and household
income. This study investigated the challenges that smallholder farmers faced in the
marketing of goats in Beitbridge District in Matabeleland South. The study revealed that
despite positive developments such as the introduction of goat auctions, small farmers in
Beitbridge continue to face a plethora of challenges including: lack of feed; failure to access
external markets; loss of livestock due to theft and predators; and low market prices for goats.
Charakupa Takudzwa LeeMarvin, Mudzengi Clarice Princess, Poshiwa Xavier and
Clapperton Chakanetsa Mavhunga in their ‘A Review on the Invasiveness, Uses and
Opportunities of Rusakadzi (Helichrysum kraussii) in Zimbabwe’ observe that livestock
based livelihoods of most semi-arid areas are mainly dependent on rangelands for animal
nutrition. However, invasive species such as Helichrysum kraussii reduce rangeland
productivity. The aim of this study was to review invasiveness, uses and opportunities
associated with Helichrysum kraussii. Sawunyama Lawrence with ‘A mini-review of
conservation challenges and sustainable use of Lippia javanica (Zumbani): A case of
developing countries’ sets out to close a knowledge gap about Lippia javanica. The current
research assumed that overexploitation of L. javanica is occurring as a result of unsustainable
harvesting practices, habitat damage, and climate change. This review examined the use of
Lippia javanica in developing nations using reputable academic sources like Google Scholar,
Web of Science, Scopus, and ScienceDirect. Based on current information, L. javanica is
7

ISSN 2518 - 4334
used as a preservative, food source, insecticide, acaricide, remedy for food poisoning,
healthcare medicine, security measure, and a host of other applications.
Ruzengwe Faith in ‘Potential of Bambara groundnut in improving food and nutritional security:
A review’ evaluated the potential of Bambara groundnut in improving food and nutritional
security in Sub- Saharan Africa addressing issues of malnutrition. Bambara groundnut
contains protein (19 - 25%), fat (4.5 - 7.4%), ash (3.2 - 4.4%), carbohydrate (49.0 – 63.5%),
fibre (6.4%) and minerals (magnesium, zinc, iron and potassium). Ripe seeds of Bambara
groundnut can be milled into a flour that can be used to make biscuits and/or otherwise mixed
with cereals and boiled to make porridge. The flour has also shown potential as a composite
in bread production
Zinhuku Praise with ‘Diamond in the Dirt: Repositioning the Teaching and Learning of Music
Theory in Secondary Schools in Zimbabwe’ claims that the teaching and learning of the
theory of music in Zimbabwe is ineffective, yet it is the backbone of music studies. This
study therefore sought to critically explore challenges affecting the teaching and learning of
the theory of music and explicate how these challenges hinder the successful acquisition of
music education. Chimbudzi Weston and Muranda Richard with their ‘A study of the impact
of sound checking in Sungura live performances in Harare’ ooked at preparations by
musicians and sound engineers before and during performance events. Live events require
ample time to set up equipment and to do sound check to ensure efficiency. Costs for
equipment hire force organisers to put little attention to sound check. Sound check enables
performers to work and interact with sound engineers.

ISSN 2518 - 4334
A Critical Examination of the Realisation of the Right to Mental Health for Children with
Mental Disabilities in Zimbabwe
Musebenzi Douglas
Herbert Chitepo Law School, Great Zimbabwe University. P O Box 1235, Masvingo,
Zimbabwe.
Corresponding author: Musebenzi Douglas
Abstract
Mental health has fallen down the importance list in Zimbabwe as; cancer, COVID 19 and the
AIDS menace have taken precedence and higher consideration. This is despite the fact that the
Ministry of Health and Child Care had launched a Mental Health strategy to cover the period
2019- 2023. With the advent of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities in 2006, the space of disabilities has expanded to embrace persons with mental or
intellectual impairments. Despite the widespread ratification of the Convention on the Rights
of the Child (CRC) and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD); the
rights of children with disabilities all over the world are constantly threatened with challenges
that compromise the realisation of fundamental human rights. This article evaluated
Zimbabwe’s current legal frameworks that are in place for the realisation of the right to mental
health for children living with mental disabilities. This article also interrogated the international
and regional instruments that promote the right to mental health. A doctrinal research approach
was carried out on the international, regional and national legal instruments on the right to
mental health for children living with mental disabilities. A comparative analysis of Zimbabwe
and South Africa’s legal frameworks on mental health was also examined. The international
and regional human rights instruments advocated a move away from an illness model towards
a disability model targeted at understanding the consequences of mental illnesses. It was noted
that national mental health legislative framework should provide a legal framework to address
appropriate issues such as the integration of persons with mental disorders in communities and
the improvement of access to mental health care services for persons with disabilities to avoid
discrimination. It was noted that there was need for a substantial increase in funding for mental
health care services to enhance accessibility and quality service in the realization of the right
to metal health for children with disabilities.
Key words: mental health, human rights, rehabilitation, health care centres, legal instruments,
Mental Health Act
Introduction

ISSN 2518 - 4334
The right to health is one of the essential rights that are protected in international and regional
human rights instruments.1The dictum “there can be no health without mental health” has been
widely used as a tag in issues related to mental health.2Persons with mental health disabilities
are exposed to a wide-ranging range of human rights violations, which could occur inside
institutions and through inadequate care and treatment. Mental health, though misunderstood
as a medical issue, is a matter of human rights.3 Human rights violations in mental health care
have been repeatedly identified as a global emergency.4Mental health is one of the most
neglected areas of health policy and programming in the world.5Mental health is a priority on
paper but not in practice.6As of 2020, close to 1 billion people were living with mental
disorders.7 Globally, an estimated 10 to 20% of children are affected by mental health
problems.8The interdependence of human rights and mental health and the vulnerability and
marginalization of persons with mental disabilities has been emphasized by the Special
Rapporteurs of “the Right to Health from 2003”.9 The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),
adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015, included the promotion of mental
health on the global development agenda.10 This has culminated in the better recognition and
appreciation of mental health related issues. Mental health is coming out from the obscurities
and global reports have identified mental health as a global priority.11
While mental health has become a national health priority in some countries, it is still an
ignored issue in most African countries.12In fact, 64 per cent of African countries do not have
any mental health legislation or fail to adequately promote the rights of persons with mental
1
Durojaye,E ‘An analysis of the contribution of the African human rights system to the understanding of the
right to health’ (2021) 21African Human Rights Law Journal p751
2
Sanskriti, S & Jaswal,R,T Of Promises and Discontents: Mapping India’s Response to Guaranteeing the Right to
Mental Health during the Covid-19 Pandemic (2022) Asian Journal of International Law Vol 12 p131
3
Note 2 p121
4
McTavish, J.R etal, Child Maltreatment and Intimate Partner Violence in Mental Health Settings. International
Journal Environment. Research and Public Health 2022, 19,15672.https://doi.org/10.3390/
ijerph192315672(Date accessed 6 May 2023)
5
Yamin AE, Rosenthal E (2005) Out of the shadows: Using human rights approaches to secure dignity and well-
being for people with mental disabilities. PLoS Med Vol 2 e71 p0296
6
Mahomed, F & Michael Ashley Stein, M,A, De-stigmatising Psychosocial Disability in South Africa (2017),
African Disability Rights Year Book,, Pretoria University Law Press p72
7
Note 2 p121
8
Crystal Amiel Estrada,C,A etal Current situation and challenges for mental health focused on treatment and
care in Japan and the Philippines - highlights of the training program by the National Center for Global Health
and Medicine (2020) BMC Proceedings Vol 14 p2
9
Note 2 p126
10
Brown,S & Macnaughton,G & Sprague,C A Right-to-Health Lens on Perinatal Mental Health Care in South Africa
(2020) Health and Human Rights Journal Vol 22 p126
11
Artin A. etal (2023) Human rights in mental healthcare; A review of current global situation, International
Review of Psychiatry, 35:2, 150-162, DOI: 10.1080/09540261.2022.2027348(Date accessed 7 May 2023)
12
Genga,S & du Plessis, M ,A. Critical Analysis of the Duty to Provide Reasonable Accommodation for Employees
with Psychosocial Conditions as an Employment Anti-Discrimination obligation: A Case Study of Kenya’s Legal
Framework (2022), African Disability Rights Year Book,, Pretoria University Law Press p18
10

ISSN 2518 - 4334
illnesses.13 Misconceptions about mental health conditions, including the misunderstanding
that they are caused by evil or supernatural forces, often prompt parents or relatives to take
persons with mental health issues to religious or other healing places other than hospitals.14
Mental health has a symbiotic relationship with the protection and promotion of human rights.
It can be validly submitted that human rights and mental health are closely connected to each
other. People with mental health challenges suffer from severe personal distress, stigmatisation
and marginalisation.15
In Zimbabwe, mental health remains a public health concern that has been exacerbated by the
prevailing socioeconomic challenges bedevilling the country.16 Notwithstanding the efforts
Zimbabwe has made to promote its goals for mental health programs, the system faces limited
material and human resources, lack of collaboration in service provision and compromised
rehabilitation services.17 In Zimbabwe, as in many other countries, there is limited
understanding of mental health.18 Mental health equity for children is the foundation for the
future.19 The importance of mental health in children is highlighted by recent increases in
children with disruptive behaviour being excluded from schools and suicides and incidences of
self-harm among children.20This paper examined the international and regional instruments on
mental health. The paper also explored Zimbabwe and South Africa’s national legislation on
mental health. Challenges of mental health and rehabilitation were also be discussed in this
paper. Recommendations on law reform and best practice for rehabilitation of persons with
mental disabilities were proffered.
International Instruments Regulating Mental Health

World Health Organisation (WHO)
WHO has defined mental health as the state of physical, mental and social well-being and not
merely the absence of disease or infirmity.21Mental health or psychological wellbeing makes
13
Ibid
14
Uzoma,P.O & Chuma-Umeh,N, Imperatives of Securing equitable access to healthcare services for persons
with disabilities (2022), African Disability Rights Year Book, Pretoria University Law Press p57
15
Swanepoel, M Human Rights that influence the Mentally ill patient in South African Medical Law: A Discussion
of sections 9; 27; 30 and 31 of the Constitution (2011) PER / PELJ Vol 14 p1
16
Mlambo,T etal Mental Health Services in Zimbabwe – A case of Zimbabwe National Association of Mental
Health (2014) WFOT Bulletin Vol 70 p18
17
Ibid
18
Chinoda S et al (2020).Effectiveness of a peer-led adolescent mental health intervention on HIV Virological
Suppression and mental health in Zimbabwe: protocol of a cluster-randomised trial. Global
Mental Health 7, e23, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1017/gmh.2020.14 (Date accessed 9 May 2023)
19
Bonati, M etal Inequalities in the Universal Right to Health. International Journal of Environmental Research
and Public Health 2021, 18, 2844. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18062844 (Date accessed 7 May 2023)
20
Mary Atkinson and Garry Hornby Mental Health Handbook for Schools (2005) Routledge Falmer New York p3
21
Oduwole,J and Akintayo, A ‘The rights to life, health and development: The Ebola virus and Nigeria’ (2017) 17
African Human Rights Law Journal 201 http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/1996-2096/2017/v17n1a9(Date accessed 9
May 2023)
11

ISSN 2518 - 4334
up an essential part of an individual’s capacity to lead a fulfilling and worthwhile life.22Mental
health is also defined as the absence of mental illness or a mental state which contributes to an
individual’s ability to function in their environment by taking into consideration emotional,
psychological, and social well-being.23 It is also noted that there is no health without mental
health.24 This suggests that mental health is a critical component in the well-being of an
individual yet it is neglected by many countries. Mental health is paramount in the overall
health status of an individual. It is difficult to mention health without mental health. One in
five people at the workplace experience a mental health condition or mental illness
worldwide.25There has been a high prevalence of mental illness across the globe and yet mental
health is not given a priority in many countries worldwide. WHO launched a Special Initiative
to advance mental health policies, advocacy, and human rights and to scale up access to quality
and affordable care for people living with mental health conditions.26This demonstrates
WHO’s commitment on the protection and promotion of mental health. Mental health forms
the key to WHO’s day to day activities.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)

The prominence of mental health as a human rights concern has been growing steadily in
international fora.27The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) provided a
foundation for the human rights movement.28Though the UDHR makes no express reference
to mental health, Article 25, recognizes “the right to a standard of living adequate for health
and well-being.29 The approach of the Universal Declaration suggests that the right to health is
a composite that includes food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social
services.30 The gradual acknowledgement of mental health as a human rights concern has led
to the formal recognition of the applicability of the “respect-protect-fulfil” framework to
22
Chitereka ,C and Takaza, S (2020) Promoting Psychosocial Support for Women Living with Mental Illness in
Zimbabwe: The Role of Social Work Afro Asian Journal of Social Sciences Vol p3
23
Benjamin, Fatiema,B "Parental Understanding of Mental Health in Early Childhood Development: A Human
Capabilities Approach," (2022) Journal of Family Strengths: Vol. 21 phttps://digitalcommons.library.tmc.e
du/jfs/vol21/iss2/6 (Date accessed 7 May 2023)
24
Yao et al. Population mental health matters child health disparity: a national level analysis (2022) BMC Public
Health (2022) 22:2372https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-14530-w (Date accessed 9 May 2023)
25
Note 13 p18
26
Kemp C,G, et al. (2022) Baseline situational analysis in Bangladesh, Jordan, Paraguay, the Philippines, Ukraine,
and Zimbabwe for the WHO Special Initiative for Mental Health: Universal Health Coverage for Mental Health.
PLoS ONE Vol 17(3): e0265570. https://doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pone.0265570 (Date accessed 9 May 2023)
27
Note 3 p123
28
Twinomugisha,B,K ‘Using the right to health framework to tackle non-communicable diseases in the era of
neo-liberalism in Uganda’(2020) 20 African Human Rights Law Journal p153 http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/1996-
2096/2020/v20n1a6 (Date accessed 9 May 2023)
29
Article 25 of UDHR
30
Nyane,H ‘The interface between the right to life and the right to health in Lesotho: Can the right to health be
enforced through the right to life?’ (2022) 22 African Human Rights Law Journal 278
http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/1996-2096/2022/v22n1a11(Date accessed 9 May 2023)
12

ISSN 2518 - 4334
persons with mental health conditions.31 The UDHR therefore informs other international legal
frameworks on the importance of mental health in the well-being of a person.
International Covenant of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

Article 12 (1) of the Covenant of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) enshrines
the right of all people including children to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of
physical and mental health.32 ICESCR provides for state parties to take steps, to maximise
available resources so as -to progressively realize the right to health.33ICESR emphasises the
progressive realisation of the right to health inclusive of the right to mental health. According
to General Comment 5, provisions of article 12 of the ICESCR were interpreted as being
applicable to people with mental and physical disabilities.34Article 12 of ICESCR provides for
the universal right of ‘everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical
and mental health.35 General Comment 14 of ICESCR states that the right to health is an
inclusive right to timely and appropriate health care and the underlying determinants of
health.36 Whereas mental health is specifically referenced as a human right in the ICESCR, the
specificities of mental healthcare are absent.37
United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child

The rights enshrined in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC)
apply to all children, regardless of their status, and that they must be protected from
discrimination. 38 Article 24 of the UNCRC stipulates the child’s right to enjoy the highest
attainable standard of health and facilities for the treatment of illness and rehabilitation of
health.39 Article 6 (2) of the UNCRC provides that States Parties shall ensure to the maximum
extent possible the survival and development of the child.40 The right to survival and
development encompasses the right to mental health. Article 25 of the UNCRC stipulates that
States Parties must recognise the right to mental health for a child who has been placed by the
competent authorities for the purposes of care, protection or treatment.41Article 27(1) of
UNCRC articulates the right of every child to a standard of living adequate for the child’s
physical, mental, spiritual, moral and social development.42 It is noted that Article 39 of
31
Ibid
32
Article 12(1) of International Covenant of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
33
Note 11 p127
34
General Comment 5, provisions of article 12 of the ICESCR
35
Olumese,O ‘Duty without liability: The impact of article 12 of the International Covenant, on Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights on the right to health care in Nigeria ’ (2021) 21 African Human Rights Law Journal p1118
36
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No. 14: The Right to the Highest
Attainable Standard of Health, UN Doc. E/C.12/2000/4 (2000). Para 11
37
Note 28 p438
38
Article 2 of the UNCRC
39
Art 24 of the UNCRC
40
Art 6(2) of the UNCRC
41
Art 25 of the UNCRC
42
Art 27(1) of the UNCRC
13

ISSN 2518 - 4334
UNCRC specifically stipulates that parties shall take all appropriate measures to promote
physical and psychological recovery of a child and such recovery shall take place in an
environment which fosters the health and dignity of the child.43 The UNCRC provides for the
right to mental health for children.
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD)

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) defines
people with disabilities as inclusive of those who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual
or sensory impairments which may hinder their full and effective participation in society on an
equal basis with others.44 The UNCRPD, by comparison, starts from the premise that people
with disabilities, including those with mental disabilities, have the same human rights as
everyone else in society.45 Persons with disabilities have the same protection and are equal
before the law with their counterparts. Article 25 of the UNCRPD, on the right to health,
reaffirms the right of all persons with disabilities, including children, to the enjoyment of the
highest attainable standard of health without discrimination.46 UNCRPD creates a new
paradigm for mental health law, moving from a focus on institutional care to a focus on
community-based services and treatment.47 This is a milestone in the promotion of the right to
mental health for children with disabilities. Article 9 of the UNCRPD, provides for appropriate
measures to be taken to ensure that PWDs have equal access to the physical environment,
transportation, information, communication technologies and other services accessible to the
public.48
The Committee has also developed a General Comment on article 12 on equal recognition
before the law, which has significant implications for mental health care. 49 The General
Comment states that ‘forced treatment by psychiatric and other health and medical
professionals is a violation of the right to equal recognition before the law’, 50Mental health
laws that permit forced treatment are identified as falling under substitute decision-making
regimes.51 Mental health detention, which by definition is premised on apparent psychosocial
43
Art 39 provides that:
“States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to promote physical and psychological recovery and social
reintegration of a child victim of any form of neglect, exploitation, or abuse; torture or any other form of cruel,
inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment; or armed conflict. Such recovery and reintegration shall take
place in an environment which fosters the health, self-respect and dignity of the child”
44
Article 1 of UNCRPD
45
Bartlett et al. Mental health law in the community: thinking about Africa (2011) International Journal of Mental
Health Systems 2011, Vol 5 p4 http://www.ijmhs.com/content/5/1/21
46
Article 25 of the CRPD
47
Ibid
48
Article 9 of CRPD
49
CRPD Committee General Comment 1: Article 12: Equal recognition before the law para 41&42
50
Kamundia, E The right to the Highest attainable standard of mental health in selected African Countries: A
Commentary on how selected mental health Law fare against article 25 of the Convention on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities (2017), African Disability Rights Year Book,, Pretoria University Law Press p185
51
Ibid
14

ISSN 2518 - 4334
disability or a psychiatric diagnosis, can never be disability-neutral and, therefore, always
violates article 14(1) of CRPD.52It is therefore prudent to note that the UNCRPD propounds
for the deinstitutionalisation of centres which treat persons with mental disabilities and
advocates for the establishment of community based services.
Regional Instruments
The African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (African Charter)
Article 16 of the African Charter recognises the right to the highest attainable state of physical
and mental health.53 The African Charter recognises the right to health as the right of every
individual ‘to enjoy the best attainable state of physical and mental health.54 Article 16 of the
African Charter, which guarantees ‘the right to enjoy the best attainable state of physical and
mental health,55 is often reduced to a mere dream by many African countries.56 UN Special
Rapporteur on the Right to Health seems to have resonated the position of the African
Commission in Purohit by noting that states should pay attention to mental health as a human
rights imperative.57The Commission acknowledged that the right to appeal involuntary
detention was important for the protection of the dignity of persons with psychosocial
disabilities.58 Gambia was urged to repeal- the Lunatics Detention Act with new mental health
legislation that aligns with the African Charter and that are; provided for the medical and
material wellbeing of institutionalised Gambians.59 The African Commission in Purohit v The
Gambia case 60not only recognised the torture and inhuman treatment but also highlighted the
extent to which mental health need were generally neglected.61 States are obliged to make full
use of their available resources, towards the full realization of the right to health 62 with the
inclusion of mental health. A number of states in Africa, inclusive of Zimbabwe are still
dragging behind the promotion of the realisation of the right to mental health for children with
52
Combrinck,H Rather Bad than Mad ?A reconsidered of criminal in capacity and psychosocial disability in South
African Law in Light of the Convention on the rights of Persons with Disabilities (2018), African Disability Rights
Year Book, Pretoria University Law Press p14
53
Article 16 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights
54
Kruger,P & Karim ,S,A‘Responsiveness of the African Continental Free Trade
Agreement to diet-related non-communicable diseases: A human rights analysis’ (2022) 22
African Human Rights Law Journal p35 http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/1996-2096/2022/v22n1a2(Date accessed 9
May 2023)
55
Article 16 of the African Charter
56
Balogun,V & Durojaye,E The African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights and the promotion and
protection of sexual and reproductive rights (2011) African Human Rights Law Journal Vol 11 p380
57
Note 2 p776
58
Purohit and Another v Gambia, (2003) AHRLR 96 (ACHPR 2003).
59
Okoloise,C ‘Circumventing obstacles to the implementation of recommendations by the
African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights’ (2018) 18 African Human Rights Law Journal 45
60
Purohit v The Gambia (2003) AHRLR 96 (ACHPR 2003).
61
Juma,P,O & Orao,B To what extent is global and regional jurisprudence on the right to health for person with
disabilities reflected in Kenyan Courts (2021) African Disability Year Book, Pretoria University Law Press p81
62
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No. 14, 2000, para. 31.
15

ISSN 2518 - 4334
mental disabilities. The right to mental health by children with mental disabilities in many
African countries, Zimbabwe included fully promotes the realisation of this right. It therefore
seems that the right to mental health is a paper tiger, where the right is on paper and is absent
in the actualisation of the right to mental health for children with mental disabilities.
Legislation Zimbabwe
Mental illness remains one of the main public health concerns and dreams for the attainment
of an environment that protects and promote- the mental well-being of- persons with disabilities
in Zimbabwe.63 There is a mounting mental health apprehension among secondary school
students in Zimbabwe.64One in four Zimbabweans suffers from a common mental disorder.65
These figures show that mental health related issues are prevalent in Zimbabwean children with
mental disabilities. The treatment gap in mental health is generally large and even larger in
low-income countries like Zimbabwe.66Zimbabwe as a developing country is therefore faced
with enormous challenges in the treatment of children with mental disabilities. The government
of Zimbabwe promulgated the Mental Health Act of 1996 and its Regulations of 1999 to
promote and protect the right to mental health for its citizens inclusive of children with mental
disabilities. Despite Zimbabwe having these pieces of legislation for protection of the right to
mental health, there are still huge gaps in the implementation of the law. This results in the
impediment of the process of realisation of mental health for children with mental disabilities
in Zimbabwe. In Zimbabwe, mental health services have been dominated by a reductionist
medical model centred around pharmacological management and less emphasis on
rehabilitation.67The medical model in the treatment of children with mental disabilities has
resulted in the impairment of the rehabilitation mechanism process. Failure by government to
domesticate or implement provisions of the Convention on the Rights of People with Disability
(CRPD), the Disability Act and Mental Health Act is one of the biggest challenges faced by
children with intellectual disabilities in Zimbabwe.68Zimbabwe has failed to align its
legislation with the international legal framework and this has adversely impacted the
realisation of the right to mental health by children with mental disabilities.
Constitution of Zimbabwe
63
Clement Nhunzvi & Edwin Mavindidze Occupational Therapy Rehabilitation in a
Developing Country: Promoting Best Practice in Mental Health, (2016) Zimbabwe Imperial Journal of
Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-2 p685 , http://www.onlinejournal.in(Date accessed 12 May 2023)
64
Khombo S etal (2023) Knowledge , attitudes and uptake of mental health services by secondary schools in
Gweru, Zimbabwe, Front Psychosocial https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1002948/full (
Date accessed 12May 2023)
65
Mental Health in Zimbabwe: The Friendship Bench Projecthttps://www.borgenmagazine.com/mental-health-
in-zimbabwe-the-friendship-bench-project/ (Date accessed 12 May 2023)
66
Wallén,A etal (2021) The Experiences of Counsellors Offering Problem-Solving Therapy for Common Mental
Health Issues at the Youth Friendship Bench in Zimbabwe, Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 42:9, 808-817, DOI:
10.1080/01612840.2021.1879977 (Date accessed 19 May 2023)
67
Note 63
68
Mapuranga,B etal The impact of Inclusive Education (I.E) on the Rights of Children with Intellectual Disabilities
(IDs) in Chegutu (2015) Journal of Education and Practice Vol 6 p220
16

ISSN 2518 - 4334
The Constitution of Zimbabwe embraces some improvements with regard to the realisation of
the rights of PWDs. For example, it recognises the inherent dignity69 and equal worth of each
human being under the founding values and principles of the provisions of the
constitution.70The recognition of the inherent dignity of all human beings is critically important
for persons with mental disabilities who are normally treated without dignity.71Section 22 of
the Constitution provides that all institutions and agencies of the government at every level
must recognise the rights of persons with physical or mental disabilities, particularly their right
to be treated with respect and dignity.72Section 83 of the Constitution further speaks to the main
challenges of PWDs; who often face widespread discrimination, exploitation, violence,
maltreatment, limited access to health.73 The inclusion of section 83 largely embodies a
constitutional commitment to articles 16, 24 and 25 of the CRPD, which address PWDs’ access
to health facilities and empowers them to be self-reliant so as to escape exploitation and abuse.
74
Section 83 shows a constitutional commitment to address some of the major barriers to the
equality of PWDs such as access to health facilities.75
The Mental Health Act

The Mental Health Act provides for the amalgamation and modification of the law relating to
the care, detention and care of persons with mental disabilities.76 The government of Zimbabwe
promulgated the Mental Health Act of 1996 and Regulations of 1999. These laws have not
been revised since 1996 and 1999, respectively. 77The National Mental Health Policy provides
a comprehensive, coordinated, quality mental health service that is integrated into the general
medical health system with the aim of improving the mental health of the nation.78The
Zimbabwe Strategic Plan (2019-2023) underscores the significance of primary and community
mental health care, decentralized services and a review of mental health legislation.79The
National Community Health Strategy (2020–2025) outlines ways in which community care
69
Section 51 of the Constitution of Zimbabwe
70
71
Mandipa, E A Critical Analysis of the Frameworks for the Realisation of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
in Zimbabwe, (2013) African Disability Rights Year Book, Pretoria University Law Press p77
72
73
Section 83 of the constitution of Zimbabwe
74
Dziva, C., Shoko, M. & Zvobgo, E.F., 2018, ‘Implementation of the 2006 Convention on the Rights of Persons
with Disabilities in Zimbabwe: A review’, African Journal of Disability 7(0), a389. https:// doi.org/10.4102/ajod.
v7i0.389 (Date accessed 12 May 2023)
75
Note 106 p79
76
Mental Health Act [Chapter 15:12], Act 15 of 1996.
77
World Health Organisation, (2020) Zimbabwe, WHO’s Special Initiative foe Mental Health Report, Situational
Analysis,who.int/docs/default-source/mental-health/special-initiative/who-special-initiative-country-report---
zimbabwe---2020.pdf?sfvrsn=2bb0ac14_4( Date accessed 15 November 2023)
78
World Health Organisation, (2022) Prevention and Management of Mental Health Conditions in Zimbabwe A
of Investment case https://www.afro.who.int/sites/default/files/2023-04/1.-zimbabwe-mental-
health_investment_case_report_2022_%20%281%29_(Date accessed 15 November 2023)
79
Ibid
17

ISSN 2518 - 4334
will be instrumental in working towards and achieving universal health coverage. The Mental
Hospital Board is tasked with the treatment, rehabilitation and general welfare of ‘mental
patients.80 Rehabilitation as defined- by the Act is to permit persons with mental disabilities to
accomplish and maintain maximum independence through social and vocational ability.81The
Act provides for involuntary treatment of persons with mental and intellectual disabilities as it
does not contain provisions for consent to treatment.82 By making provisions for the detention
of persons with mental disabilities in special institutions separated from the mainstream
healthcare facilities, the Act is discriminatory.83 The involuntary treatment of children with
mental disabilities is against the notion that promotes the community based treated of person
with mental disabilities. The discriminatory practices are inconsistent with the Constitution of
Zimbabwe which promotes equal protection and benefit of the law. In Zimbabwe mental illness
is a critical medical condition with substantial public health impressions as it is surrounded by
stigma and discrimination linked to religious and cultural beliefs.84
Disabled Persons Act (DPA)

The DPA is the key law that speaks to disability in Zimbabwe.85The DPA tracks the archaic
medical model of disability in all its provisions when compared to the community based model.
The DPA should therefore be repealed and substituted by an entirely new Act that is aligned to
the provisions of the CRPD.86 The Constitution makes use of the term ‘persons with
disabilities’. It is therefore submitted that the DPA has to be in line with the Constitution.87The
DPA is an act which has huge gaps when compared to international legal frameworks. It is
increasingly difficult for the DPA to promote and protect the realisation of the right to mental
health for children with mental disabilities as it out-dated.
Children with mental health problems

The significance of psychological well-being in children, for their emotional, social, physical
and cognitive health is well-recognized.88Mental health is one of the most essential contributors
to the global load of disease in children.89 Adult mental health services are preferred to services
for children leading to less available or appropriate care for children.90
80
Secs 68(1) Mental Health Act [Chapter 15:12], Act 15 of 1996.
81
Part II of the Act Mental Health Act [Chapter 15:12], Act 15 of 1996.
82
Note 106 p85
83
Ibid
84
Note 23 p2
85
Disabled Persons Act of 1992 [Chapter 17:01]
86
Note 106 p80
87
Ibid
88
P. C. Shastri,P,C Promotion and prevention in child mental health(2009) Indian J Psychiatry 51(2) p88
89
Nurminen, M (2022) Association of mental health and behavioral disorders with health care and service
utilization in children before and after diagnosis. PLoS ONE 17(11): e0278198. https://doi.org/10.1371/
journal.pone.0278198 (Date accessed 20 May 2023)
90
World Health Organisation, 2022,World Health Report, Transforming Mental Health For All
https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/356119/9789240049338-eng.pdf?sequence=1 (Date accessed 15
November 2023)
18

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Comprehensive mental health in childhood is imperative to good mental health in adulthood,91
as children are the pillars of a nation. As the majority of lifetime mental disorders arise before
adulthood, the rights of children to treatment and prevention of mental disorders is particularly
essential.92Every child has the right to live happily,93 hence it is critically important for children
with mental disabilities to have their right to mental health protected. Children are generally
susceptible, and the expression of mental illness obscures the situation more. 94 In reaction to
the growing incidences of mental health problems and inequalities among children, it is noted
that changing mental health provision for children is authoritative.95Despite the policies
developed to signify the importance of mental health in children, children living in
disadvantaged and rural areas are not receiving the social welfare services required. 96 It is
amazing to note that in mental health, children’s rights are still neglected.97There is a need for
a culture of supported decision-making for children’s disability rights.98 A child with mental
disabilities should be vigorously involved in deciding work and pleasure activities so that a
sense of duty is maintained.99 It is unclear whether the legal framework in Zimbabwe on mental
health promotes participation by children with mental disabilities. Children with disabilities
should be given the chance to enjoy a satisfying and decent life and to participate within their
community.100
South Africa
Legal Framework of South Africa on Mental Health
Section 9 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 encompasses a strong
provision for equality and non-discrimination.101Section 27(1)(a) of the South African
91
Munir, Fouzia. 2021. Mitigating COVID: Impact of COVID-19 Lockdown and School Closure on Children’s Well-
Being.Social Sciences 10: 387. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci10100387 (Date accessed 7 May 2023)
92
Bhugra D, etal. The right to mental health and parity (2015). Indian J
Psychiatry Vol ;57 p118
93
Sucharitha ,S etal PG Child Rights: An Assessment of Awareness Regarding Right to Health among Medical
Students (2019) International Journal of Caring Sciences Volume 12 p1646
94
Machailo, R.M etal, M. Towards an Understanding of Successes of the Psychiatric Nurses in Caring forChildren
with Mental Health Problems: An Appreciative Inquiry. (2023) International. Journal Environment Research and
Public Health, 20, 1725. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20031725 (Date accessed 6 May 2023)
95
Griffin et al. An analysis of English national policy approaches to health inequalities: ‘transforming
children and young people’s mental health provision’ and its consultation process BMC Public Health (2022)
22:1084 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-13473-6 (Date accessed 7 May 2023)
96
Note 24
97
Bonati, M etal, Inequalities in the Universal Right to Health. International Journal of Environmental Research
and Public Health 2021, 18, p5 2844. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18062844 (Date accessed 9 May 2023)
98
Sandland,R A Clash of Conventions? Participation, Power and the Rights of Disabled Children (2015) Social
Inclusion Vol 5 p101
99
Smith,P Mental Health Care in Settings Where Mental Health Resources Are Limited (2014) Archway
Publishing, Bloomington, p104
100
Ibid
101
Section 9 of the Constitution of South Africa
19

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Constitution provides that everyone has the right to have access to health care
services.102Section 24 of the Constitution provides that everyone has the right to an
environment that is not harmful to their health or wellbeing.103It is noted that the right to health
or well-being has a constitutional protection. The Mental Health Care Act integrates mental
health care into the general health services.104 Section 10(1) of the Mental Health Care Act
prohibits discrimination against a mental health care user on the grounds of his or her mental
health status.105The Act further states that ‘every mental health care user must receive care,
treatment and rehabilitation services according to standards equivalent to those applicable to
any other health care user’.106 Both the Constitution of South Africa and the Mental Health
Care Act buttress the notion of equal protection and benefit of the law.
In South African jurisprudence, the Constitutional Court favours a reasonableness test to assess
whether the state is meeting its commitments in respect of economic, social and cultural rights.
Minister of Health v Treatment Action Campaign case- was helpful to this study as it was
appropriate to have regard to the content of a minimum core obligation to determine whether
the measures taken by the state were reasonable.107 In the Soobramoney v Minister of Health
Kwazulu-Natal case, it was held that obligations imposed on the state were dependent upon the
resources available for such purposes.108The core obligation to realise the minimum important
levels of a right extends to the right to the highest attainable standard of health, and as much to
mental health as to physical health.109
Challenges of Mental Health in Zimbabwe

Shortage of Staff
There is a serious shortage of mental health professionals in Zimbabwe.110 There is a lack of

funding for medication, human resources, and mental health promotion in both psychiatric
hospitals and community-based care.111Mental health professional are difficult to come by in
Zimbabwe. Government has frozen the appointment of mental health problems and this further
complicates availability of mental health professionals in Zimbabwe. A shortage of child
102
Section 27(1)(a) of the Constitution of South Africa
103
Section 24 of the Constitution of South Africa
104
Section 17 of 2002 of the Mental Health Act
105
Section 10(1) of the Mental Health Act
106
Section 10(2) of the Mental Health Act
107
Minister of Health v Treatment Action Campaign
108
Soobramoney v Minister of Health (Kwazulu-Natal) 1998 1 SA 765 (CC).
109
Sanskriti S & Jaswal,R,T Of Promises and Discontents: Mapping India’s Response to Guaranteeing the Right to
Mental Health during the Covid-19 Pandemic (2022) Asian Journal of International Law Vol 12 p132
110
Marimbe, B. D. etal ‘Perceived burden of care, and reported coping strategies and needs for family caregivers
of people with mental disorders in Zimbabwe’, (2016) African Journal of Disability 5(1), a209.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/ ajod.v5i1.209 (Date accessed 20 May 2023)
111
World Health Organisation,supra note 78
20

ISSN 2518 - 4334
psychiatrists affects all countries.112Task shifting may possibly be effective in lessening this
critical shortage of human resources in mental health.113The use of lay community workers and
provision of adequate training and supervision of these non-specialists is essential to effectively
support mental health services.114 The lack of access to, mental health services increases social
inequalities in children’s mental health.115 Mental health should comprise a significant
proportion of the health budget, and the failure to do so constitutes discrimination against those
affected by psychosocial disability.116 Zimbabwe has a critical shortage of personnel for mental
health, with an estimated 18 psychiatrists is approximately 0.1 per 100,000 people. 117 There
are 917 psychiatric nurses (6.5 per 100,000) and 6 psychologists (0.04 per 100,000) is
approximately 6.5 per 100 000 and 0.04 per 100 000 respectively.118 These figures demonstrate
how severe shortage of health professionals in Zimbabwe is. The shortage of mental health
professionals is compounded by the freezing of government posts.119 Even though it seems that
there is a relatively large number of psychiatric nurses in Zimbabwe, a number have diverted
to HIV-related care g services where there is funding, primarily from international donors.
120
The shortage of human resources for mental health in Zimbabwe has been due to emigration
of locally trained professionals as a result of economic instability.121
Funding of mental health services
Funding of mental health services must be geared towards maximizing quality.122Mental health
is still significantly underfunded.123 Mental health resources for children are scarce, inadequate,
unequally distributed, and inefficiently used, with effective and culturally relevant treatment
112
Skokauskas et al. Shaping the future of child and adolescent Psychiatry (2019) Child and Adolescent
Psychiatryand Mental Health Vol 13:19 p https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-019-0279-y (Date accessed 9 May
2023)
113
Ibid
114
Ibid
115
Note 133
116
Note 179 p73
117
World Health Organisation,supra note 78
118
Ibid
119
Nkoma E,(2019) Psychologists in Zimbabwean School Psychological Services: Support roles and practices in
the implementation of inclusive education Thesis submitted for the degree Doctor Philosophy in Educational
Psychologyhttps://repository.nwu.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10394/33852/Nkoma_E.pdf?isAllowed=y&sequenc
e=1 (Date accessed 15 November 2023)
120
Ibid
121
Ibid
122
Funk,M Improving the quality of mental health care (2009) International Journal for Quality in Health Care
Vol 21 p417
123
Kigozi et al. An overview of Uganda’s mental health care system: results from an assessment using the
world health organization’s assessment instrument for mental health systems (WHOAIMS) (2010) International
Journal of Mental Health Systems 2010, 4:1 http://www.ijmhs.com/content/4/1/1 (Date accessed 9 May 2023)
21

ISSN 2518 - 4334
rarely available.124Despite commitments made by the international community, there has been
a serious lack of investment and capacity to provide quality, rights-based, culturally appropriate
mental health care globally, even though mental health is consistently identified by children
themselves as a major concern.125
Stigma and associated discrimination

Stigma and associated discrimination against persons with psychosocial disabilities constitute
a considerable barrier to the realisation of the highest attainable standard of health in Africa.126
The public’s attitude toward persons with mental illness has a negative impact on their work
and may devalue them.127 Stigma also hinders progress toward developing laws and policies
relating to mental health in African countries.128Discrimination against persons with mental
disabilities is a violation of section 56 of the Constitution of Zimbabwe and stigmatisation is a
violation of section 51 1 of the Constitution of Zimbabwe.
Accessibility
More than 70% of people in need of mental healthcare do not have access to good-quality
services.129 Right to health includes universal access to effective treatment for an illness which
should include mental disorder.130 Health facilities, goods and services have to be accessible to
everyone without discrimination within the jurisdiction of the state party.131 The Committee
encourages the state party to explore ways of providing children with timely access to mental
health.132 The State should not be heard to argue that they do not have resources to ensure
access to mental health services by persons with mental disabilities when the rest of its
population can easily access other health services.133Mental health facilities should be
124
Salamanca-Buentello F, etal (2020) The ethical, social, and cultural dimensions of screening for mental health
in children and adolescents of the developing world. PLoS ONE 15(8) p: e0237853.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237853 ( Date accessed 9 May 2023)
125
Maalla,N & M Hidden,M scars: the impact of violence and the COVID‑19 pandemic on children’s mental
health (2020) Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health Vol 14:33 p2 https://doi.org/10.1 186/s13034-
020-00340-8 (Date accessed 9 May 2023)
126
Note 7 p64
127
Lin, Y.-etal . Effects of Rehabilitation Models on Self-Stigma among Persons with Mental Illness. Healthcare
2022, 10, 213. https://doi.org/10.3390/ healthcare10020213 (Date accessed 21 May 2023)
128
Note 144 p67
129
Moro et al (2022)Quality of care and respect of human rights in mental health services in four West African
countries: collaboration between the mental health leadership and advocacy programme and
the World Health Organization Quality Rights initiative Cambridge University Press
https://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution,
130
Bhugra D, Campion J, Ventriglio A, Bailey S. The right to mental health and parity (2015). Indian J
Psychiatry Vol ;57 p118
131
Ramcharm,B,G Judicial Protection of Economic , Social and Cultural Rights Cases and Materials (205) Martinus
Nijhoff Publishers, Boston p128
132
Rachel Hodgkin & Peter Newell, Implementation Handbook for the Convention on the rights of the Child
(2007) United Nations Children’s Fund p370
133
Note 82 p81
22

ISSN 2518 - 4334
accessible but in the Zimbabwe context it is increasingly difficult to state that mental health
care services are accessible as there are few mental health centres.
Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation refers broadly to restoration of functionality and is used widely in the field of
health. Psychosocial rehabilitation refers more specifically to restoration of psychological and
social functioning and is most frequently used in the context of mental illness.134Rehabilitation
has emerged as a comprehensive approach to addressing intellectually-disabled peoples’ skills
deficits, improving competencies and facilitating optimal functioning in order to provide the
greatest possible measure of social and economic participation, self-reliance and
independence.135Non-specialist health workers are increasingly regarded as the cornerstone of
equitable access to mental health care in low and middle-income countries. 136There is
increasing evidence of the effectiveness; acceptability and feasibility of mental health
interventions.137Moreover, there is an urgent need for poorer countries to take seriously the
concept of rehabilitation of the severely mentally ill and implement such programmes in their
mental health services.138
Psychosocial rehabilitation interventions have also received increasing attention in line with
policies of de-institutionalization and community based care models, with a greater focus on
self-sufficiency and long term recovery.139Psychosocial rehabilitation encompasses a group of
practices, including skills development, social skills training, family education, self-
management, peer support, coping skills, self-monitoring training, vocational rehabilitation,
education, and social and recreational development.140Determining the perception of patients
under rehabilitation is imperative to understanding the effect of this therapy. 141Psychiatric
rehabilitation is an important component in mental health services.142Psychosocial
rehabilitation is a therapeutic approach that encourages a mentally ill person to develop his or
134
Robert King etal Handbook of Psychosocial Rehabilitation (2007) Blackwell Publishing p1
135
Sechoaro, E.J., Scrooby, B. & Koen, D.P, 2014, ‘The effects of rehabilitation on intellectually-disabled people
– a systematic review’, Health SA Gesondheid 19(1), Art. #693, 9 pages. http://dx.doi.
org/10.4102/hsag.v19i1.693 (Date accessed 19 May 2023)
136
Asher L, et al. (2021) “Like a doctor,like a brother”: Achieving competence amongst lay health workers
delivering community-based rehabilitation for people with schizophrenia in
Ethiopia. PLoS ONE 16(2): e0246158. Date accessed 9 May 2023)
137
Ibid
138
AL Pillay &AL Kramers-Olen Psychosocial rehabilitation in a chronic care hospital in South Africa: views of
clinical staff (2013) African Journal on Psychiatry p277
139
Ibid
140
Note 149 p11
141
Shan‑Shan. Z etal "Why I stay in community psychiatric rehabilitation": a semi‑structured survey in persons
with schizophrenia (2022) BMC Psychology https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-022-00919-0 ( Date accessed 19
May 2023)
142
Desai,G etal A Study on First Intake Assessments of In-patient Referrals to Psychiatric Rehabilitation Services
(2014) Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine Vol 36 p236
23

ISSN 2518 - 4334
her fullest capacities through learning and environmental support.143The rehabilitation program
should start right from the first time the patient has come into contact with a mental health
professional.144The philosophy behind rehabilitation is that rehabilitation concentrates more on
prevention or reduction of impairment of handicap than on treatment of diseases. 145The
Rehabilitation Act of 1973 of the United States of America (USA) prioritised the mandatory
provision of rehabilitation services for people with disabilities. 146The rehabilitation of
intellectually-disabled people should be applied in practice in order to enhance their functional
skills and to improve their quality of life.147 Effective rehabilitation of mentally ill patients is
instrumental in the realisation of the right to mental health by children with mental disabilities.
Attempts to address mental health and rehabilitation issues

Legal Reform
Once mental health is construed in terms of human rights, all states are required, at a very
minimum, to establish a normative framework consistent with international law.148 Non-
discrimination is the most fundamental tenet in human rights.149 To promote best practice in
Zimbabwe, the occupational therapist should consider the policies and legislations which
govern practice.150Equally important, laws, strategies and policies must be rooted in and
operationalized based on international human rights standards151The national laws of
Zimbabwe on mental health must not be discriminatory and must be consistent with
international law on mental health and the Constitution of Zimbabwe .It is submitted that the
Disabled Persons Act is not consistent with the provisions in the Constitution hence it must be
aligned to the Constitution.
Community Integration and Participation

Treating mentally ill people as full human beings implies that they have rights to participate in
their communities and societies.152 To date, community-based mental rehabilitation is an
important step for integration of these home-treated patients into both the family and society.153
143
Chandrashekar,H etal Psychiatric rehabilitation (2010) Indian J Psychiatry p 278
144
Ibid
145
Sechoaro, E.J., Scrooby, B. & Koen, D.P, 2014, ‘The effects of rehabilitation on intellectually-disabled people
– a systematic review’, Health SA Gesondheid 19(1), Art. #693, 9 pages. http://dx.doi.
org/10.4102/hsag.v19i1.693 (Date accessed 19 May 2023)
146
Ibid
147
Ibid
148
Ibid
149
Yamin AE, Rosenthal E (2005) Out of the shadows: Using human rights approaches to secure dignity and well
being for people with mental disabilities. PLoS Med Vol 2 e71 p0297
150
Nhunzvi,C & Mavindidze,E Occupational Therapy Rehabilitation in a Developing Country: Promoting Best
Practice in Mental Health, Zimbabwe(2016) Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research Vol 2 p687
151
Kemp CG, et al. (2022) Baseline situational analysis in Bangladesh, Jordan, Paraguay, the Philippines, Ukraine,
and Zimbabwe for the WHO Special Initiative for Mental Health: Universal Health Coverage for Mental Health.
PLoS ONE Vol 17(3): e0265570. https://doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pone.0265570 (Date accessed 9 May 2023)
152
Ibid
153
Note 133
24

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Because there are wide variations in the capacity and readiness of priority health care programs
within countries, adequate assessment and customization is essential for planning the
integration of mental health care.154A successful Zimbabwean example, the Friendship Bench,
already exists for mental health. In this model, lay community members are trained to deliver
basic cognitive behavioural therapy on a bench outside district clinics in Zimbabwe. 155 The
project, which uses materials from previous cross-cultural research in the country was started
by a local psychiatrist (DC) in 2006 in response to a request from stakeholders in the local
district community for a ‘no-cost’ community mental health intervention.156This type of
innovation, around low intensity, community-based care, should become the cornerstone of
healthcare reform in Zimbabwe.157 Multi-level collaboration is needed for vocational
rehabilitation to be sustainable, this collaboration has the client as the centre of focus and
functions at mental health, vocational services and mainstream community
levels.158Psychiatric social work practice includes, inter alia, the need to sensitise communities,
continuation of home visits, and the need for psychiatric social workers to continually monitor
their own mental well-being.159
Underscoring mental health in policy and budgeting

Formulation of policies that subsequently remain unimplemented represents another form of
de-prioritisation.160State parties are obliged to ‘take the necessary measures to protect the
health of their people and to ensure that they receive medical attention when they are
sick’161State parties are called upon to take appropriate measures to ensure children access to
both preventive and curative health services.162 The right to health is a classical socio-economic
right in that it is not programmatic in its nature, meaning that states are required to enact laws
154
Patel V, etal. (2013) Grand Challenges: Integrating Mental Health Services into Priority Health Care Platforms.
PLoS Med 10(5): e1001448. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001448(Date accessed 9 May 2023)
155
Khameer K. Kidia The future of health in Zimbabwe (2018) Global Health Action, Vol. 11, 1496888
https://doi.org/10.1080/16549716.2018.1496888 (Date accessed 9 May 2023)
156
Abas,B et al. ‘Opening up the mind’: problem‑solving therapy delivered by female lay health workers
to improve access to evidence‑based care for depression and other common mental disorders through the
Friendship Bench Project in Zimbabwe Int J Ment Health Syst (2016) 10:39
DOI 10.1186/s13033-016-0071-9(Date accessed 9 May 2023)
157
Note 176
158
Note 142 p689
159
Kurevakwesu,W COVID-19 and mental health services delivery at Ingutsheni Central Hospital in
Zimbabwe:Lessons for psychiatric social work practice (2021) International Social Work 2021, Vol. 64(5) p712
Article reuse guidelines: sagepub.com/journals-permissions DOI: 10.1177/00208728211031973 (Date accessed
19 May 2023)
160
Note 7 p74
161
BK Twinomugisha,B,K ‘Using the right to health framework to tackle non-communicable diseases in the era
of neo-liberalism in Uganda’ (2020) 20 African Human Rights Law Journal p157
http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/1996-2096/2020/v20n1a6 (Date accessed 19 May 2023)
162
Ibid
25

ISSN 2518 - 4334
and devise policies that create the conditions necessary for its realisation.163Each state is
required to achieve this through taking ‘steps to the maximum of its available resources, with
a view to achieving progressively the full realisation of the rights recognised in the present
Covenant.164Mental health practitioners could be trained to impart hope in caregivers, as well
as teaching caregivers appropriate coping skills as routine care.165Child psychiatry is in a
unique position to respond to the growing public health challenges associated with the large
number of mental disorders arising early in life, but some changes may be necessary to meet
these challenges.166 One of the major challenges being faced in Zimbabwe is poor rehabilitation
services for abuse of alcohol and other substances,167Zimbabwe has only 16 psychiatrists of
which one is specialised in children.168 It can be submitted that there are very few mental health
care centres for children in Zimbabwe. The researcher is sceptical how the right to mental
health of children with disabilities is realised in Zimbabwe.
Recovery
The recovery approach focuses on a non-linear process of continual growth that builds the
resilience of people with mental illness169 Recovery can be viewed as an overarching
philosophy that encompasses notions of self-determination, self-management, empowerment,
and choice.170 It is about enabling and supporting individuals with mental illness to take control
over their own lives.171Personal recovery has been defined as ‘a profound personal and unique
process for the individual to change their attitudes, values, feelings, goals, abilities and roles in
order to achieve a satisfactory, hopeful and productive way of life, with the possible limitations
of the illness’.172In addition, whilst all modern mental health services should operate with a
recovery orientation, this approach has been specifically identified as a driver of successful
163
Muranda,T & Mugo K & Antonites,C HIV is not for me: A study of African women who have sex with women’s
perceptions of HIV/AIDS and sexual health (2014) African Human Rights Journal Vol 2 p762
164
Yousuf A Vawda & Brook K Baker(2013) Achieving social justice in the human rights/intellectual property
debate:Realising the goal of access to medicines) African Human Rights Journal Vol 1 p58
165
Marimbe, B. D. etal ‘Perceived burden of care, and reported coping strategies and needs for family caregivers
of people with mental disorders in Zimbabwe’, (2016) African Journal of Disability 5(1), a209.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/ ajod.v5i1.209 (Date accessed 20 May 2023)
166
Note 167
167
Linda Mujuru Demands expose weakness of mental health system
https://globalpressjournal.com/africa/zimbabwe/rising-demand-exposes-weakness-mental-health-care-
system/ (Date accessed 5 May 2023)
168
Anders Wallén, Sophia Eberhard & Kajsa Landgren (2021) The Experiences of Counsellors Offering Problem-
Solving Therapy for Common Mental Health Issues at the Youth Friendship Bench in Zimbabwe, Issues in Mental
Health Nursing, 42:9, 808-817, DOI: 10.1080/01612840.2021.1879977 (Date accessed 5 May 2023)
169
Taina Valkeapa¨a¨ etal Interaction, Ideology, and Practice in Mental Health Rehabilitation Journal
Psychosocial. Rehabilitation of Mental. Health https://doi.org/10.1007/s40737-018-0131-3 (Date accessed 19
May 2023)
170
Ibid
171
Ibid
172
Ballesteros-Urpi A, et al. Conceptual framework for personal recovery in mental health among children and
adolescents: a systematic review and narrative synthesis protocol. BMJ Open 2019;9:e029300.
doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2019-029300 ( Date accessed 19 May 2023)
26

ISSN 2518 - 4334
progress through the rehabilitation pathway.173 Mental health professionals similarly consider
rehabilitation to be multidimensional and often claim that rehabilitation services are also
provided within a ‘recovery’ framework, perhaps in order to maintain congruence with the now
widely accepted service user perspectives on recovery.174
Deinstitutionalization
The mental health sector has undergone two fundamental transformations in the last half
century, namely Deinstitutionalization and Recovery.175Mental health practice is largely
focused on institutions and very limited community based services.176Deinstitutionalization has
shifted persons with mental illness from hospitals to the Community.177Driven by the
deinstitutionalization policy, the social adaptation of persons with mental illness is an important
issue because, even if treatment is successful, the patient’s progress may be affected by
returning to a hostile community178 where the majority of mental health laws still bear the mark
of colonialism and continue to legislate involuntary treatment and institutionalisation of
persons with psychosocial disabilities.179It is paramount to deinstitutionalise rehabilitation of
mentally ill patients as a way to incorporate the community in the rehabilitation process.
Conclusions
The international and regional human rights instruments discussed in this paper castigated a
move away from an illness model towards a disability model targeted at understanding the
consequences of mental illnesses. Domestic legislation on mental health and rehabilitation for
Zimbabwe and South Africa was also examined. It was noted that national mental health
legislations should provide a legal framework to address pertinent issues such as community
integration of persons with mental disorders, and the improvement of access to mental health
care services to avoid discrimination. If the right to mental health is to be realised, international
institutions, governments and civil society must implement and promote mental health in
children, who are faced with a double tragedy of being children and having mental disabilities
173
Killaspy ,H (2019). Contemporary mental health rehabilitation. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences 28, 1–
3.https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796018000318 (Date accessed 19 May 2023)
174
Lloyd,C & Waghorn,G & Williams,P,E Conceptualising Recovery in Mental Health
Rehabilitation (2008) British Journal of Occupational Therapy p32
175
Eiroa-Orosa,F,J & Limiñana-Bravo,L An Instrument to Measure Mental Health
Professionals’ Beliefs and Attitudes towards Service Users’ Rights Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16,
244; doi:10.3390/ijerph16020244 (Date accessed 9 May 2023)
176
Mlambo,T etal Mental Health Services in Zimbabwe – A case of Zimbabwe National Association of Mental
Health (2014) WFOT Bulletin Vol 70 p19
177
Lin, Y.-etal. Effects of Rehabilitation Models on Self-Stigma amongPersons with Mental Illness. Healthcare
2022, 10, 213. https://doi.org/10.3390/ healthcare10020213 (Date accessed 21 May 2023)
178
Ibid
179
Juma, P,O Book Review Miachael Ashley Stein, Faraaz Mahomed, Vikram Patel &Charlene Sunkel Mental
Health, Legal Capacity and Human RightsTo what extent is global and regional jurisprudence on the right to
health for person with disabilities reflected in Kenyan Courts (2021) African Disability Year Book, Pretoria
University Law Press p295
27

ISSN 2518 - 4334
as well. The development of a; human rights structure is important to achieve national
objectives for persons with mental illnesses. However there still remains a gap in hard law and
its application, and subsequently a gap in mental health protections.180It is imperative that the
government of Zimbabwe continues to increase funding substantial towards mental health care
services to enhance accessibility and quality service. Public interest litigation can also be
carried so as to compel the government to fulfil its obligation towards realisation of the right
to mental health for children in Zimbabwe as most of the mental ill patients face discrimination
and violation of their inherent dignity through labelling and stigmatisation. Global legal change
in mental health law could be accomplished by either developing new hard law such as an
Additional Protocol to the UNCRPD focusing specifically on mental health.181 The government
of Zimbabwe must domesticate and implement provisions of the Convention on the Rights of
People with Disability in the Disabled Persons Act and Mental Health Act to address the
challenges faced by children with mental illness. The Constitution makes use of the term
‘persons with disabilities’ while the Disabled Person Act talks about disabled persons. The
DPA has to be in line with the Constitution by amending the title of the Act. It is recommended
that law reform on the right to mental health for children with mental disabilities in Zimbabwe
be taken into consideration and for more research to be undertaken in this area of study.
A World in Flux: Options for Africa
Shuvai Wutawunashe
Department, School, Great Zimbabwe University. P O Box 1235, Masvingo, Zimbabwe.

Corresponding author: xxxx
180
Note 28 p438
180
Ibid
181
Note 28 p446
Douglas Musebenzi is a Lecturer at Herbert Chitepo Law School, Great Zimbabwe University, Zimbabwe from
June 2022 to date. He is a holder of Master of Laws Degree from Midlands State University in Constitutional and
Human Rights Law (2021), an LLB from UNISA (2018), a Bachelor of Science Degree in Psychology (2004), a
Diploma in Education from the University of Zimbabwe (1993), an Associate member of the Institute of
Chartered Secretaries and Administrators of Zimbabwe (2010) and a Fellow Member of the Institute of
Administration and Commerce (2005). He has various certificates and diplomas in accounting and administration
form Alison. He has worked in various capacities as an administrator, accountant at the Great Zimbabwe
University. He worked at Great Zimbabwe University Law Clinic as an administrator where he worked with
indigent persons. He has also conducted mobile clinics and street law programs of the Law Clinic providing basic
legal education to the indigent to access justice. He has an interest in company law. He has written a Chapter on
the Management of Law Clinics in Zimbabwe in the Law Clinic Manual and also attended and presented on the
Global Alliance of Justice Education Conference in South Africa from 11-15 December 2022 at Stellenbosch
University.
28

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Abstract
This qualitative analysis aims to contribute options for the repositioning of Africa to end its
marginalisation and underdevelopment against the backdrop of a changing world order. Africa
is widely perceived as a stepchild of global diplomacy, always on the fringes of benefits, and
marginalised at diplomacy’s top table despite numerous efforts to reverse the trend. While the
West-led unipolar liberal world order still dictates global policy, it is in decline. Recent
headlines show a world in flux, with nations jostling for advantage in anticipation of a new
world order taking shape. Many UN members who feel that the West-led order favours the
West against the rest are pursuing different narratives towards a non-ideological multipolar
world in which they can assert their autonomy and agendas. Among the existing country
groupings, Africa is pivoting towards BRICS, which comprises Brazil, Russia, India, China
and South Africa. BRICS is offering an attractive economic order and an inclusive voice in a
multicultural world. This paper follows the historical approach. By examining sources and
extant literature, it emphasises that Africa, a continent rich in natural resources, labour,
markets, and innovation, may miss out on the once-in-a-century opportunity presented by a
shifting global order if it does not shed the stepchild image, reassert its autonomy and reframe
its priorities based on its identity and values. The study focuses on proactive and strategic
measures that Africa may take to review its long-standing integration frameworks that are
lagging behind global developments and liberate itself from colonial constraints. The
opportunities for Africa to profit from the rapidly shifting global dynamics are outlined in the
paper's conclusion.
Introduction
For decades after independence, Africa has stayed weak, marginalised and behind other world
regions in development, progress, connectedness, influence, and security (Chipaike, 2018). At
independence, Africa inherited colonial government models and economies, and had to play
by the rules of colonial systems, which meant perpetuating those systems and interests after
physical colonialism ended. The end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union in
1989 gave rise to the ideological unipolar moment, that is the West-led Liberal World Order
(WLWO), creating a window for the spreading and enforcement, as necessary, of Western
liberal democracy and values across the globe (Krauthammaer, 1990/91). President George
HW Bush described the moment as the new world order which would create a peaceful and
prosperous world (Bush, 1990 September 11). This paper asks three questions, first; how well
Africa, only just emerging from the colonial value system, and having survived slavery before
it, fared in the WLWO-imposed liberal value system, which was yet another form of Western
domination. The second question arises from the argument that in the last few years, there are
indications that the unipolar moment is coming to an end, the WLWO is in decline and a
multipolar world is emerging (Campbell, 2016). The ongoing jostling of countries to reposition
for advantage in the new world order presents an opportunity that Africa has not had for
centuries. The paper questions in what ways Africa will use the opportunity, not only to reframe
a new role for itself in world affairs, but also to re-evaluate its past decisions and actions in
relation to the continent’s development and progress? The third question relates to the long-
held view of Africa as a weak and marginalised continent, always acted upon by others or
29

ISSN 2518 - 4334
viewed as an appendage on programs initiated by others (Akokpari, 2016). The question is,
given this opportunity, in what ways will Africa transform its image from a weak and
marginalised continent to a dominant player and partner in world affairs?
The paper presents the following: The Rise of the WLWO; Africa’s State in the WLWO; The
Decline of the WLWO; The Emerging World Order; Options for Africa and Conclusion.
The rise of the WLWO

International world orders are considered indispensable ‘global operating systems’ in an
international space with no governing authority (Harris Jr, 2017). Leadership of an order by a
power is earned when a superpower emerges ahead of other powers in a balance of power
competition. The power that gets a diverse and influential following, demonstrates ability to
build cooperation among all nations, and has capacity to lead economically and militarily as
well as in other global themes such as the environment, climate change, immigration, terrorism
and others, will assume the dominant position in the world order (Mearsheimer, 2019).
After the Second World War the world became bipolar. From 1945 the Cold War world order
was dominated by the US and the USSR whose ideological systems were opposed, each
supported by its allies. With the collapse of the USSR in 1989, the US became the pole power
and ‘indispensable nation’ that would, supported by its Western allies, spread liberal
democracy across the globe (Albright, 1998, February 19). The world order, which came to be
known as the ‘Rules-based International Order’ was first dictated by the victorious allies after
the second World War in 1945 and further developed over time into a framework of Western
values and rules embodied in a network of neo-liberal international organizations, with the
United Nations at the centre (Chatham-House, 2015). The defeated powers in the Cold War,
namely Russia, China and their allies, would be co-opted into the order, invited to membership
in the liberal institutions, and enticed to transform into liberal democracies, thereby creating
one world at peace, on both the political and economic fronts (Albright, 1997, April 15).
Africa in the WLWO

In the 1990s, when the WLWO was just starting, most African states were young, having
recently achieved independence from colonial powers.
The Cultural Impact of the WLWO on Africa

The WLWO mission to spread its values across the globe accentuated the colonially induced
destruction of African cultures through acculturation and assimilation. Modernity and
globalisation, both linked to the liberal value system, perpetuated the alienation of Africans
from their cultures (Mbembe, 2021). Societal attitudes, corroded for decades by the colonial
distinction between the ‘civilized whites’ and the ‘uncivilized and barbaric Blacks’, became
perverted, denigrating African knowledge systems and misleading Africans to mimic
whiteness in appearance, manner, speech, thought, and ways. This inferiority and self-hate are
found at all levels of national life and are reproduced in various types of media. Kagame (2021)
castigates African leaders who look up to the West so much that important decisions about
30

ISSN 2518 - 4334
their countries must be made and announced in the presence of a Western leader. Oloruntoba
(2015) argues that Africa will not come into its own unless it extricates its educational system,
politics, economics, culture and languages from the clutches of the West.
The Political Impact of the WLWO on Africa

While the US prided itself on its anti-colonial identity, its hegemonic approach, which
elaborates the view that Western liberal values are global values better than the rest, mimicked
the European ‘Standard of Civilisation’ that made colonialism possible and justifiable
(Linklater 2016). The rigid imposition on African societies of Western liberal values, which
are based on individual rights, was in direct contrast to African traditions where individual
rights are framed in the context of communal existence (Mbiti 1970). Imposed political
structures and alien practices such as multi-party elections and competitions replaced
traditional African consensual democracy (Ahere, 2020). The contrast created a dissonance in
public life and governance which led to clashes between Africa and the West regarding
concepts such as democracy, human and property rights, boundaries and responsible
government (Adejumobi, 2000). The WLWO was quick to introduce tactics that it thought
would improve the uptake of liberal values by African countries.
One such tactic is ‘regime change’, by which the West facilitates coups that remove, often
through violent means, those African leaders considered unhelpful to its democratisation
agenda (Paquette, 2020). In other cases, the West uses Western-aligned NGOs to mediate the
desired change by giving the NGOs greater participation in national affairs (NewAfrican,
2018). Western governments and donor agencies achieve this by disbursing aid and
implementing relief programs in targeted countries through such NGOs (NewAfrican, 2018).
In a different move, the US and its allies invaded Libya in 2011 ostensibly in defence of human
rights, and in the process triggered a decade-long conflict that destroyed an African nation and
millions of lives (Lynch 2021). In some African countries, the US and its allies use Western
currencies as weapons to impose economic sanctions to bend the will of their governments,
such as the sanctions imposed on the Central African Republic; the Democratic Republic of
the Congo; Ethiopia; Libya; Mali; Somalia; Sudan; South Sudan; and Zimbabwe, even when
such sanctions are opposed by UN member countries (VOA News 28 October 2021). The
hegemony of the U.S. dollar has become the main source of instability and uncertainty in
African economies (Munda, 2023).
The Economic Impact of the WLWO on Africa

At the centre of the WLWO liberalisation of African economies was the Bretton Woods
international monetary system which the US and its allies set up soon after the Second World
War with the U.S. dollar at the core. The system comprises the International Monetary Fund
(IMF) and the World Bank (WB), which in the 1980s and 1990s liberalised African economies
through Economic Structural Adjustment Programs (ESAPs). While the model worked for
some in the West and in other parts of the world, it threw African countries into disarray. It
destroyed domestic economies, inflated poverty, created political turmoil and social unrest, and
left the countries in heavy debt and further marginalized (Kawewe, 2000). Apata (2018)
31

ISSN 2518 - 4334
blames the failure of ESAP in Africa on the capitalist approach which he says bases its profit
drive on competition, elimination and monopoly, and thrives on exploitation that suffocates
indigenous productive capacity.
While ESAPs were discarded, the liberal economic order remained in place and continued to
marginalise African countries. The model opened Africa to free trade and competition with the
metropolitan powers and former colonial states. The unequal competition skews trade in favour
of metropolitan powers, necessitating some to call for the decolonisation of world trade which
they say destroys Africa’s own possibilities and plunders its resources while Africans remain
poor (Omarjee, 2017). Despite numerous developmental partnerships that Africa entered into
with Western countries, the estimated number of people living in poverty in Sub-Saharan
Africa has increased from 278 million in 1990 (at the beginning of the WLWO) to 413 million
in 2015 (World Bank, 2018) While the trend is different in other world regions, it is forecast
that by 2030 Sub Saharan Africa will collectively be home to 90% of the world’s poorest people
(Olatunji, 2018).
In Africa, the failures of the WLWO seem to outweigh the good it did in some countries, not
only because the failures are great in number, but because they go to the heart of Africa’s desire
for identity, respect and self-affirmation (Ruto, 2023).
Where does Africa Stand Now in the RBO

Rodney (1973) compares the impact of colonialism on Africa to that of slavery and concludes
that colonialism was more devastating. He says while slavery extracted Africans from their
land as forced labour, colonialism was both the subjugation of a people on their land and the
taking over, not of just their land and labour, but also of their vast resources of gold, diamonds,
oil, cobalt, copper, bauxite and farms - their source of wealth (Apata, 1973). This killed not
just the African economy and trade but also African productivity and innovation, leaving in
Africa a culture of dependency on outsiders for things they used to produce.
In the 21st century, Africa is moving away from the WLWO ideological and globalised
unipolar world led by the US and its allies, and pivoting to the emerging non-ideological,
multicultural movement among nations. Africa’s argument is that it wants to pursue African
identity and development in its own way and at its own pace. African leaders have said the
WLWO model has kept it at the bottom and unable to industrialise while its resources are
extracted for the benefit of industrialised countries, and that will not continue (BBC News,
2023). Africa’s biggest need to kick off industrialisation is infrastructure, and in the last decade
China has funded numerous infrastructure projects across Africa through its Belt and Road
Initiative (BRI). Through BRI, Africa today boasts industrialisation enablers in the form of
highways, bridges, dams, harbours, parliament buildings and airports, all of which are not tied
to Chinese political and economic ideology as WLWO assistance was tied to the conditionality
of liberal values and ideology. BRI’s emphasis on trade, not a remaking of the world, has seen
Chinese trade with Africa rise to more than four times that of the US in the last decade.
32

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Africa is pivoting towards BRICS, a group in which China has membership. BRICS is offering
a multilateral and multicultural platform that competes favourably with both the political and
economic order of the WLWO. The BRICS-Africa summit held in 2013 carried the theme
‘BRICS and Africa - partnerships for integration and industrialization.’ Cooperation and trade
between the two sides has grown phenomenally. BRICS, which is set to expand its membership
in 2023, will be processing membership requests from African countries such as Algeria,
Egypt, Nigeria, Sudan and Zimbabwe among many others from across the globe (Rédaction-
Africanews, 2023).
Figure 1 US and Chinese Trade in Goods with Africa (CRS, 2023)
The decline of the WLWO

In the last few years, the WLWO rules-based international order has lost its grip, and the US
and Allies are frantic in efforts to preserve it (Campbell, 2016). The ‘Chatham House London
Conference’ (2015) singled out several contributing factors to its decline. The conference
highlighted loss of legitimacy of the RBO resulting from being undermined by its leaders. For
instance, the US, which disregards the RBO when convenient, is not a member of some of the
RBO’s critical institutions, such as the International Criminal Court. When it suited its
interests, the US, supported by its Allies, invaded Iraq in 2003 contrary to the UN vote. In the
last decade, the US inflicted unilateral sanctions on weaker states such as Zimbabwe without
UN authorisation, destroying the economies of the sanctioned states. Former US president
Donald Trump openly attacked the RBO’s free market principles which he said disadvantaged
Americans at home and pursued instead the “America First” approach. He habitually berated
allies on similar basis, among them Germany, France, UK, Australia, Canada, Denmark, Japan,
and Sweden prompting the then German Chancellor Angela Merkel to warn that Europe could
no longer rely on its British and US allies (Ashford, 2021).
33

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Several other factors led to the RBO’s decline. Globalization, an important feature in the
WLWO, led to loss of jobs, destruction of businesses, and rising inequality in both the liberal
and developing worlds, creating super-rich, middle and poor nations. The Great Recession of
2008-2009 when markets imploded and almost collapsed the global economy exposed the
weakness in the West-centric capitalist system (Reserve Bank of Australia, 2023). Countries
that value sovereignty and self-actualisation resented the WLWO requiring them to cede
decision making powers to international institutions such as the IMF and World Bank over
which the Order has influence. In Europe, liberal democracies strongly aligned to the US could
not stand the full liberal treatment in their geographical areas. For instance, Brexit happened
partly because Britain wanted to be autonomous and separate from the EU grouping. The
emergence of anti-liberal groups in France and Italy certainly undermined liberal tenets. These
factors combined to create a backlash against the WLWO (Walt, M. 2018).
The order is fundamentally collapsing because the base is shifting from a unipolar to a
multipolar position. The US blames Russia’s war in Ukraine for undermining the RBO. It also
blames China which it says has both the intent to reshape the international order and the
economic, diplomatic, military, and technological power to do it. China’s rise, which is often
described in the media as a tectonic shift, has destabilised the US and its allies from the Trump
to the Biden Administrations, provoking conversations about trade, security, defence and
foreign policy (Grano, 2023). While in the 1990s US foreign policy was to incorporate China
into the international system, it now sees China as having used the international system to grow
its economy and stature to great power status in order to challenge the Western system.
Between 1990 and the present, China’s trade with the world has surpassed that of the US by
strides. Its GDP has surpassed all other regions and, while it is second to the US, it is forecast
to supersede it by 2030. In its defence, China says it played by the rules and its entry brought
stability and innovation to the world system. China’s innovations include programs such as
the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) which has been hailed globally as significant progress
towards development, especially in the Global South (China-State-Council-Information-
Office, 2018).
34

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Figure 2. GDP growth rate between China and the USA from the year 2000 to 2021
Several countries are forming strategic alliances to overthrow the US dollar decades-long reign
as the world’s reserve currency and adopt more accessible and un-weaponised currencies
(Holmes, 2023). US administration officials have acknowledged that the use of the dollar in
inflicting sanctions on nations could have undermined it (Geopolitical-Economy, 2023). Some
country groupings are agreeing to use their domestic currencies for trade among themselves
while others have chosen the Chinese Yuan for trade. This phenomenon is undermining, not
just the dollar, but also Western hegemony.
35

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Figure 3. Comparison: US vs China Trade in 1980 and in 2018 (Staff Writer, 2018)
Faced with the steady decline of the WLWO, the Trump administration shifted its foreign
policy focus from counter terrorism to one of confrontation with China, which it framed in
2017 as the Great Power Competition. The new Biden Administration acknowledged the
competition as stiff, and coined the strategy-related catchphrase, Invest, Align and Compete by
which it would invest in its strength at home, align with allies and the RBO after the Trump
disruptions, and compete with China. The US invoked measures against China in several areas
- trade, ideology, technology, and politics (Ashford, 2021)
China, on its part, maintains that it is a developing country which does not seek hegemony but
is offering the world a different kind of cooperation. Its strategy is to contrast its approach to
that of the West (Wenbin, 19 May 2023). China says the WLWO is exporting Western liberal
democracy and forcibly universalising it across the globe where China is forging non-
ideological, unconditional partnerships and cooperation. It says the US is undermining world
peace through coercive diplomacy such as the invasion of countries, unilateral sanctions, elitist
minority groupings, and trade inequalities where China is pursuing peaceful development and
stability. China says the West is choking developing countries with debt that leaves them the
poorer where China is giving loans for infrastructure that enables development. China says the
US and its allies are emptying weaker countries of opportunities to industrialise by extracting
their raw materials where China is promoting industrialization. China says its model has lifted
millions out of poverty where the model of the West has increased inequalities. In highlighting
these contrasts, China is offering an alternative path to world trade, peace, mutual development
and cooperation. In the process, it has achieved great power status which the US and its allies
recognised as competition.
36

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Some people deny that the world has turned multipolar on the basis that China, whose economy
is still the second largest in the world, cannot be a superpower and, therefore, does not qualify
to be a hegemony. While China agrees that it is not a superpower but a developing country, it
does not deny that it is offering the world a different kind of leadership. However, more writers
and world order watchers are convinced the WLWO’s run has come to an end (Alonso-
Trabanco, 2023, 21 February).
The Emerging World Order

“The old world is dying, and the new world struggles to be born: now is the time of monsters”
- Antonio Gramsci (Martin, 2023)
The world is currently in a situation of open horizons where the old is dying and the new is
fighting to be born, to borrow from the Italian Marxist philosopher Gramsci. Taking a lead
from the Italian Marxist philosopher, Gramsci, we might say that we are living in an era of
wide horizons, when the new is fighting to emerge and the old is dying. This paper advances
what it sees as the most likely scenario to emerge - a multipolar world with no single hegemony
in power. This scenario pans out as follows:
The Great Powers (GP)

Even as its dominance wanes, the US continues to be committed to universalising liberal values
through the RBO (Biden, President (2022). The implication is that the US will work to keep in
its fold the liberal democracies already aligned with it. On the other hand, China, the leading
opponent of the WLWO, maintains that its tradition is not to seek hegemony, and never to
export to any country its ideology or methods, but to focus on mutual cooperation, trade,
development and progress with no strings attached (China Government, 2023). This implies
that China will continue building regional economic alliances across the globe. The US and
China, hereinafter referred to as the Great Powers (GP), will both lead, not as dominant
hegemonies, but as opposing forces offering different and competing paths to development,
prosperity and security. The interconnectedness of the GP in trade and world affairs is a factor
in deterring their relationship from deteriorating into a cold war (Roland, G. 2021).
Figure 4. Emerging Multipolar World Order

37

ISSN 2518 - 4334
While the GP compete in methods, trade and economy, significant power will shift to Regional
Blocs and Alliances (RBA) which are forming across the globe based on multilateralism and
multiculturalism, and focusing on cooperation, trade, development, security, technology,
climate change, migration and other 21st century themes. The various RBA will keep their
alignment to either of the GPs while others stay non-aligned. This keeps the world in
multipolar mode while countries shift, reconfigure and rationalise over time to reflect new
priorities and imperatives. Globalisation will fade into regionalisation. The Existing RBO
institutions from the outgoing world order will remain in place but will gradually undergo a
makeover which will be instituted by the RBAs to eventually create a level playing field.
Regional Blocs and Alliances (RBAs)

The RBAs to which power is transferring are made up of countries, some of which have
membership in multiple RBAs. While multiple membership will be rationalised over time, they
are not a disadvantage at the beginning as countries seek to build cooperation based on
multilateralism and multiculturalism.
The world RBAs include, but are not limited to, the following:
Africa Union (AU)

And African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA)
The African Union (AU), a continental body made up of the 55 African countries, was launched
in 2002 as a successor to the Organisation of African Unity. Based on Pan Africanism and
African socialism, it promotes continental unity, political and economic integration. The AU’s
flagship project, the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA), was established in 2018,
and encompasses 54 African states. The World Bank estimates that it will increase Africa's
income by $450 billion by 2035 and increase intra-African exports by more than 81 per cent.
According to the UN Economic Commission for Africa, this single market trade agreement
will enable the African economy to reach the $29 trillion mark by 2050. However, the report
says the African bloc is highly fragmented and intra-Africa trade is still very low (The-Herald-
Zimbabwe, 2023). While Africa can be considered to be an RBA, its functionality as an RBA
needs to improve.
BRICS
BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa), represent more than 40 percent of the
world’s population. BRICS is being touted globally as an alternative platform that replaces the
Western economic hegemony. The BRICS countries are mooting a currency that is more
accessible to developing countries and their needs and is fairer than the usually weaponised US
dollar. The BRICS bank, known as the New Development Bank, with nine
members - Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa, United Arab Emirates (UAE), Uruguay,
Bangladesh and Egypt- is attracting more investors. BRICS is set to expand this year with
38

ISSN 2518 - 4334
twenty countries from the Global South, the Middle and North having applied for membership
and pronouncing themselves ready for a BRICS currency (Lavrov, 2023).
Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO)

The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) a Eurasian political, economic and security
forum founded in 2001, has nine members: China, India, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
Tajikistan, Pakistan, Uzbekistan and Iran while Afghanistan, Belarus and Mongolia have
observer status; and Armenia, Azerbaijan, Cambodia, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Türkiye are
dialogue partners. This is an important bloc that links Eurasia to the rest of Asia, Europe, the
Middle East, Africa and the Americas. SCO has a working relationship with BRICS.
Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU)

The Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) is a free trade group with Russia, Armenia, Belarus,
Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan as members. A report in May 2023 indicated that BRICS, EAEU
and SCO Members are mooting a merger of the three economic blocs ahead of the BRICS June
meeting (Russia-Brief, 2023). Should that happen, it would create a huge geographical
economic bloc with a significant say in the functioning of the global marketplace.
Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP)

China is also a member of the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (ASEAN, 2023)
in the Asia Pacific region. RCEP is a 15-member free trade agreement between the 10 members
of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and China, Australia, Japan, New
Zealand and South Korea. This grouping has the Asian Tigers and Emerging Markets and is
important to the global economy.
Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR – In Spanish)

Southern Common Market, known as Mercosur in Spanish, has some dominance in Latin
America (Mercosur, 2023). Brazil, already in BRICS, is a member together with Argentina,
Paraguay, and Uruguay; with Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, and Suriname
as associate members. China has established a footprint in the region and its trade with Latin
American countries has surpassed that of the EU and is second only to the US. Countries in
this bloc have expressed interest in BRICS membership (Roy, 2023).
39

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Figure 6: China’s Growing Trade in Latin America
Source: https://www.gisreportsonline.com/r/chinas-economic-power-grows-in-latin-america/
Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)

The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia
and UAE, are strong economically and have significant influence in the global market (Ghafar,
2022). The GCC bloc has positioned itself for a strategic partnership with BRICS, with some
of its members already part of the BRICS bank.
Group of Twenty (G20)

The Group of 20 (G20) is an intergovernmental forum of 19 countries plus the European Union
which focuses on the global economy, international financial stability, climate change
mitigation, and sustainable development. It was founded in 1999 by the Group of 7 (G7), a
group of liberal democracies organised around pluralism, liberal values and representative
government and consisting of Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, the
United States and the European Union. G20 today has 21 members namely Argentina,
Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Mexico,
Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, South Korea, Turkey, the United Kingdom, the United
States, the European Union and the African Union. It is considered a powerful multilateral
40

ISSN 2518 - 4334
platform today as its members are representative of all world regions. The G20 seems to have
ambitions to be more active at the United Nations seeing that the Security Council is affected
by the Russia-Ukraine war. A number of BRICS countries are in G20.
European Union (EU)

The European Union (EU) calls itself the world’s largest trading bloc, and is part of the Liberal
Order, and therefore aligned with the US. However, confronted with a rising China, the EU is
seeking a different narrative from the US that better serves the interests of its members. While
the US asked the EU to distance itself economically from China, the bloc could not afford to
play that zero-sum game with its largest trading partner and decided to maintain economic ties
with China (Nardelli, 2023).
UK and The Commonwealth

After BREXIT, the UK is looking to strengthen its RBA made up of 56 countries of the
Commonwealth, a grouping of mostly former British colonies headed by King Charles III. Its
membership includes countries that applied for membership as they did not have colonial ties
to the British Empire, like Mozambique, Rwanda, Gabon and Togo. The coronation of King
Charles III was the UK’s coming out as it demonstrated its convening power, with guests drawn
from all over its former empire. While the UK is usually identified by its position in the West,
it is seeking further alliances on its own. The UK-Africa Investment Summit (UK-AIS) in 2020
attracted 15 African Heads of State, and 24 or more are expected at the 2024 instalment. (UK
Government Report, 2023). The Commonwealth focuses on developmental support and
cooperation; and trades among its members.
What Africa Needs to Take Note of in a Changing World

“The world today is undergoing major changes unseen in a century”.
(Jinping, X. 17 January 2022)
The above quote from the Chinese President, in his statement to the Davos Economic Forum
in 2022, a statement he repeated to the Russian President in 2023 (AlJazeera, 2023), seems to
provide the background for the unprecedented global activity taking place. Africa must not
only take notice, but also act. Why? To take notice will help Africa to think globally and act
locally if it is no longer a continent that is always acted upon, but an actor in its own right.
What things should Africa take note of?
First, while there are major changes unseen in a century, some things have not changed. From
the fifteenth century onwards, Africa has always been a battleground for superpowers, and its
development has always been linked to geopolitics and geo-economics. This has not changed.
Africa's future will undoubtedly be directly impacted by the global power shifts occurring in
the 21st century, shifts the magnitude of which have not been witnessed in the last hundred
years. This paper is prompted to pose a few questions such as, at similar junctures in the past,
did Africa act promptly and wisely? This time will Africa remain a sitting duck? Will it
continue to be a continent about which decisions that affect it are made externally by others?
41

ISSN 2518 - 4334
As the saying goes, Africa needs to think globally and act locally. If prompt and strategic
action is not taken, the continent may fail to utilise the strategic opportunities that the changes
unseen in a century present and it might remain a spectator at the periphery of world affairs.
Next to note is that Africa seems to be the hottest game in town, which some are referring to
as the Second Partition of Africa. It is increasingly and comprehensively integrated into the
global economy still as a supplier of cheap labour and raw materials which, as has been
happening, drains the continent's resources that should have been for its industrialisation and
development. Africa’s resources include an abundance of critical rare earth minerals essential
for powering green growth and innovation in the next generation -lithium, cobalt, copper, oil,
uranium and coltan (UNEP, 2023). While it is rich in resources, Africa experiences duality in
its economies where a developed and isolated export sector exists side by side with a poverty-
ridden underdeveloped population, itself a legacy of the colonial era. For instance, with 80
years of diamond exploitation, countries such as Sierra Leone struggle with underdevelopment.
In the energy sector, much of rural Africa is not powered, yet foreign regional blocs and their
members come to Africa to secure their energy needs, hence the dash for African gas by
Western countries after the Russo-Ukraine war (Reuters, 4 October 2022). In the agriculture
sector countries are coming to exploit Africa’s productive land, yet parts of Africa are under
famine and populations cannot feed themselves. Africa’s concern is that its resources are not
powering its industrialisation while its debilitating debt to the developed world is skyrocketing.
This makes it necessary for Africa to carefully assess the goals in place for the investors it
attracts and for each of its many strategic partnerships, which include the Africa-Arab, Africa-
EU, Africa-Turkey, Africa-India, Africa-S. Korea, Franco-Africa, Africa-US, Africa-China,
Africa-Russia, Africa-Japan (TICAD), UK-Africa Summit and the Africa-Asia Sub-regional
Organisations Conference (AASROC).
Another thing to note is that Africa has some of the fastest growing economies in the world but
the growth is not cascading to its millions. Geoffrey Sachs, the UN Secretary-General’s
Advocate for Sustainable Development Goals, concurred with a 2022 African Development
Bank (2023) report to the effect that Africa is set to outperform the rest of the world in
economic growth over the next two years. The increase in investors and the launch of the
AfCFTA, which will be the largest free trade area in the world, will continue to contribute to
Africa’s growth. With the growth that is forecast, how will Africa ensure that poverty is not
fleeing every other world region and finding a home in Africa?
It is important to note that Africa has a young population and is undergoing a population boom
unequalled in the world today. The population boom could either help power future economic
growth or, if not planned for, could bring about political instability across Africa and beyond
its shores.
Africa already knows it, but it is important to note that Africa represents the largest voting bloc
of UN member states and has more than one-quarter of the world’s voice. No power can
become a legitimate world leader without Africa’s voting power. This is a significant strength
42

ISSN 2518 - 4334
that does not always benefit Africa, which struggles to speak with one voice at the UN and
sometimes even on the continent. This lack of unity undermines both the African voice and its
interests.
It is critical to note that Africa is fragmented. Experts say almost three years after its launch,
AfCFTA, billed to be Africa’s gateway to progress, is hampered by negligible intra-Africa
trade due to fragmentation (Winand, 1993) which, if not addressed, will undermine the success
of the initiative. As it is, AfCFTA which has signed trade MOUs with countries such as the
US (14 December 2022), and with trade bodies such as the Japan International Cooperation
Agency [(JICA), 5 December 2022], might benefit other regions, leaving Africa at the
periphery. Much of the world, except Africa, views the continent and interacts with it as an
integrated regional bloc, which makes both political and economic sense, while Africa
continues to look at itself as fifty-four distinct political entities, which is unhelpful for its
progress. African governments compete against each other where they could be pooling
resources to present one strong and united front. If African countries are championing solitary
engagement with minimal success in a globalised individualistic world; will a fragmented
Africa survive in a regionalised multipolar world?
Recommendations (Options for Africa)

Faced with the present power shifts and new global configuration, what options does Africa
have? This section will supply solutions to the concerns raised under ‘Things Africa Should
Note in a Changing World Order’ above.
The Need for a Change of Approach

Is Africa thinking and acting strategically in preparation for a new global configuration, or will
it be a sitting duck as in past centuries? Africa must be proactive and abandon the usual
approaches that competitors think it always takes, which are:
i) To choose the right wagon on which to ride and look for ways to extract benefits out of
the arrangement. This simply maintains the status quo and will not do.
ii) To complain about exploitation, neo-colonialism and the right of Africans to their
resources and for Africans to craft solutions for African problems. The usual rhetoric
is not enough. There is need for proactive initiative.
Africa needs to be proactive by assessing its geo-political position in global affairs and
determining how it will be advantageous. After that the question to ask is not ‘among the
competitors who has the better framework for Africa to fit in’, but it should be, how can Africa
construct its own framework for managing its assets, countering the new scramble, and
exploiting the world’s resources while collaborating with other countries’ frameworks of
choice? Africa must make others adjust to its framework where Africa is concerned instead of
it always adjusting to frameworks that feature non-African interests. If others are scrambling,
Africa too should scramble; if they are jostling, so should Africa in order to build capacity in
its people, governments and economies to re-position for future advantage. Do we have African
policy papers on how to reposition in the next world order?
43

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Unite or Perish!
Africa must deal with its fragmentation issues to prepare for the transition from the globalised
unipolar environment which favoured individualism, to a regionalised multipolar setting which
emphasises collective effort. The new global formation is emphasising RBAs and is forming
alliances in all world regions at a furious pace. While Africa already has RECs, the bloc that
will matter in the new order is Africa as an integrated RBA. It will not work for African
countries to go it alone because they will not achieve economies of scale. Africa’s ‘RECs as
building blocks’ strategy is moving at a slower pace than world events. The problems that
AfCFTA faces now already reveal that economic integration without political unity will be
difficult in Africa. Heads of State agreements to eliminate borders, visas, and numerous
customs requirements are useless without implementation. Political will and leadership are
needed now more than ever to get Africa past ‘agreements’ to implementation, otherwise
Nkrumah, who said Africa Unite or perish, remains a voice crying in the wilderness. African
leaders with a Pan Africanist orientation need to take the bull by the horns and take Africa
forward to the final destination of a politically and economically integrated continent. Only
then will Africa move from the ‘potential’ status to the ‘powerhouse’ realm.
Harnessing the Power of Youth and Women

In the new world order, trade is the watchword. Africa, the only region in the world
experiencing a young population boom, should plan for young people, including women, to
power Africa’s industrialisation and economic growth. The fact is widely acknowledged that
Africa’s women have a sustained relationship with the continent’s rural nucleus, and are closely
associated with the subsistence economy, which offers a viable springboard for realistic
growth. Furthermore, it is a fact that more females than males feature in the youth demographic.
If the demographic boom is not planned for, it could trigger instability across Africa. The plan
should take advantage of new opportunities to inter-connect youth and women’s businesses
across Africa, and to link them to international RBAs. The businesses ought to be encouraged
in the areas of green and blue economies, exploitation and beneficiation of diverse African
resources, including land, services and the arts, while they utilise technologies. Let the youth
and women power the next stage of Africa’s industrialisation while linking them to
international RBAs.
The Need to Self-decolonize.

Africa needs to self-decolonize at every level - governments; bureaucracies; regional and
continental bodies; institutions, especially of education and training; as well as its publics. After
centuries of one form or another of western domination over successive African generations,
from the fifteenth century to the present, many Africans are socialised into non-African values
through assimilation, acculturation, modernity and globalisation. To articulate African interests
and reframe African presence and progress, the African mind generally needs a re-orientation
through decolonial action from non-African to African values and constructs. In decolonial
action, each entity is responsible for its own decolonial liberation; no one decolonizes someone
else or decolonizes on behalf of others. Decoloniality offers the choice to either assimilate or
44

ISSN 2518 - 4334
self-decolonise. To assimilate can be understood as to comply with the status quo and resign
yourself to playing the game that is imposed on you while to self-decolonise would be leaving
the game that is not yours but was imposed on you, and delink. Delinking from non-African
constructs is followed by a relinking to the game that is yours or reconstructing it from scratch.
The relinking leads to transformative action whereby Africa begins to act, to be, and to think
decolonially; building and rebuilding its presence, development and progress in ways that were
disavowed or destroyed by centuries-old domination.
Empower the African Union

If Africa is the RBA that will champion the cause of millions of Africans in the new world
order, it needs the African Union to be more empowered than it is now. The African Union,
launched in 2002 as the next stage of Pan Africanism to spearhead Africa’s regeneration and
reverse its marginalization and underdevelopment, currently has no power to enforce any of
the declarations, protocols, and conventions that it authors. It remains up to individual
governments to comply or not, which renders the AU a pointless social club. If empowered,
the AU would coordinate within Africa all the matters of note that are listed in the preceding
section of this paper. Empowering the AU would require:
• African Heads of State to assess the role of the AU on the continent in the context
of the new world order and revisit the powers given to it.
• African Heads of State to recommend programs to move the African Union from a
WLWO orientation, in which it is socialised, to a new thinking in line with Africa’s
new direction. There is need to socialise the AU at every level into the idea of a
New Africa, with emphasis on African values and ethics.
• The AU to be visible to African publics in local areas to impart the African vision
to them and bring them continental programs. The AU must use information and
communication technologies, as well as other emerging technologies, in this work,
• African Heads of State to revisit the 2007 Accra Declaration on the formation of an
African Union Government and, in light of the state of Africa and current global
changes, consider setting up the African Union as a nucleus for an African Union
Government.
Make the AfCFTA work

AfCFTA is hailed on the continent and elsewhere as a game changer for Africa. Other countries
and blocs know its potential and are rushing to sign trade MOUs. Africa needs to work overtime
to eliminate obstacles to make AfCFTA work for Africa first, taking along Grassroots Africa,
the Private Sector, Youth and Women. AfCFTA should focus, to begin with, on helping Africa
to achieve comprehensive intra-trade before the continent is opened up to be a dumping ground
for external goods. There is a precedent for such action. The American administration of
President Eisenhower, which espoused liberal economic values as the means to economic
might, allowed the EEC (predecessor to the EU) to become a closed economic bloc in order to
make Western Europe a powerful partner in the Cold War (Winand, 1993). Africa needs this
to avoid being edged out of its program by competing regions.
45

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Education and Advocacy
There is need to come up with re-orientation and capacity building programs to ready African
people, governments, bureaucracies, institutions and economies for the transition from the
ideological unipolar reign to which they were accustomed, to a multicultural multipolar world.
Universities need to be the torch bearers in moulding the intellect to conceptualise a new
paradigm that facilitates a fundamental rethinking of the European mischief of 1984/85, and
that rectifies that monumental wrong. Universities can amplify the desirability and urgency of
this sea change through constructive activism, which might include high profile symposia,
seminars, and public lectures. The role of African universities in directly advising the polity
has not been at all visible, implying that there is dereliction in that regard.
Conclusion
This paper briefly showed the factors that led to the rise of the WLWO, its characteristics and
impact on Africa. It explored how WLWO values perpetuated colonial era values in Africa that
led to continued marginalization, identity crisis and underdevelopment in successive African
generations. The paper showed, not only Africa’s, but also global discontent with the WLWO
and the factors that led to its decline. It described the emerging world order and its
characteristics, placing Africa within its context. The paper then gave options for Africa to rise
from underdevelopment and to reframe its role, catapulting the continent from the periphery to
the centre of global affairs, while casting away the stepchild image. In posing a number of
questions, the paper indicated what the author considered to be fecund areas for further research
and proposed a more robust role for African Universities in guiding continental thought and
action.
References
1. Adejumobi, S., 2000. Elections in Africa: A fading shadow of democracy?.

International Political Science Review, 21(1), pp. 59-73.
2. African-Development-Bank, 2023-2024. African Development Bank.
https://www.afdb.org. [Online] Available at: https://www.afdb.org/en/news-and-
events/press-releases/africas-economic-growth-outpace-global-forecast-2023-2024-
african-development-bank-biannual-report-
58293#:~:text=Africa's%20pre%2DCovid%2D19%20top,%
3. [Accessed 28 March 2023].
4. Ahere, J., 2020. Africa's dalliance with democracy, but whose democracy?. In: Africa
Rising? Navigating the nexus between rhetoric and emerging reality . Ediciones
Universidad de Navarra, S.A, pp. 37-58.
5. Albright, M., 1997, April 15. Forrestal Lecture: "American Principle and Purpose in
East Asia". US Secretary of State Madeleine K. Albright Remarks and Q&A Session at
the U. S. Naval Academy, Washington, DC: US Department of State. https://1997-
2001.state.gov/statements/970415.html
6. Albright, M., 1998, February 19. US Secretary of State Madeleine K. Albright
Interview on NBC-TV "The Today Show" with Matt Lauer. We are America. We are
46

ISSN 2518 - 4334
the Indispensable Nation, Washington DC: US Department of State. https://1997-
2001.state.gov/statements/1998/980219a.html
7. AlJazeera, 2023. China’s Xi tells Putin of ‘changes not seen for 100 years’. [Online]
8. Available at: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/22/xi-tells-putin-of-changes-
not-seen-for-100 [Accessed 28 March 2023].
9. Alonso-Trabanco, J., 2023, 21 February. Geopolitical Monitor. [Online]
10. Available at: https://www.geopoliticalmonitor.com/the-mirage-of-the-liberal-world-
order/
11. [Accessed 27 March 2023].
12. Apata, G., 2018. The Suffocating Nature of Colonial Capitalism-Review of Walter
Rodney’s How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. [Online] Available at:
https://www.theoryculturesociety.org/blog/review-walter-rodney-how-europe-
underdeveloped-africa [Accessed 23 March 2023].
13. ASEAN, 2023. ASEAN-The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. [Online]
Available at: https://asean.org/our-communities/economic-community/integration-
with-global-economy/the-regional-comprehensive-economic-partnership-rcep/
[Accessed 26 April 2023].
14. Ashford, E., 2021. When Donald Met Washington: The Genesis of ‘Great Power
Competition. International Security Studies Forum, America and the World-The
Effects of the Trump Presidency, 1 July. https://issforum.org/to/ps2021-44
15. Biden, J., 30 June 2022. Remarks by President Biden in Press Conference at NATO
Summit in Madrid, Spain: Democracies of the world will fight to keep the RBO,
Washington, DC: The White House Briefing Room, Speeches and Remarks.
https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/speeches-remarks/2022/06/30/remarks-
by-president-biden-in-press-conference-madrid-spain/
16. Bush, G., 1990 September 11. Address Before a Joint Session of the Congress on the
Persian Gulf Crisis and the Federal Budget Deficit - A New World Order (Public
Papers), Washington, DC: George Bush Presidential Library and Museum.
https://bush41library.tamu.edu/archives/public-papers/2217
17. Campbell et al, 2016. Extending American Power: Strategies to Expand U.S.
Engagement in a Competitive World Order. Centre for a New American Security, 1
May, pp. 1-22. http://www.jstor.com/stable/resrep06165
https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/resrep06165.pdf?refreqid=fastly-
default%3A66de18b4ac2f8d504cb2bc5535d75971&ab_segments=&origin=&initiator
=&acceptTC=1
18. Chatham-House, 2015. The Search for Global Leadership: Challenges to the Rules-
Based International Order. Session 1. London, Chatham House The Royal Institute of
International Affairs.
https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/London%20Conference%202015%2
0-%20Background%20Papers.pdf
47

ISSN 2518 - 4334
19. China-State-Council-Information-Office, 2018. China and the World Trade
Organization. China Report, 1 June, p. 1. http://sl.china-
embassy.gov.cn/eng/zt_1/WTO/
20. Chinese-Foreign-Affairs-Ministry, 2022. Never Seek Hegemony_ China's Voice at the
UN General Assembly. New York, Chinese Foreign Ministry.
https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/topics_665678/zggcddwjw100ggs/jszgddzg/2022
08/t20220826_10754228.html
21. Chipaike, R. a. M. K., 2018. The Question of African Agency in International Relations.
Cogent Social Sciences, 4:1.
22. CRS, 2023. U.S. and Chinese Trade in Goods with Africa, Washington, DC: US
Congressional Research Service. https://sgp.fas.org/crs/row/R47197.pdf
23. DSouza, V., 2023. BRICS Gold Buying Spree Worrisome, Could Doom U.S. Dollar:
Here’s Why. Watcher.Guru, 26 April, p. 1. https://watcher.guru/news/brics-gold-
buying-spree-could-doom-u-s-dollar
24. Ghafar, Y. a., 2022. The Gulf Cooperation Council at Forty: Risk and Opportunity in a
Changing World. Washington, DC. eBook ISBN: 9780815739548: Brookings
Institution Press.
25. Grano, S., 2023. China-US Strategic Competition: Impact on Small and Middle Powers
in Europe and Asia. Huang, D.W.F. (eds) China-US Competition. Palgrave Macmillan.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15389-1_1
26. Harris Jr, H. A., 26 April 2017. Statement before the House Armed Services Committee
on U.S. Pacific Command Posture, 115th Cong., 1st sess, s.l.: US Congress.
https://docs.house.gov/meetings/AS/AS00/20170426/105870/HHRG-115-AS00-
Wstate-HarrisH-20170426.PDF
27. Holmes, F., 2023. Central Banks Are Buying Gold At A Record Pace So Far In 2023:
BRICS Countries Will Continue To Be Huge Buyers. U.S. Global Investors.
USfunds.com, 6 April, p. 1. https://www.usfunds.com/resource/central-banks-are-
buying-gold-at-a-record-pace-so-far-in-2023/
28. Jinping, X., 17 January 2022. Xi Jinping Attends the 2022 World Economic Forum
Virtual Session and Delivers a Speech, Beijing: Chinese Government.
https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/zxxx_662805/202201/t20220118_10629754.html
29. Josephs, J. B. R., 20 May 2023. Africa seeks new role as nations eye its resources, s.l.:
BBC News reporter at G7 Summit. https://www.bbc.com/news/business-65649834
30. Kawewe, S. a. D. R., 2000. The Impact of Economic Structural Adjustment Programs
[ESAPs] on Women and Children: Implications for Social Welfare in Zimbabwe. The
Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare: Vol. 27: Iss. 4, Article 6.
31. Krauthammer, C., 1990/91. The Unipolar Moment. Foreign Affairs, Vol 70 No. 1, pp.
23-33.
32. Lavrov, S., 2023. Sergei Lavrov Russian foreign minister urges Russian regions to
actively engage with BRICS: There are 20 countries wishing to become part of BRICS
and the SCO.. TV BRICS, 27 February, p. 1. https://tvbrics.com/en/news/there-are-20-
countries-wishing-to-become-part-of-brics-and-the-sco/
48

ISSN 2518 - 4334
33. Linklater, A., 2016. The ‘Standard of Civilization’ in World Politics. Social Character,
Historical Processes, Volume 5, Issue 2.
34. Lynch, C., 2021. The Libya Allergy. Foreign Policy Magazine, 17 March.
https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/03/17/libya-conflict-10-year-anniversary/
35. Martini, E., 2009. UN Security Council Reform, Current Developments. Policy brief in
"The European Union and the Reform of the United Nations.
https://docslib.org/doc/7039218/un-security-council-reform-current-developments
36. Martin, J., 2023 . Antonio Gramsci, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2023/entries/gramsci/
37. Mbiti, J., 1970. African religion and philosophy. London:. s.l.:Heinemann.
38. Mearsheimer, J., 2019. Bound to Fail: The Rise and Fall of the Liberal International
Order. International Security 2019; 43 (4): 7–50.
39. Mercosur, 2023. MERCOSUR - The Southern Market. [Online]
40. Available at: https://www.mercosur.int/en/about-mercosur/mercosur-in-brief/
41. [Accessed 26 April 2023].
42. Nardelli, A. a. D. N., 2023. EU Suggests Limits on Its Approach to US-China Rivalry.
Bloomberg News, 11 May. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-05-11/eu-
proposes-limits-on-its-approach-to-us-china-
rivalry?leadSource=uverify%20wall#xj4y7vzk
43. NewAfrican, 2018, 15 March. NGOS IN AFRICA: A TAINTED HISTORY. [Online]
44. Available at: https://newafricanmagazine.com/16536/
45. Nkrumah, K. (1966). Neo-Colonialism, The Last Stage of Imperialism. s.l.:Thomas
Nelson & Sons, Ltd., London.
46. Olatunji, K., 2018. The Guardian Nigeria. Nigeria to host 90% of extremely poor by
2030, says World Bank. [Online] Available at: https://guardian.ng/news/nigeria-to-
host-90-of-extremely-poor-by-2030-says-world-bank/ [Accessed 27 March 2023].
47. Omarjee, Y., 2017. EU must end its neo-colonial attitude towards African countries,
s.l.: The Left in the European Parliament. https://left.eu/eu-must-end-its-neo-colonial-
attitude-towards-african-countries/
48. Paquette, D., 2020. Mali coup leader was trained by U.S. military. The Washington
Post, 21 August. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/mali-coup-
leader-was-trained-by-us-special-operations-forces/2020/08/21/33153fbe-e31c-11ea-
82d8-5e55d47e90ca_story.html
49. Rédaction-Africanews, 2023. Building Bridges: BRICS Alliance paves way for African
integration. [Online] Available at: https://www.africanews.com/2023/04/26/building-
bridges-brics-alliance-paves-way-for-african-integration/ [Accessed 26 April 2023].
50. Reserve-Bank-Australia., 2023. Reserve Bank of Australia Global Financial Report,,
s.l.: s.n. https://www.rba.gov.au/education/resources/explainers/pdf/the-global-
financial-crisis.pdf?v=2023-05-14-17-38-44
51. Reuters, 4 October 2022. U.S. asks Congo to pull some oil blocks from auction to
protect forests, Kinshasa: Reuters. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-
49

ISSN 2518 - 4334
10-04/us-urges-congo-to-halt-oil-bids-in-sensitive-forests-kerry-
says?leadSource=uverify%20wall
52. Rodney, W., 1973. How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. Transcript from 6th reprint,
1983; Transcribed by Joaquin Arriola.. s.l.:Bogle-L'Ouverture Publications.
53. Roy, D., 2023. China’s Growing Influence in Latin America: China is South America’s
top trading partner. Council on Foreign Relations, US, 15 June, p. 1.
https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/china-influence-latin-america-argentina-brazil-
venezuela-security-energy-bri
54. Russia-Brief, 2023. BRICS, EAEU & SCO To Discuss Integration At The Eurasian
Economic Forum - A massive Eurasian regional bloc is being created without Western
input. Russia Briefing, 17 May, p. 1.
55. Russia-Briefing, 2023. BRICS, EAEU & SCO To Discuss Integration At The Eurasian
Economic Forum. Russia Briefing, 17 May, p. 1. https://www.russia-
briefing.com/news/brics-eaeu-sco-to-discuss-integration-at-the-eurasian-economic-
forum.html/
56. Ruto W., K. P., 2 May 2023. Interview with Simon Ateba, Chief White House
Correspondent for Today News Africa, s.l.: Today News Africa.
https://todaynewsafrica.com/kenyan-president-william-ruto-demands-respect-for-
african-leaders-after-us-africa-summit-group-meetings-with-biden-and-blinken-says-
they-are-often-mistreated-and-treated-like-school-kids-by-other-wor/
57. Staff Reporter, N., 2023. US Treasury Secretary says Sanctions on Countries hurt US
Dollar Hegemony, s.l.: Geopolitical Economy.
https://geopoliticaleconomy.com/2023/04/17/sanctions-hegemony-dollar-us-treasury-
yellen/
58. Staff Writer, 2018. US vs China World Trade 1980 - 2018, s.l.: How Much Website.
https://howmuch.net/articles/trade-timelapse-usa-china
59. The-Herald-Zimbabwe, 2023. https://www.herald.co.zw/. [Online]
60. Available at: https://www.herald.co.zw/africa-intracontinental-trade-still-fragmented/
61. [Accessed 26 April 2023].
62. UK, P., 2023. UK to host African Investment Summit in April 2024. UK Foreign,
Commonwealth and Development Office, 9 March.
https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-to-host-african-investment-summit-in-april-
2024
63. UNEP, 2023. The largest reserves of cobalt, diamonds, platinum and uranium in the
world are in Africa. It holds 65 per cent of the world’s arable land and ten percent of
the planet’s internal renewable fresh water source. [Online] Available at:
https://www.unep.org/regions/africa/our-work-
africa#:~:text=The%20continent%20has%2040%20percent,internal%20renewable%2
0fresh%20water%20source. [Accessed 15 May 2023].
64. VOA-News, 28 October 2021. UN Rapporteur Calls for Lifting of Zimbabwe
Sanctions, s.l.: VOA News. https://www.voanews.com/a/un-rapporteur-calls-for-
lifting-of-zimbabwe-sanctions/6289425.html
50

ISSN 2518 - 4334
65. Walt, S. 2018. The Hell of Good Intentions: America's Foreign Policy Elite and the
Decline of U.S. Primacy. New York: Macmillan. Copy at
http://www.tinyurl.com/ydafotv7
66. Wenbin, W., 19 May 2023. Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Wang Wenbin’s
Regular Press Conference, Beijing: Chinese Foreign Ministry.
https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/xwfw_665399/s2510_665401/2511_665403/202305/t2
0230519_11080349.html
67. Winand, P., 1993. Eisenhower, Kennedy, and the United States of Europe. s.l.:St.
Martins Press, New York. pp. 109-137.
68. World-Bank, 2018. Year in Review, Unlike in other regions, extreme poverty is rising
in Sub Saharan Africa,, s.l.: World Bank.
https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2018/12/21/year-in-review-2018-in-14-
charts?cid=SHR_SiteTweetable_XX_EXT%20via%20@WorldBank
51

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Revitalising Indigenous Names in Balancing Environmental Science: A Case of Ignored
Names of Places in Rusitu Valley
Matsapa Wiseman
Peace and Conflict Studies, (Department, School, Bindura University of Science Education,
Address)
Corresponding author: xxxxx
Abstract
Indigenous names of places that the Ndau community of Rusitu Valley has ignored have
contributed to life-threatening calamities such as water-related conflicts, environmental
degradation, and cyclones to current and future generations. This study examined how narrow
options for survival and challenges in the Rusitu Valley have continued to expose the
vulnerable Ndau community to a direct conflict with nature. The study employed the re-
imagination of nature theory as a lens in revitalizing indigenous names of places that have been
ignored by the Ndau community. This theory was aligned with a new environmental worldview
that recognizes a greater integration with the world’s traditional base, namely the Indigenous
Knowledge Systems (IKS). Thus, the study found that indigenous names given to nature by
locals are enough evidence of human-nature coexistence and guarantee environmental
protection. However, the study revealed that environmental oversight given by the current
generation and development architectures have continued to dynamically change their nature,
context, and continuum. Thus, the study aimed to analyze the reasons behind ignoring
indigenous names of places, the challenges encountered after this negligence, and to ascertain
the significance of such names in addressing the problems that emerged. The research used in-
depth interviews, observations, and content analysis to establish the realities around the ignored
names such as Chirambadota (a place where no fire will ever burn), Ndadzingwa (to be chased
away from your indigenous land) and Pene (an upper place regarded as a natural asset by
forefathers). The study also revealed that socio-economic activities by the locals and
development proponents that neglect the coexistence of indigenous names of places and
Environmental Science may proffer serious implications. In light of this scenario, the study
concluded with a call for revitalizing historical indigenous names of places, especially the
negative ones, to balance the socio-economic activities of the locals and Environmental
Science.
Keywords: Chirambadota, Environmental Science, Ndadzingwa, Pene, Indigenous names of

places, Rusitu Valley.
Introduction and Background
52

ISSN 2518 - 4334
The world over, disregard or neglect of the significance of IKS can cause serious and
devastating effects for human beings and the natural environment. IKS, as a broad branch of
knowledge encompassing culture, natural resources, and indigenous names of places, is
important in enhancing social, religio-cultural, and environmental sustainability (Mapara,
2022; Rusinga and Maposa, 2022). Contextually, the term neglect or ignore can describe a
situation whereby the locals overexploit the essentials in areas with specific indigenous names,
prohibiting the overexploitation of natural resources. Names and naming practices in the United
States, the Caribbean, and the African continent, are not merely elements of cultural retention
but also forms of resistance, security, sustainability, and construction of identity and memory
for persons of their descent (Pfukwa, 2007; Fitzpatrick, 2012; Raper, 2017). Particularly in
Africa, the place names that the Bushmen gave to the features in their environment were
primarily descriptive, referring to the geomorphology, hydrographic features, vegetation, and
animals of the vicinity (Raper, 2017).
Naming is an integral part of any society and culture; it is beyond identity tags; it influences
moral contacts, social interactions, and aspirations of individuals or groups within a community
(Akintoye, 2021). Igboin (2014) argues that African names are not philosophical or rhetoric
but are the heritage that is believed to convey deep intrinsic significance for the named or bearer
and the community at large. For the Yoruba people in Nigeria, a name is an essential entity
used to preserve cultural heritage and perpetuate indigenous philosophies, knowledge systems,
and balanced environmental science (Uluocha, 2015; Akintoye, 2021). Contextually,
Environmental Science focuses on interactions between the solid earth, its air, water, and living
organisms. In essence, indigenous names given to natural environmental features by our
forefathers have primordially played a significant role in balancing Environmental Science.
Africans do not just give names to identify the named or bearer, names also serve as an essential
part of indigenous ways of communicating societal values and beliefs and balancing
Environmental Science (Pfukwa, 2003; Mamvura, 2014; Mapara, 2022). Furthermore, naming
is also an essential devisal utilized among various indigenous cultures to express valuable and
historical information to an individual in his/her micro capacity, family or group (meso-
capacity), and community (macro-capacity). Therefore, names are not just signs but are
regarded as symbols that evaluate the nature, importance, characteristics, functions, or
orientation of a given society (Echekwube, 2005). In other words, names encapsulate the
totality of humanity, nature, the environment, and ‘communal existence’ (Igboin, 2014;
Sipeyiye, 2020). Therefore, this study examines the connection between indigenous names of
places, human beings, and the natural environment.
Although various archives, written sources, and oral traditions are important sources of
indigenous knowledge, indigenous names of places are central in providing the historical truth,
memorizing events, and protecting societal values and beliefs in Zimbabwe (Mamvura, 2014;
Mensah et al., 2020). This is particularly so because indigenous names given to the natural
environment by locals are enough evidence of human-nature coexistence and guarantee human
security at all levels (Pfukwa, 2007; Mamvura, 2014; Olatunji et al., 2015). Therefore, the study
53

ISSN 2518 - 4334
accepts that for any society’s sustenance of the environment, indigenous names of places given
by its forefathers must be acknowledged.
Place naming is also central to language revitalization as it helps to strengthen, grow, and
preserve indigenous peoples’ connections with the natural environment and cultural identity
(Uluocha, 2015). Thus, indigenous names gave the indigenous population a sense of belonging,
protection, and sustainability (Baobeid, 2018). On the other hand, ignorance and misuse of an
indigenous-preferred knowledge base can adversely affect vulnerable indigenous communities
(Ndiweni and Gwate, 2014). Furthermore, for many centuries, indigenous communities have
been well known for their virtues of preserving culture, the environment, and the worldview to
the extent of portraying them through their traditional names (Udechukwu and Nnyigide,
2016). In line with this background, indigenous communities can utilize the indigenous names
of places as a social asset that can help them to survive without a direct conflict with nature.
Conflict with nature is a conservation conflict that emerges when people destroy species that
other people want to conserve or when the protection of land areas threatens the well-being of
the locals (Peltola, 2022; Masakure and Ndumeya, 2021).
To the best of the researcher’s knowledge, no qualitative case study has been undertaken to
revitalize the ignored indigenous place names among the marginalized Ndau group. However,
indigenous names of places that the Ndau community of Rusitu Valley has ignored cause life-
threatening problems such as water-related conflicts, degradation, cyclones, floods, and
landslides to current and future generations. With narrow options for survival, these problems
have continued to expose the vulnerable Ndau community to a direct conflict with nature and
Environmental Science. As a recent example, Cyclone Idai of March 2019 devastated the Ndau
community of Rusitu Valley to the extent that many lives were lost, important infrastructure
and the natural environment were damaged, and the local livelihoods of the survivors were
affected drastically (Sipeyiye, 2020; Chanza et al., 2020, Musarandega and Masocha, 2023).
This implies that the recurrence of these unspeakable circumstances in the valley may also
affect future generations. Against this backdrop, the Ndau should have largely taken advantage
of their traditional base by positively responding to the old age wisdom transmitted to them by
their forefathers (Chigidi, 2015; 2021). However, the Ndau people persistently failed to benefit
from the wisdom, such as indigenous names of places when they should have. Thus, the study
aims to analyze life-threatening challenges encountered by the Ndau community after
neglecting indigenous names of places in the Rusitu Valley.
The main research questions of the study are:
• Why are indigenous names of places ignored in Rusitu Valley?

• What are the consequences of ignoring indigenous names of places in Rusitu Valley?
• How are indigenous names of places relevant in addressing societal problems?
54

ISSN 2518 - 4334
This study is structured as follows: Section 2 is the literature review; Section 3 covers the
materials and methods; Section 4 is the results; Section 5 is the discussion of the results; Section
6 is the conclusion of the study.
Literature review
Focusing on the historical relevance of indigenous names in the studies of IKS continues to
cause recurrent problems emanating from Environmental Science. The related literature of this
study was obtained from journals, textbooks, and theses.
The role of colonial and post-colonial practices on Indigenous Names

The world over, colonization and post-colonial practices have brought the neglect of
indigenous named places in many indigenous societies (Wilson, 1993; Ngoyi, 2021).
Renaming and displacement in Canada have been a critical part of settler colonization in which
the erasure of indigenous peoples’ names, languages, cultures, and social structures was
prevalent (Gray and Ruck, 2019). The African names that represent their religio-cultural
significance were taken for granted by the settlers. Rusinga and Maposa (2020) concur that
colonial assumptions were just a way of alienating Africans from their valuable land resources
rather than an attempt to offer more viable environmental management strategies. For instance,
when Chirinda Forest was in the hands of settlers, they imposed policies that discriminated
against indigenous people acquiring forest resources (Ndumeya, 2020). Resultantly, where
policymakers are insensitive to the economic, religious-cultural, and environmental practices
of the locals they govern, the latter resist the policies by clandestinely overexploiting their
resources (Thondhlana and Cundill, 2017; Ndumeya, 2020; Masakure and Ndumeya, 2021).
This aforementioned view connotes the neglect of indigenous names as they are still relevant
in conserving the environment of the locals.
Tensions between elected local government bodies, namely Village Development Committees
(VIDCOs) and traditional leaders, have resulted in the disinclination of the locals to participate
in rural development programs (Ncube, 2011). As traditional leaders have existed since time
immemorial, they are highly respected, listened to, and sometimes almost worshipped.
Culturally, these traditional leaders are the only agencies who can convince the ancestral spirits
to accept or adopt any new concept or ideology in any local community (Dodo, 2013). Without
this historical relevance of traditional leadership systems in sustainable rural development, the
traditional base of the local communities may be seriously eroded and ignored. Dodo (2013)
and Ncube (2011) argue that the quandary with the traditional leadership institution is that the
field has been over-politicized to the extent of accepting everything from VIDCOs and also
being given directions by District Administrators. Presumably, this over-politicization of the
traditional leadership institution also plays a critical role in the neglect of indigenous names by
the local communities.
Researchers must consider ‘land corruption’ as new concepts emerge around the realities of
land redistribution, utilization, management, and conflict (Mutondoro et al., 2016). This new
concept can be defined as the use of political and economic powers to subvert laid down rules
55

ISSN 2518 - 4334
and regulations for individual selfish gains (ibid). Land corruption is against our long-lived
philosophy of Ubuntu, which promotes humanness and distributive justice in all facets of life
(Nyawo, 2023). Moyo (2011) contends that the land reform in Zimbabwe was not free of
corruption as evidence points to most elites who are politically inclined to the ruling party
having been blessed with multiple farms or plots (Chigidi, 2015). This position is supported by
Mkodzongi and Lawrence (2019), who reiterates that those owning multiple farms or plots tend
to be politically connected and use their influence to resist measures to bring equity to the
agricultural sector. Through the lack of distributive justice and compromise in the Fast Track
Land Reform Program (FTLRP) (Hungwe, 2021; Nyawo, 2023), an estimated 200 000
permanent farm workers and many foreign farm workers lost work opportunities. Due to
agricultural disturbances caused by the FTLRP, workers were left out in land redistributive
justice (Kabonga, 2020, Hungwe, 2021). Consequently, these aforesaid disadvantaged groups
opened new lands in indigenous named places.
Challenges faced by indigenous people

The colonial and post-colonial eras have also brought intense setbacks in Environmental
Science. They destroyed indigenous people’s self-confidence and denied them the right to
manage their socio-economic and environmental affairs (Frederick, 2006; Igboin, 2014).
Furthermore, there is a connection between naming and power, naming and progress, and
between naming and bringing it to reality (Wilson, 1993; Chigidi & Mutasa, 2013). Thus, when
Indigenous Africans permit others to name and define their places, they jeopardize the
Indigenous African interpretation of Environmental Science (Ngoyi, 2021). For instance, in
Nigeria, the distortion of place names or toponyms seriously threatens the indigenous
mapmaking (cartographic) heritage, environmental protection, and cultural identity of the
locals (Uluocha, 2015). Therefore, indigenous names of places in African societies have been
taken for negligence since the colonial era.
Romanticizing IKS can be risky as indigenous communities generate context-specific

knowledge that benefits the whole community (Muyambo, 2018). For instance, in south-
eastern Zimbabwe, there is a sacred mountain called Sviba or Gomo raMabika. The name was
derived from one of the traditional leaders of the Murinye clan, who was buried in it (Mawere
et al., 2012). As the African worldview recognizes the life after death or the living dead (Mbiti,
1969), they view places like Sviba as sacred places that must be respected and preserved.
Mawere et al. (2012) establish that Gomo raMabika remains sacred to date; hence, the
numerous breakdowns of Econet contractors’ machinery during the construction of the booster
service road were statements of displeasure by ancestors. This justifies the significance of the
African traditional base in local development initiatives.
Environmental fragility from anthropogenic degradation (Hein & De Ridder, 2006)

exacerbates many local problems, including food insecurity, reduced resilience, conflicts, and
stagnant development (OECD, 2022). Anthropogenic degradation is the human-induced
combination of exposure to climate, environmental, and health risks and insufficient coping
capacity of community systems to manage and mitigate those challenges. Matandirotya (2022)
56

ISSN 2518 - 4334
and OECD (2022) argue that socio-environmental challenges are inseparable from political,
economic, religious, security, institutional, and social conditions in which they become a
reality. This also means that they revolve around how indigenous communities are organized
and how knowledge is interpreted, communicated, and utilized (Matandirotya, 2022). The
above literature shows that indigenous communities must look back at their past as their
essential way forward.
The growing world population changes land use patterns, resulting in environmental fragility
(OECD, 2022; Muhammad et al., 2023). As a result, environmental scientists posit that life
balance on this solid earth is in danger due to human socio-economic activities (Manyani et al.,
2019; Sipeyiye, 2020). This means that the consequences of human neglect of the elements of
nature manifest clearly in weather-related calamities, including cyclones, floods, droughts, and
landslides (Chanza et al., 2020). For example, in March 2019, many lives were lost in
Chimanimani, infrastructure was destroyed, and the livelihoods of the survivors were
negatively affected due to Cyclone Idai (Sipeyiye, 2020; Chanza et al., 2020; Musarandega and
Masocha, 2023). Ironically, most of these weather-related calamities result from the uneven
balance of life between the four components of Environmental Science, namely the solid earth,
its air, water, and living organisms (Allaby, 2002).
The study by Chiwandamira and Mbengo (1999) shows that environmental concerns are
inextricably linked to social and economic activities within any community. OECD (2022)
concurs that most environmental problems emerge within interactions between human beings
and natural resources, incorporating the role of markets and economics, politics, security, and
social relations. An observation made by Rusinga and Maposa (2020) shows that the Ndau
were and still are conscious of the devastating tendencies of the unsustainable utilization of
natural resources that are rooted in the religious-cultural background of the locals. As this has
been the challenge faced in Rusitu Valley since 2000, there is a need to take heed of
environmental science by revitalizing the Ndau worldview on place names.
Worldview of African Names as the Bedrock of Environmental Science

The African worldview ascertains the core understanding of the socio-human, natural, and
spiritual factors of given societal values and beliefs. Sipeyiye (2020) reiterates that the Ndau
worldview, like many other African worldviews, is a three-tier structure that comprises the
human world (social relationships and human beings), the natural world (the physical world
that comprises all forms of material such as natural resources) and the spiritual world (the
atmosphere). The Ndau, just like other African societies, have their own way of studying and
interpreting Environmental Science. The Ndau worldview establishes what is possible,
probable, actual, desirable, acceptable, and essential in each of the spheres of the social,
material, physical, and supernatural (Dube and Sipeyiye, 2021). In the case of indigenous
names of places, the Ndau do not give them just as an act of identifying the named places but
also as an essential part of indigenous ways of communicating socio-environmental values and
beliefs (Mapara, 2022). In this regard, Ndau communities established the naming system vitally
as part of their traditional base.
57

ISSN 2518 - 4334
As Ndau communities do not just establish the naming system to identify the named (Mapara,
2022), some names have been given to preserve and respect nature and ancestors (Mbiti, 1969),
while others act as a security warning. Prohibitions and restrictions through naming systems
on certain indigenous places, like river confluences, forests, mountains, and wetlands, are not
a new worldview among the Ndau but reflect an everlasting indigenous culture. While the
aforementioned elements of nature sustain human life, the socio-economic activities of
indigenous communities concerning the heed and negligence of environmental science offer
serious entailments. The destructive tendencies of human negligence manifest in disturbances
such as cyclones, droughts, and floods (Sipeyiye, 2020; Rusinga and Maposa, 2020). Contrary
to the Ndau worldview, principles of Christianity prohibited the locals from acknowledging
the strength of the Ndau traditional base in sustainably managing their resources. This is due
to the Christian belief that blackmailed solutions to local problems through IKS are diabolic
(Ndiweni and Gwate, 2014).
With all suggestions advanced by various development architects on the development roadmap
(Mawere et al., 2012) of the Ndau society, indigenous naming systems established by the locals
guarantee human and environmental security. In the Ndau tradition, names of places are also
memories of historical events (living heritage), just as they represent the current Ndau society,
family, and individual reality. Chigidi and Mutasa (2013) concur that even during the liberation
struggle in Zimbabwe, men had a monopoly over the naming system used to point to things,
objects, and people. Being cognizant of the Ndau worldview (Dube and Sipeyiye, 2021) on
environmental science, indigenous names of places replay and revisualize the circumstances
once experienced by a particular indigenous society.
Materials and methods

Theoretical framework
The study employed the re-imagination of nature theory to revitalize indigenous names of
places that the Ndau community has ignored. The theory is the opposite of the disenchantment
theory, which emphasizes the complete undoing of the traditional base of indigenous
communities (Reader, 2021; McPherso, 2020). Sipeyiye (2021) supports the view that the
disenchantment of the nature theory has been driven by the modern Western worldview that
reduces nature to material without life or spirit. Consequently, disasters have always emanated
from human interaction with nature, technology, and other living entities. Traditional ways of
perceiving nature as alive and sacred are replenished with modern scientific recognitions,
viewing nature as readily available resources to be exploited by human beings. The re-
imagination theory holds that positive or negative attitudes for or against nature result from a
way of conceptualizing the world that stimulates either constructive or destructive actions
towards it (Sipeyiye, 2020). The re-enchantment theory also aligns with a new environmental
worldview that recognizes a greater integration with the world’s traditional base, namely the
IKS. The theory supports the need to revisit our IKS as the only essential way to address the
problems associated with cultural colonization among indigenous communities. One weakness
of this theory is that the sacredness of nature is viewed as an essentiality to the extent of
58

ISSN 2518 - 4334
forgetting the communal existence of indigenous communities. However, it must be noted that
as nature vitalizes the need for life, human beings also need agricultural land, food, shelter,
health services, and energy (Pinello, 2022).
Study area
The Ndau people are a minority ethnic group found in Manicaland province in the eastern part
of Zimbabwe (Sipeyiye, 2020; Rusinga & Maposa, 2020). These Ndau people are concentrated
in the Chimanimani and Chipinge districts (Konyana, 2016; Mangiza & Chakawa, 2021;
Hlongwana, 2021). Chimanimani District is home to five Ndau chiefdoms, namely Muusha,
Ngorima, Ndima, Chikukwa, and Mutambara. This study focuses on Muusha and Ngorima
Chiefdoms, where floods and landslides due to cyclones recurrently cause devastating
disturbances to some of the historically indigenous named places in Rusitu Valley. For
example, the Copa Growth Point was the area most seriously devastated by floods in the valley
(Chanza et al., 2020).
People in Chimanimani, particularly Rusitu Valley, speak Ndau, a dialect of the dominant
Shona language in Zimbabwe (Chanza et al., 2020). Their history and origins are related to the
Zimbabwe plateau, the fragmentations of the Monomutapa Empire and Mbire Kingdoms, and
the expansionary cycles of the Rozvi Empire (Patricio, 2012). Geographically, Rusitu Valley
has evidenced the vastness of land resources since the pre-colonial period (KBAP, 2022). Most
of the Ndau people occupied the vast area of land along the Mozambique-Zimbabwe border,
from Rusitu Valley to Mahenye in Chipinge (Mangiza and Chakawa, 2021). This supports the
view that the introduction of settlements in this Valley was in conjunction with the availability
of land resources (Chanza et al., 2020). Similarly, Mazarire (2009) argues that the sustainable
livelihoods of the people who live in valleys are determined by their choice of settlements and
indicate continuity in their spatial behaviour.
Methodological prima
The study’s qualitative approach is informed by the constructivist philosophy that seeks to
access the meaning embedded in deep historical indigenous names of places in the context of
socio-environmental challenges encountered by the Ndau people. A case study design allowed
for a close range with the Ndau people of Rusitu Valley in the Chimanimani district. Creswell
(2007) defines a case study as a qualitative research approach in which the researcher explores
a bounded system (a case) over time through detailed, in-depth data collection involving
multiple sources of information. For this research, data was collected through observations and
in-depth interviews with purposively selected informants and accessing secondary sources such
as published books and articles by other scholars on Ndau traditional base. The age groups of
participants in this study ranged between twenty-two (22) and eighty (80) years. Entry into the
research field was done at the beginning of October 2021 and ended at the end of December
2022.
The research purposefully selected three indigenous Ndau place names: Chirambadota,
Ndadzingwa, and Pene. These names are significant as they represent the Ndau cultural
59

ISSN 2518 - 4334
heritage, conflict resolution, and environmental preservation strategies. To that end, the
researcher employed the observation method to deeply interrogate traditional court cases
related to the ignored names of places, disturbances in the Rusitu Valley, people in prohibited
places, and socio-economic activities that expose the Ndau to direct conflict with nature.
Additionally, in-depth interviews with the Ndau people were employed to gather their opinions,
experiences, and the challenges encountered due to the ignored indigenous names of places in
the Rusitu Valley.
Data was collected from a purposefully selected sample of twenty-five (25) participants,
comprising ten (10) elderly members of the Ndau community, five (5) youths who resided in
prohibited indigenous named places, four (4) landless former farm workers, and six (6)
traditional leaders. The purposive sampling technique was appropriate as it allowed the
selection of participants with information for this study. Furthermore, as the researcher is Ndau
and is familiar with the respondents’ culture and socio-economic activities of the researched
community, purposive sampling was the most appropriate. The data collected was coded,
analyzed thematically, and discussed in light of relevant literature. Thematic analysis is an
important process of identifying patterns or themes within qualitative data (Maguire and
Delahunt, 2017). The researcher also upheld the necessary ethical guidelines for undertaking
the study. In line with these guidelines, observations and in-depth interviews were done in a
non-intrusive way in which anonymity was upheld, and the pictures that compromised the
integrity of the observed people and the community at large were not displayed by the
researcher. Therefore, participants were informed of the purpose of the research and were
guaranteed their privacy and confidentiality.
Results
Several themes emerged from analyzing accounts and observations of various participants’
lived experiences on the ignored indigenous names of places in Rusitu Valley. These were used
to structure the study’s findings. These themes include the traditional meaning of some ignored
indigenous names of places and the reasons behind their neglect, challenges encountered after
the neglect, and the relevance of these names in addressing the problems that emerged.
Some of the ignored names of places in Rusitu

From narrations of traditional leaders and local elderly participants, the definition and the
origins of the traditional name, Chirambadota or Masanga, were deduced. The participants
revealed that their forefathers named the area where Kopa Growth Point was established
Chirambadota or Masanga. Chirambadota literally means a place where no fire will ever burn.
Masanga or Masonga also literally means a place or a confluence where three major rivers,
namely Nyahode, Rusitu, and Chipita, meet. The corroboration of traditional leaders clearly
explains the origins of the names Chirambadota and Masanga.
The name Chirambadota prohibits people from residing in the area around the confluence of
these major rivers. Historically, these places were not conducive for human settlements but for
planting crops like chidza (groundnuts). Even when the Rural District Council (RDC) wanted
60

ISSN 2518 - 4334
to establish a growth point, one of the local traditional leaders argued that it was not a safe
place to build structures. Therefore, their ancestors prohibited the building of structures and
the burning of fire in Chirambadota. Against this background, the RDC established the growth
point around Chirambadota after independence.
Through observations and interviews, one of the residential areas established just before the
confluence (Masonga) was Madhomeni, named after the Agricultural Extension Officers, who
were the first people to settle in this place. Consequently, Chirambadota and Masanga were
replaced by new modern names such as Kopa, Gata, and Madhomeni.
The explanations given by traditional authorities living in the Ndadzingwa area revealed the
definition of the indigenous name Ndadzingwa and how it emerged. Before the coming of white
settlers, Headman Dzawanda Dzingire, under Chief Muusha, lived in the Dzikope area called
Keven, which was named after a coffee plantation farmer. When Keven arrived, he ordered the
Headman to leave Dzikope so that he could establish his coffee plantation. However,
Dzawanda, with his people, tried to resist this order. Still, they were forcefully removed from
this place and moved downwards to reside in the lower valley near the perennial Rusitu River.
After being frustrated by this decisive event, Dzawanda named the new place Ndadzingwa,
which literally means the Headman and his people were forcefully removed from their
conducive settlement areas. Traditional leaders concur that the name Ndadzingwa represents
the issue of being chased away from our arable ancestral lands to disease-infested lower valleys
along the perennial Rusitu River. Therefore, this area was not conducive to human settlements
but cattle rearing. Another name supporting cattle production in Rusitu is Mbusho, which
means a viable area for grazing land (pastures).
Narrations by local older adults and traditional leaders who lived in the valley below Pene
Mountain concur with the definition of the indigenous name Pene and its origin. As a cultural
heritage site found in the Ngorima area, Pene means an upper place regarded as a natural asset
by their forefathers. Traditional leaders concur that the place was not conducive for human
settlement, but it preserved natural resources such as grazing land (pastures), water sources,
natural herbs, energy, wildlife, and food. One of the local elderly participants narrated that Pene
ndiro chinyuka chikuru chezvimukowa zvakaita saana imbi, chikwenjere, gwaha,
chimbandikwa, mutsangazi and mwatsara, uyehe ndimwo mwetaiushira mwombe dzedu. This
literally means numerous streams emerged from Pene Mountain.
Local older adults and traditional leaders concurred that the mountain is about eight kilometers
wide and five hundred meters high. One of the traditional leaders revealed that Pene iNdau
yairemeredzwa, iri padenga inotichengetera mafuro, mvura, huni, mishonga yechindau
nezvakawanda. This literally means that Pene is an upper land that was preserved and protected
as a cultural heritage site, pastoral lands, water main sources, energy, food and medicinal
sources, and shelter for wildlife. However, local elders concurred that Pene Mountain was not
suitable for human settlements, but the young generation resided there and introduced
61

ISSN 2518 - 4334
plantations along various streams. They corruptly collaborate with the young generation
leaders (traditional) who do not take heed of their primordial traditional base.
Reasons behind the neglect of names of places in Rusitu

From interviews and observation, the researcher found mixed responses on the reasons behind
the neglect of indigenous names of places in the Rusitu Valley. Some of the reasons given by
traditional authorities and the local elderly participants differed from those of former farm
workers and youths. Traditional leaders and local elderly participants concurred that total
acceptance of Christian values diluted the Ndaus’ cultural heritage. For example, these
participants argued that traditional authorities rebuked the stance of establishing a Growth
Point at Chirambadota by development proponents. However, the government of Zimbabwe
proceeded to establish a settlement at this river confluence. Both the government and the new
settlers overlooked our forefathers' naming system.
By adopting Christian values, the Ndau ignored the relevance of traditional names of places.
One of the local elderly participants narrated: “vadoko varikuti madhara muchakasara, zviro
zvakachinja kare, apana chichaera mazuwa ano tavakushanda nemwanakona wamwari.” This
means nothing is sacred in Christianity; they are working with the guidance of the Son of God.
These Christian values adopted by the Ndau have their traditional base. Colonialism and its
segregation policies also led to overpopulation in the Ndau reserves. As a result, the Ndau were
left with no option except to be in severe conflict with nature. For example, although Dzawanda
knew that he would conflict with nature when he established the settlement near Rusitu River,
he had no option except to accept a defeat by the powerful settlers. Again, people without the
cultural background of the Rusitu Valley community took the meanings of indigenous names
of places such as Chirambadota, Masanga, and Pene for granted. They only longed for new
land to settle with their families without considering a given area's cultural heritage.
On the other hand, from observation and interviews with former farm workers and youth
participants, the research found other reasons for neglecting cultural heritage sites. They
corroborated that some of the reasons behind the neglect of indigenous names of places include
corruption and distributive injustices, market conflicts, unemployment, and lack of other
livelihood opportunities in the valley. Most landless former farm workers were ignored in land
redistribution; consequently, they invaded sacred places and wetlands as an option for survival.
They achieved this in different ways, for example, through corrupt deals with traditional
authorities and taking advantage of the 2000-2009 political environment. Additionally, many
youths have no land and, at the same time, no employment or other livelihood opportunities
exist.
The only survival option at the disposal of these youths is to be in direct conflict with nature
through overexploiting natural resources, which are also essential for future generations. Those
with small pieces of land suffered from challenges posed by market conflicts. For example,
smallholder banana producers were always in conflict for the market with informal traders who
wanted to continuously underpay for their produce. These smallholder farmers were threatened
62

ISSN 2518 - 4334
by informal traders when they tried to go to the marketplace with their produce. As a result,
small-scale producers continuously opened new lands to produce surplus to cater for their
family needs. However, most of the newly opened farming land lies in areas formerly
prohibited for settlement by their forefathers.
Three local elderly participants also blamed the age and background of the installed traditional
leaders. Some traditional leaders in charge of the whole community do not have enough cultural
background, while others are too young to acknowledge the cultural heritage of the Ndau
community. One of the local elderly participants narrated that amweni anamutape arikugadzwa
muno vanonga vasina chaanoziya pamusana pedunhu rawo, ngekuti nguwa yake zhinjitu
wanga arikuchirungu. Amweniwo anamutape acho ngaanogadzwawo ane makore ari pashi
pemakumi mairi, apana chinonga chati chazikanwa pamusana pemagaririro netsika dzeaNdau.
This literally means that some younger traditional leaders do not have enough background of
the society they represent because they have spent much of their time working in urban areas.
They came when it was their turn to be installed. Other traditional leaders were installed when
they were still young (less than twenty years), and at this age, they would know nothing about
Ndau cultural norms and beliefs.
Challenges related to the neglect of indigenous names of places

Four sub-thematic headings emerged from observations made by the researcher and the
participants’ in-depth interview responses on the challenges related to the neglect of indigenous
names of places. These sub-thematic headings include cyclones, floods and landslides, water-
related conflicts, degradation of the Rusitu Valley, and direct conflict with nature.
Cyclones, floods, and landslides in the Rusitu Valley

Traditional leaders and local elderly participants agreed that the neglect of indigenous named
places had exposed the vulnerable indigenous Ndau people to natural disasters and hazards
such as cyclones, floods, and landslides. These calamities minimize the livelihood
opportunities of the Ndau community. For example, due to floods caused by Cyclone Idai,
some of the indigenous named places, such as Chirambadota (do not reside on the confluence
of the major rivers), were totally destroyed to the extent of leaving boulders deposits in the
formerly established settlement. The cyclone exploited the vulnerability and environmental
exposure to which the Ndau people of Rusitu Valley have been subjected. One of the young
participants mentioned that although not as severe as the devastations caused by floods in the
Madhomeni area, landslides in Pene Mountain also resulted in environmental fragility.
Traditional leaders and local elderly participants corroborated that Cyclone Idai swept away
people who resided on the indigenous place named Chirambadota on 15 March 2019. Even
before Cyclone Idai, people were warned by the effects of Cyclone Eline of 2000 that swept
away Nyahode Bridge at Kopa Growth Point. A traditional leader in Dzingire Village revealed
that indigenous names of places given to the natural environment by our forefathers are enough
to point at future human-environmental problems.
Water-related conflicts in Rusitu Valley

63

ISSN 2518 - 4334
The researcher observed that residents of Rusitu Valley fueled irrigation water scarcity by
neglecting their traditional base. Indigenous names of places such as Pene Mountain are
essential for preserving perennial stream water for agricultural and household purposes.
However, youth participants concurred that some major conflicts that emerged resulted from
water scarcity. This is evidenced by the several streams emanating from Pene, which are drying
up and piling pressure on the few remaining perennial streams in the valley. Increased
deforestation, squatter settlements, and environmental fragility in sacred places contribute to
hydrological uncertainties and intensify water-related conflicts. To make matters worse, the
preponderance of mining is polluting some of the major perennial rivers, such as Nyabamba,
Nyahode, and Rusitu. Consequently, this has resulted in muddy water that is unsuitable for
irrigation and other household uses, leading to serious pressure applied on the few remaining
clean sources of water in Rusitu Valley.
Degradation in the Rusitu Valley

From the narrations given by traditional authorities and local elderly participants, future Ndau
generations in Rusitu Valley are more vulnerable to the consequences of environmental
degradation than is commonly assumed. As deforestation and the environmental delicacy of
the valley in the 2000s have been disguised by the surging trend of annual rainfall, future
challenges associated with the degradation of the valley may be serious. One of the youths
indicated that the future Ndau population in this valley might be more susceptible to the
consequences of environmental degradation, such as droughts, than the present. Every member
of this valley must consider the lives of future generations by enhancing balanced human-
environmental interactions.
Local elderly participants concurred that places like Pene were previously reserved as the main
clean water sources for the Ngorima area. However, deforestation and environmental fragility
are now rampant to the extent that Pene Mountain has lost its relevance in sustaining the whole
community. One of the local elderly participants narrated that “ngekwenda kwenguwa ndau
yaNgorima ino ichaomera zvekuguma taakutama neyekumwa chaiyo ngekuti makare kare
taiziya kuti Pene nezvinyuka zvirimwo zvaakupera kuvhiringwa nevanhu vogaramwo ndizvo
zvaiitata kuti tione mvura yakakwana.” This literally means that water resources will be scarcer
in the future because historically, we knew and believed that Pene, which was turned into
agricultural lands, is their main water source.
Direct conflict with nature

The study found that cultural heritage sites were protected and respected through indigenous
names of places. However, these sites have since been converted into agricultural land. The
scenario has resulted in direct conflict with the environment and the existing natural systems,
such as wildlife, rivers, natural forests, and mountains. The youth participants who resided in
previously prohibited areas indicated that there were limited means of survival, resulting in an
uneasy coexistence with the natural system. For instance, the youth narrated that “as youths
with limited options for survival, we find ourselves ignoring the indigenous naming system of
64

ISSN 2518 - 4334
the Ndau community.” The study found that areas such as Pene, formerly forbidden to reside
through the indigenous naming system, were turned into residential settlements.
The relevance of indigenous names of places

From the researcher’s observations and narrations from in-depth interviews of various
participants’ lived experiences, four sub-themes that ascertain the relevance of indigenous
names of places in addressing the problems emerged. These sub-themes include the protection
of socio-cultural heritage, human security and environmental protection, land resources
conservation, and the Ndau traditional conflict resolutions for sustainable peace.
Protection of socio-cultural heritage

From the quotations of traditional authorities and local elderly participants, the relevance of
ignored names of places was largely observable among the Ndau. The study found that
indigenous names of places preserved memories of political, social, cultural, and historical
events just as they represent the current community, family, or personal reality. Names have
been given to sacred places such as Chirambadota and Pene to preserve their socio-historical
and cultural heritage. Participants in this study concurred that indigenous names of places have
helped to protect culture since time immemorial and provided a string of relationships between
people and nature. Therefore, these historical names of places have played a critical role in
balancing environmental science in Rusitu Valley.
Human security and environmental protection

The study found that indigenous named places played an important role in human security and
environmental protection. The researcher observed that human security encompasses the
ability of individuals, families or groups, and communities to be resilient during disturbances
such as floods, landslides, droughts, diseases, and conflicts. Names given to the river
confluences of Nyahode, Chipita, and Rusitu Rivers by the indigenous Ndau inhabitants were
Chirambadota and Masanga or Masonga. Interestingly, these traditional names given to this
part of the valley by the Ndau suggest that the place was unsuitable for human habitation. These
indigenous named places were prohibited from settling by local headmen, such as the late
Dzawanda, due to the experience of floods and diseases and the dangers they posed to human
security. Historically, the Ndau sometimes used this place for crop production rather than
human settlement. Human settlements were prohibited through the names given to this area,
particularly because of the historical calamities narrated by the study participants. Traditional
leaders and local older adults of the area argued that indigenous names given to the natural
ecosystems by their forefathers were enough assurance for environmental protection and
human security.
Land resources conservation

The participants corroborated that indigenous names of places such as Pene have played an
essential role in land resource conservation since time immemorial. Historically, these places
were sources of meat and traditional fruits, medicines, and water for the locals. Free access to
these land resources may consequently result in their overexploitation. However, our traditional
65

ISSN 2518 - 4334
leaders have had an essential role in using indigenous names of places to control and plan the
sustainable management of land resources. Pene is an essential source of water for irrigation,
cleaning, cooking, and drinking water for all locals living in the Ngorima area. Conservation
is critical for sustainable progress because many perennial streams that feed the Nyahode and
Rusitu Rivers have emerged from Pene Mountain. Therefore, traditional leaders prohibited
human settlement and agricultural production in this area in order to conserve land resources.
The Ndau traditional conflict resolutions

Through observation and in-depth interviews, the study found that as mechanisms for
traditional conflict resolution, some indigenous names played a critical role in enhancing
sustainable peace. For example, the name Ndadzingwa, which literally means the acceptance
of defeat before it was too late, helped the Ndau people conserve their natural environment and
avoid wars. One of the local elderly participants said, “muchindau chedu isusu aNdau, kune
twoyi akuna chiriro,” meaning that those who quickly accept defeat during times of conflict
have many lasting advantages. Traditional authorities concurred that historically, the name
Ndadzingwa reminds them of how their forefathers traditionally resolved conflicts, where they
came from, and how they have been deprived of their arable land. Therefore, to avoid
intractable conflicts with serious destructive consequences on the environment and human
beings, the Ndadzingwa approach was a necessary Ndau traditional dispute resolution
mechanism. The Ndau people disclosed an essential connection between traditional conflict
resolution and their naming system. Even the term Chirambadota, which prohibited settlements
in Madhomeni, was an indigenous way of avoiding a direct conflict with nature.
Discussion
Against the backdrop of ignoring the significance of indigenous names in addressing recurrent
problems, this research gives several insights into the reasons behind the neglect and challenges
faced in Rusitu Valley. Most of the calamities that emerged, such as floods, landslides, water-
related conflicts, and direct conflict with nature, are due to the discord between the locals and
their environment. For instance, locals and the government ignored the affected communities’
traditional knowledge base. Hence, Chanza et al. (2020) argue that establishing Kopa Growth
Point is believed to have occurred against the local tradition. Although some locals, such as
traditional authorities and elders, were theoretically aware of the significance of the Ndau
naming system in addressing calamities, development proponents have neglected the relevance
of indigenous names. As a solution, Mawere et al. (2012) noted that it is essential to draft a
comprehensive sustainable development roadmap that will enhance development that is cordial
to the community’s environmental, cultural, economic, and political setting.
Cyclones, floods, and landslides could have been significantly minimized had the locals and
the government paid attention to the local indigenous naming systems. This study found that
whatever views are advanced by different schools of thought on the development agenda of
Rusitu Valley and Africa, indigenous names given to nature by the locals are enough evidence
of the witnessed calamities and guarantee for environmental protection, conservation of water
sources, and human security. In line with the above, the study has shown that as more
66

ISSN 2518 - 4334
exploitation of land resources continues in indigenous-named areas, these indigenous names of
places will return to haunt the inhabitants some other day, even if new development is ushered
in the Valley. In a similar observation, Mapara (2022) noted that indigenous names carry within
them reminders of some of the wrongdoings that are viewed as the most senseless and
completely unacceptable to the environment within which each being is located and exists.
This observation resonates with the arguments by Uluocha (2015), who accepts the significance
of local place names as primordial evidence of environmental planning, science, and
technology.
It was clear that as a direct conflict with nature, evidenced by the current environmental
degradations that are taking place in most of the indigenous named places, the Ndau people are
living on borrowed time. Ironically, people have never won a battle against nature, which can
be equated to the battle between a bicycle (human being) and a train (nature). This contextually
means that current and future generations become the human-nature conflict victims. With the
observed unbalanced environmental science, this study shows that the RDC, the Environmental
Management Agency, Traditional Leadership Institutions (TLI), and the locals must join hands
in preserving local traditions, values, and cultural heritage sites. In essence, TLI must be used
as a direct agency to convince the locals to abide by the communal rules and regulations. In
line with the above, Dodo (2013) and Chanza et al. (2020) corroborate that traditional leaders
are the essential agencies in preserving cultural heritage through customary laws usually
revered in indigenous societies.
The study also revealed that the Ndau people and indigenous communities have ways of
interpreting and balancing environmental science. As environmental science seeks to
understand, analyze, and address the community's biggest environmental problems, the Ndau
worldview ascertains positive interactions between the environment and living beings. The
study recognizes that some indigenous names of places have not been given for security
warnings but essentially to preserve nature. Thus, through the Ndau naming system, the
environmental components (solid earth, air, water, and living organisms) have primordially
interacted with each other and positively contributed to a balanced and healthy ecosystem.
Therefore, according to the study, there is a need to revitalize indigenous names of places to
successfully address the biggest environmental challenges that are currently facing Ndau
residents in Rusitu Valley. The findings corroborate the assumption of the re-enchantment of
nature theory that emphasizes the re-imagination of our traditional base (Reader, 2021;
McPherso, 2020). Chigidi (2015) similarly notes that there is a need to look back to go forward.
Akin to the above were the study findings that ascertained the relevance of the Ndau traditional
base in addressing environmental challenges. However, the significance of the Ndau naming
systems is ignored, yet it is essential for a balanced interaction of environmental components.
The study recognizes that imbalanced human-environmental interactions pose life-threatening
calamities to current and future generations. As a solution, Rusinga & Maposa (2020) noted
that there is a need to take heed of the Ndau rich tradition of norms, values, and taboo systems
67

ISSN 2518 - 4334
grounded in the cultural milieu that is most relevant in balancing the utilization and
conservation of nature.
The study expects that there might be loopholes in presenting data because it employed a
qualitative research methodology. Although qualitative methodology might have drawbacks
for this study, such as statistical limitations in data presentation and the familiarity of the
researcher with participants, the study committed to the qualitative methodological prima that
calls for the trustworthiness of the results (Korstjens & Moser, 2018). Future research might
consider adopting a mixed methods research approach.
Conclusions
The study concluded that the Ndau people have ignored their traditional base, particularly the
indigenous names of places that were primordially important in preserving indigenous people’s
cultural heritage and balancing Environmental Science. Environmental delicacy posed by this
neglect aggravates multiple challenges for the Ndau people, including environmental
degradation of the valley, food insecurity, reduced resilience, stagnant development, and direct
conflict with nature. These challenges could have been significantly minimized had the local
Ndau people revisited their traditional knowledge systems. As Traditional Leadership
Institutions were the most respected agencies by the locals, they must be used in prosecuting
those who wantonly cut down trees and settle in cultural heritage sites. Rather than recurrently
responding to life-threatening challenges caused by neglecting the significance of indigenous
named places, policymakers, government agencies, and development actors must recognize the
relevance of the Ndau traditional base in promoting environmental regeneration, a balanced
interaction of its components, and better collective management of land resources. Supposing
the fragility and degradation of the Ndau cultural heritage sites continues, indigenous names of
places will return to haunt the local inhabitants even if new development is ushered in Rusitu
Valley. Hence, there is a need to revitalize historical indigenous names of places to help the
community prevent a recurrence of the unspeakable circumstances that the indigenous Ndau
people had experienced. This ethical demand for indigenous names of places is responsible for
creating a new socio-cultural, political, and economic order in which everyone in the Rusitu
Valley can survive without infringing the laws of Environmental Science. The study did not
dwell much on the scientific reasons behind the climate-induced Cyclone Idai, such as El Nino
and La Nina weather patterns in Rusitu Valley. In this regard, further empirical research needs
to be conducted on the scientific reasons behind the Cyclone Idai. Therefore, the study finally
noted that the destruction caused by climate-induced disasters was not limited to Rusitu Valley
but extended to other areas in Chimanimani.
References
1. Akintoye, O. S. (2021). Ilaje Names: An appraisal of Yoruba culture. Language in

Africa, 2(2), 83-104.
2. Allaby, M. (2002). Basic of environmental science (2nd Ed.). London & New York,
Taylor & Francis Group.
68

ISSN 2518 - 4334
3. Baobeid, I. (2018). What is a name? The University of Columbia (UBC).
Students.ubc.ca>whats-name.
4. Chanza, N., Siyongwana, P. Q., Williams-Bruinders, L., Gundu-Jakarasi, V.,
Mudavanhu, C., Sithole, V. B., & Manyani, A. (2020). Closing gaps in disaster
management and response: Drawing on local experience with cyclone Idai in
Chimanimani, Zimbabwe. International Journal of Disaster Risk Science (2020) 11,
655-666.
5. Chigidi, W. L & Mutasa, D. E. (2013). The image of absence and the politics of naming
in Shona war fiction. Liberator, 34(1), Art. # 419.
6. Chigidi, W. L. (2015). Looking back in order to go forward: Reading the proverbs on a
signpost. The Dyke, 9(1), 1-16.
7. Chigidi, W. L. (2021). Matters of survival: A case of heavy handed didactic moralism
in Ndau cautionary folktales. Journal of African Literature Association, DOI:
10.1080/21674736.2021.1901538
8. Chiwandamira, I., & Mbengo, I. (1999). Environmental Management. Module for the
Bachelor of Science Honors in Geography & Environmental Studies. Harare:
Zimbabwe Open University.
9. Creswell, J. W. (2007). Five qualitative approaches to inquiry. In J. W. Creswell (Ed.),
Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (pp. 53-84).
Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications.
10. Dodo, O. (2013). Traditional leadership systems and gender recognition: Zimbabwe.
International Journal of Gender and Women’s Studies, 1(1), 29-44.
11. Dube, E. E., & Sipeyiye, M. (2021). Rethinking doro (traditional brew) in the
Worldview of the Ndau of Zimbabwe: A Post-colonial reflection. Indilinga: African
Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems, 20(1), 1-12.
12. Echekwube, A. O. (2005). Good name and chieftaincy Titles in Nigeria Today: An
Ethical Insight. Heinemann Educational Books.
13. Fitzpatrick, L. A. (2012). African names and naming practices: The impact of slavery
and European domination had on the African Psyche, identity and protest. (Masters
dissertation, The Ohio State University).
14. Gray, C & Ruck, D. (2019). Reclaiming indigenous place names. Policy Brief, Issue
40. www.yellowheadinstitute.org@yellowhead.
15. Hein, L., & De Ridder, N. (2006). Desertification in the Sahel: a reinterpretation. Global
Change Biology, 12(2006), 751-758.
16. Hlongwana, J. (2021). Estate farming and Ndau people’s displacement from Zimbabwe
into Mozambique, c. 1940-2010. New Contree, 86(2021), 55-74.
17. Hungwe, J. P. (2021). Ivhu kuvanhu/ umhlabati Ebantwini: The violent Ubuntu in the
Fast Track Land Reform Programme in Zimbabwe. In E. Masitera (Ed.), Philosophical
Perspective on Land Reform in Southern Africa (pp. 83-102). Palgrave Macmillan,
Cham.
18. Igboin, B. O (2014). An African Religious Discourse on Names and Identity. Journal
of African Philosophy, Culture and Religion, 3(10), 26-40.
69

ISSN 2518 - 4334
19. Kabonga, I. (2020). Analysis of Fast Track Land Reform Program’s (FTLRP)
contribution to natural, financial and physical capital in Norton, Zimbabwe. Cogent
Social Sciences, 6(1), 1-15.
20. Key Biodiversity Areas Partnership (KBAP). (2022). Haroni-Rusitu junction and
Botanical Reserves. Downloaded from http://www.keybiodiversityarea.org/on
25/o5/2022.
21. Konyana, E. (2016). When culture and law meet: An analysis of the interplay between
the domestic violence act and the traditional beliefs and cultural practices of the Ndau
people in Zimbabwe. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Kwazulu Natal)
22. Korstjens, I., & Moser, A. (2018). Series: Practical guidance to qualitative research.
Part 4: Trustworthiness and publishing. European Journal of General Practice, 24(1),
120-124.
23. Maguire, M., & Delahunt, B. (2017). Doing thematic analysis: A practical, step-by-step
for learning and teaching scholars. AISHE. J, 8(3), 3351-3365.
24. Mamvura, Z. (2014). A Sociolinguistic Analysis of School Names in Selected Urban
Centres during the colonial period in Zimbabwe, 1890-1979. (Doctoral dissertation,
University of South Africa).
25. Mangiza, O., & Chakawa, J. (2021). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on border
communities: The case of Chipinge-Zimbabwe. Policy & Practice Brief: ACCORD
26. Manyani, A., Bob, U., Chanza, N., & Mavhura, E. (2019). Governance of rural
livelihoods and adaptation to climate variability in Zimbabwe: Enhancement
considerations in Chadereka. Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences,
7(1), 06-21.
27. Mapara, J. (2022). Thrashing negative behaviour through naming: A case of some
Manyika surnames. DANDE Journal of Social Sciences and Communication, 4(1), 93-
108.
28. Masakure, C., & Ndumeya, N. (2021). The trees do not belong to Chief Maranke but to
the Native Reserves Trust’: the politics of timber resource exploitation in African
reserves, colonial Zimbabwe, 1924-1948. Historia, 66(2021), 61-87.
29. Matandirotya, N. (2022). The 2021 Western flood event: The value of flood risk
dissemination on strategies and social media; Jamba. Journal of Disaster Risk Studies,
14(1), a1322.
30. Mawere, M., Sagiya, M. E., Mubaya, T. R., Tendai, T. M., Mtetwa, E., & Chiwaura, H.
(2012). Environment, Development and Culture: The challenges of sustainable
development on cultural landscapes. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa,
14(6), 277-291.
31. Mazarire, G.C. (2009). Reflections on Pre-colonial Zimbabwe, c850-1880s. In B.
Raftopoulos & A. S. Mlambo (Eds.), Becoming Zimbabwe (pp. 1-38). Harare, Weaver
Press.
32. Mbiti, J. (1969). African Religions and Philosophy. London, Heinemann.
33. McPherso, D. (2022). Introduction: Towards Re-Enchantment. A Neo-Aristotelian
Perspective. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
70

ISSN 2518 - 4334
34. Mensah, E. O., Inyabri, I. T., & Nyong, B.O. (2020). Names, naming and code of
cultural denial in a contemporary Nigerian Society. An Afrocentric Perspective Journal
of Black Studies, 52(3), DOI: 10.1177/0021934720980097
35. Mkodzongi, G., & Lawrence, P. (2019). The Fast Track Land Reform and agrarian
change in Zimbabwe. Review of African Political Economy, 46:159, 1-13.
36. Moyo, S. (2011). Three decades of agrarian reform in Zimbabwe. Journal of Peasant
Studies, 38(3), 493-531.
37. Muhammad, H., Fahad, S., Saud, S., Hassan, S., Nasim, W., Ali, B., Hammad, H. M.,
Bakhat, H. F., Mubeen, M., Khan, A. Z., et al. (2023). A Paradigm Shift Towards
Beneficial Microbes Enhancing the Efficiency of Organic and Inorganic Nitrogen
Sources for a Sustainable Environment. Land, 12(680), 1-21.
38. Musarandega, H., & Masocha, W. (2023). Disasters and education system: Cyclone
Idai and Schooling disruption eastern Chimanimani, Zimbabwe. Jamba: Journal of
Disaster Risk Studies, 15(1), a1349.
39. Mutondoro, F., Chiweshe, M. K., & Gaidzanwa, R. (2016a). The Intersection of
Women, Land and Corruption in Zimbabwe: Case study of women in Chisumbanje and
Chinyamukwakwa villages in Zimbabwe. Transparency International Zimbabwe.
40. Muyambo, T. (2018). Indigenous knowledge systems of the Ndau people of Manicaland
province in Zimbabwe: A Case study of Bota Reshupa. (Doctoral dissertation,
University of KwaZulu-Natal)
41. Ncube, G. T. (2011). Crisis of communal leadership: post –colonial local government
reforms and administrative conflict with traditional authorities in communal areas of
Zimbabwe, 1980-2008. African Journal of History and Culture volume, 3(6), 89-95.
42. Ndiweni, N. J., & Gwate, O. (2014). Public perceptions of climate variability risks on
wetland management: A case of ward 15 of Matobo North District, Zimbabwe. Asian
Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 3(1), 28-38.
43. Ndumeya, N. (2020). Conserving wildlife resources in Zimbabwe: Reflections on
Chirinda Forest, 1920-1979. Environment and History, 2(3), 413-442.
44. Ngoyi, N. (2021). African Legacy. Gweru, Senga Publishers.
45. Nyawo, V. Z. (2023). The Fast Track Land Reform of Zimbabwe: read through the lens
of Ubuntu. Third World Thematics: A TWQ Journal, DOI:
10.1080/23802014.2023.2196980
46. OECD (2022). Environmental fragility in the Sahel. Paris, OECD publishing.
47. Olatunji, A., Issah, M, Noah, Y., Muhammed, A., & Sulaiman, A. R. (2015). Personal
name as a reality of everyday life: Naming dynamics in select African societies. The
Journal of Pan African Studies, 8(3), 72-90.
48. Patricio, M. (2012). Living in the Mugano-The portioned Ndau in the Mozambique-
Zimbabwe borderland. Lisbon University Institute.
49. Peltola, T., Arpin, I., Leino, J., Peltonen, L., Ratamaki, O., & Salmi, P. (2022).
Management plans as resources in conservation conflicts. Environmental Policy
Government. (2022), 1-13.
50. Pfukwa, C. (2003). Onomastic innovation in Zimbabwean noms de guerre, Language
Matters 34, 13-23.
71

ISSN 2518 - 4334
51. Pfukwa, C. (2007). Functions and significance of war names in Zimbabwean armed
conflict (1966-1979). (Doctoral dissertation, University of South Africa)
52. Pinello, F. P. (2022). The world disenchantment, re-enchantment, neo-tribalism and the
free Masonry. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 12(7), 186-
195.
53. Raper, P. E. (2017). Indigenous common names and toponyms in Southern Africa.
NAMES, 65(4), 194-203.
54. Reader, J., Jandric, P., Peters, M. A., Barnnet, R., Garbowski, M., Lipinska, V., Rider,
S., Bhatt, I., Clarke, A., Hashemi, M., Bevan, A., Trozzo, E, MacKenzie, A., Aldern,
J.J., Matias, C.E., Stewart, G.T., Mika, C., McLaren, P., Fawns, T., Knox, J., Savin-
Baden, M., Jackson, L., Hood, N., Tesar, M., Fuller, S., and Baker. C. (2020).
Enchantment-Disenchantment—Re-enchantment: Postdigital Relationships between
Science, Philosophy, and Religion. Postdigital Science and Education (2021) 3: 934-
965.
55. Rokhim, R., Januari, A. D., Atik, U., Shara, S., & Rusdayanti, N. (2020). Palm oil social
conflict and mediation in Jambi. Congent Social Sciences, 6(1), 1-13
56. Rusinga, O., & Maposa, R. (2020). Traditional Religion and Natural Resources: A
reflection on the significance of indigenous knowledge systems on the utilization of
natural resources among the Ndau people in South-eastern Zimbabwe. African Journal
of Ecology and Ecosystems, 7(4), 001-006.
57. Sipeyiye, M. (2020). Rethinking environmental sustainability through the Ndau notion
of communal existence. In N. P. Matholeni, G. K. Boateng & M Manyonganise (Eds.),
Mother Earth, Mother Africa & African Indigenous Religions (pp. 85-105).
Stellenbosch, AFRICAN SUN MeDIA.
58. Thondhlana, G., & Cundill, G. (2017). Local people and conservation officials’
perceptions on relationships and conflicts in South African protected areas.
International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services and Management,
13(1), 202-215.
59. Udechukwu, G. L., & Nnyigide, N. M. (2016). The religious and socio-cultural
implications of African Names: Igbo Naming Systems as a Paradigm. International
Journal of Arts and Humanities (IJAH), 5(5), 89-103.
60. Uluocha, N. O. (2015). Decolonizing place-names: Strategic imperative for preserving
indigenous cartography in post-colonial Africa. African Journal of History and Culture,
7 (9), 180-192.
61. Wilson, A. N. (1993). The falsification of the black consciousness. New York, African
World Infosystems.
72

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Labour Brokering as a Corporate Strategy for Sustaining Joblessness in Zimbabwe’s
Mining Sector
Kajongwe C
Department, School, Manicaland State University, Address

Abstract
The study sought to assess labour brokering as a preventive strategy for joblessness in
Zimbabwe’s mining sector. The study was qualitative focusing on a sample size of 10
managerial and senior employees in the mining sector in Mashonaland West Province.
Purposive sampling was used to select the respondents. Interview guides were used to collect
data. Data was analysed and presented thematically. The study findings showed that in the
mining industry, the labour broker acts as a catalyst for workers who are absent for short
periods of time due to illness, maternity leave, or other reasons. The research also showed that
mining firms regularly employ recruitment agencies like FC Platinum Labour Brokers to
acquire cutting-edge know-how and expertise. Findings suggested that brokers were employed
by mining corporations to reduce the potential for human mistake and danger while also
overcoming inefficiencies and risks. The study concluded that labour brokers are necessary for
managing costs like those associated with long-term insurance policies, medical insurance, and
other funeral annuity costs, as well as for gaining new skills and knowledge from newly hired
employees and reducing human resource inefficiencies and risks that could prevent the
company from carrying out its mission.
Key Words: Labour Brokering, Corporate Strategy, Joblessness, Mining Sector, Zimbabwe.

Over the past few decades, it has been increasingly common for people in both developed and
developing countries to hold temporary occupations (Schoeman and Blaauw, 2017; Cassim
and Casale, 2018; Senne and Nkomo, 2019; Runciman and Hlungwani, 2022). As a result, the
concept of labour broking as a means by which companies can mitigate risk and keep prices in
check has gained traction in economies all over the world. Despite this, several scholars have
concluded that it has a wide range of impacts. To facilitate communication between mining
firms and employees, labour brokers play a crucial role in the supply chain, as stated by Steele
(2013). Theorists have also pointed out that there have been anecdotal accounts of brokers not
paying their employees or even subjecting them to servitude (Cassim and Casale, 2018; Senne
and Nkomo, 2019; Calvo, Mcdonald and Bolay, 2021). References to these studies can be
found in publications such as Cassim and Casale (2018), Senne and Nkomo (2019), and Calvo,
Mcdonald, and Bolay (2019). A contract between the client and the broker is essential due to
several liability issues attached to any labour dispute, between the broker, the client, and the
73

ISSN 2518 - 4334
employee. Unlike permanent employees, casual workers do not receive medical aid, life
insurance, or other benefits (Steele, 2013).
Labour brokering is a legally recognised part of the job relationship (Casalle, 2018). The
provision of a social justice and security system that can effectively protect this workforce has
always been a point of contention, as has been the question of how to pay a living wage to this
workforce and how employers will find the money to cover the undeniable costs associated
with doing so. Part-time work, employment through temporary help agencies and contract
companies, short-term and contingent labour, and independent contracting have all become
commonplace in recent years as alternatives to traditional employment arrangements (Steele,
2013). Long-term, high, and consistent unemployment (sometimes known as
"underemployment") has complex causes that are often misunderstood and poorly articulated.
Increasing regional and worldwide trade competitiveness has led to a rise in non-traditional
types of work, such as the usage of "temporary employment services" (or "Labour brokers" as
they are more generally known) (Schoeman and Blaauw, 2017). Labor brokers have been called
"the re-emergence of new apartheid strategy" and "modern slavery" by some in the Namibian
and South African labour sectors. These people have ascribed these designations to themselves
(Runciman and Hlungwani, 2022). Trade unions in both nations are the primary sources of the
public's outcry against labour brokers. A rise in the use of casualized and externalised labour
has accompanied South Africa's reentry into the global market economy. Estimates suggest
that at the present time, over 40% of the workforce in the official labour market consists of
workers who are engaged in some sort of insecure work (Englert and Runciman, 2019).
Constitutions and other labour standards in the vast majority of democracies express support
for providing workers with favourable employment prospects (Steele, 2013). Decent labour
and decent working conditions are cornerstones of sustainable socioeconomic development
frameworks in all parts of the world. The International Labor Organization (ILO) has been
pushing for "decent work" in the world's workplaces since 1999, and they've been lobbying
governments and businesses alike. Thus, "the promotion of decent work has been the ILO's
central objective and organising framework since 1999," as stated by Govindjee (2017). This
concept was first introduced and described in terms of opportunity for women and men to
obtain decent and productive work in conditions of freedom, equity, security, and human
dignity.
Zimbabwe's protracted economic crisis has led to an increase in the number of companies
seeking the services of labour brokers in an effort to lower operational expenses and lessen
exposure to risk (Chanakira, Mujere and Spiegel, 2019). In Zimbabwe, the mining industry
accounts for almost 60% of the country's foreign currency earnings and contributes close to
16% to GDP (RBZ, 2021). The researcher has an interest in the field because of the industry's
positive impact on the economy. The mining sector welcomed FC Platinum as a new labour
broker. It has used a strategy of offering both professional and unskilled workers to its clientele
74

ISSN 2518 - 4334
in order to better suit their requirements. Employees are assigned to clients for a set period of
time based on the deadlines set by the client, resulting in significant cost savings for the client.
In an article published in 2022, Platinum Holdings claims that several of Zimbabwe's top
mining corporations are among their clients. This expansion has resulted in Mimosa employing
over 75% of the employees. The 338 full-time employees at the Eureka mine are barely enough
to cover the needs of the business. Zimplats (2020) estimates that in 2020 fiscal year, 22 local
enterprises that took part in the initiative directly employed 2,450 people, 1,400 of whom were
on long term contracts and 1,050 on seasonal engagements. These are just a few examples of
the many major companies that use labour brokerage as an integral part of their business
strategies. A negative consequence of labour brokering is the displacement of otherwise-
qualified employees. In an effort to cut costs and entice investors, the mining industry in
Zimbabwe has increasingly turned to labour brokers. As a result of the desire to receive
dividends, investors tend to favour businesses that are efficient and profitable. That's because
financial backers only put their money where they anticipate a high rate of return (Runciman
and Hlungwani, 2022). The plan is consistent with and complements the National Development
Strategy. The researcher is interested in analysing the potential effects of this on businesses in
Zimbabwe's mining industry. There has been no previous documented study of labour
brokerage within the Zimbabwean mining sector. To that end, the researcher in this study aims
to examine the use of labour brokerage as a tool of corporate strategy in the Zimbabwean
mining industry.
Statement of the Problem

The unemployment rate in many countries has been significantly impacted by the reliance of
various enterprises on Labour Brokers to supply them with workers over the years (Govindjee,
2017; Senne and Nkomo, 2019). Companies are trying to minimise costs by laying off
employees and reorganising their operations, but this has resulted in a high turnover of qualified
personnel and a consequently inexperienced workforce in Zimbabwe’s mining sector.
Zimbabwe’s mining industry is facing hurdles in attracting top employees because of Labour
broking. However, this study sought to establish the relationship between labour broking as a
corporate strategy and joblessness in the Zimbabwe mining sector. There is dearth of
information to this regard in Zimbabwe’s mining industry, as such the study focused on the
mining sector in Mashonaland West Province.
Objectives
1. To assess labour brokering as a corporate strategy for sustaining joblessness in
Zimbabwe’s mining sector.
2. To analyse employee perceptions on labour brokering in Zimbabwe’s mining
sector.
Theoretical Framework
The study was underpinned by the Resource Based Theory which is predicated on the idea that
there is substantial variation in the competences and resources available to different types of
75

ISSN 2518 - 4334
organisations, and that these variations may endure through time. According to Hamel and
Prahalad (1990), a company can obtain an advantage in the market by maximising the
utilisation of all of its resources and strengths. The premise of the resource-based approach to
outsourcing is that a company should seek out a third-party provider in order to compensate
for its lack of superior, rare, and well-structured resources and competencies. For the purposes
of the RBV, a company's resources are widely defined to include not just its physical assets but
also its human capital, information assets, organisational procedures, and organisational capital
assets (both internal and external relationships). It's possible that your company has access to
certain resources that can help you out. The RBV assumes that within an industry, firms do not
have complete mobility of resources nor do they share resources uniformly (otherwise firm
capabilities would be equal and no one firm within an industry would achieve a competitive
advantage over the others).
Review of related literature

Labour brokering as a corporate Strategy for sustaining joblessness in Zimbabwe mining sector
According to Deloitte (2016), labour brokering is a form of employment connection that is
recognised by the law but looks not to be acceptable labour due to its limitations. This definition
of "labour brokering" suggests that this practise is embedded within a legitimate chain of
employment. Outsourcing workers is conceptually similar to the practise of using middlemen
to find jobs for people. Consolidating the two terms into a single idea is essential to the success
of this research. Some people think of temporary worker subcontracting as part of labour
brokerage, while others think of it as the source of steady, long-term employment (Hira & Hira,
2005; Buckholder, 2006; Deloitte, 2016). While outsourcing contracts can last anywhere from
three to five years, most labour brokering deals are thought to be temporary, lasting no more
than a few months at most. When a worker has only one employer, works full-time at the
employer's location, and is expected to remain permanently in that position, this is known as
"labour brokering," and it is illegal (Schulenburg and Clark, 1996). The issue arises because
casual labourers are not considered "workers" under South Africa's Labour Relations Act and
hence are not afforded any legal protections.
Employers and workers alike are affected by the recruiting process, just as they would be by
any other social or employment structure (Boyce et al., 2007). Labour brokering has the
potential to lower worker morale and decrease their commitment to their employers (Judge,
Thoresen, Bono & Patton, 2011). Still, when times are rough, hiring workers becomes a viable
option; it's a way to make ends meet despite fundamentally terrible working conditions and
low compensation (Berchem, 2005). Employers have looked at hiring workers as a possible
way to gain a competitive edge through increased efficiency (Jauch, 2007).
Although the function of Labor brokers in the national strategic grid is nebulous at best, they
might be studied in light of the TSP's objectives for a country in economic recovery. Investor
trust in the Zimbabwean sector has dropped for many reasons, and this is common knowledge.
As stated by the World Bank, "Upper Middle-Income Countries" have a Gross National
Product (GNP) per capita of between $3,956 and $12,235, which is the stated aim of the TSP
76

ISSN 2518 - 4334
for 2030. Upper middle-income status and pro-poor, decent work-rich, and long-term
development can be achieved through some methods even if poverty is not eliminated or full
and productive employment opportunities are not created.
As Labour brokerage firms proliferated and contributed considerably to job creation, the TSP
predicted overall real GDP growth (%) of 6.3% in 2018, 9.0% in 2019, and 9.7% in 2020.
Although the TSP laid forth objectives for economic growth, it did not specifically address
issues like poverty alleviation or the creation of new jobs. Therefore, the TSP did not pursue a
sustainable development strategy that equally weighted economic, social, and environmental
considerations. It is based on the tenet of conventional macroeconomics that asserts that if
economic growth is achieved, then more jobs will be created and poverty will be alleviated as
a natural by-product. Furthermore, natural resource sectors were anticipated to maintain long-
term economic growth (particularly mining). The advent of labour brokering was a game-
changer in the mining industry, leading to increased prosperity that benefited the populace
through the development of new jobs and a reduction in poverty.
Since the NDS1 was implemented, several camps have discussed whether or not labour
brokering should be added as a strategic partner to the national objective. Having the ability to
rapidly bring in extra workers when needed and let them go when there is less work to do is a
major perk of labour brokering for businesses (Du Toit, 2004; Mostert, 2011; Deloitte, 2016).
Savings can be made on things like office supplies, advertising, job boards, lodging, and
interviews (Schmid, 2015; Lockett & Thompson, 2015). Since it permits workers to leave
unsatisfying jobs, the secondary market for labour contracts benefits workers, employers, and
labour brokers alike.
It is a well-known fact that during the last few decades, the number of individuals working in
temporary jobs has grown in both developed and developing nations (Schoeman and Blaauw,
2017; Cassim and Casale, 2018; Senne and Nkomo, 2019; Runciman and Hlungwani, 2022).
Therefore, in Zimbabwe, there has been a rise in the popularity of the idea of employing labour
broking to mitigate risk and control expenses. Despite this, several scholars have drawn various
conclusions about its effects. Steele (2013) argues that intermediary labour brokers, who
facilitate communication between mining companies and workers, play a crucial role in the
supply chain.
More and more businesses in Zimbabwe are turning to labour brokerage to cut expenses and
reduce risk as a result of the country's ongoing economic crisis (Chanakya, Mujere and Spiegel,
2019). About 16% of GDP and over 60% of foreign currency revenue in Zimbabwe comes
from the mining industry (RBZ, 2021). The importance of the industry to the economy piques
the researcher's interest in the field. For example, Platinum Holdings (2022), a sizable labour
brokering organisation headquartered in Zimbabwe's central province of the Midlands, claims
to count among its clientele the country's most prominent mining conglomerates. Because of
this expansion, nearly three-quarters of Mimosa's new work has been secured through Labor
outsourcing from contractors, leaving the company with a paltry 338 full-time workers.
77

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Zimplats (2020) estimates that in fiscal year 2020, a total of 2,450 people were directly
employed by the 22 participating local enterprises. Of these, 1,400 had long-term contracts and
1,050 had seasonal engagements. Max (2015) argues that organisations can recruit independent
freelancers to increase productivity while reducing costs. Even though temporary workers can
be brought in to help out, permanent staff should be prioritised, as argued for by Bran (2014)
and Max (2015).
In order to remain competitive with the low salaries of other countries, labour brokering has
become a significant employment generator. Only a minority of employment agencies use
exploitative practises against temporary workers. Casual workers are said to be paid less, work
in less than ideal conditions, and have less benefits, all of which Hamersma, Heirich, and
Mueser (2013) looked into their employment conditions. Temporary workers actually make
more money than full-time employees, despite the common notion to the contrary. However,
permanent employees are a huge financial drain on any business, and it's only becoming worse
as a result of increasingly stringent labour laws and union demands. For these reasons, labour
brokering has been proposed as a panacea for social ills such as joblessness, sluggish economic
growth, and poverty. Improving the economy and lowering unemployment are at the heart of
the labour brokering argument. Personal's (2014) research across seventeen nations indicates a
rapid expansion of employment services that find and place workers. Moreover, Canadian
social science research indicates that the competitive corporate sector, fast developing
technologies, and fluctuating market demand have compelled businesses to temporarily adopt
nimbler or flexible means of recruiting personnel, i.e. labour brokering. Temporary workers
are simple to hire during economic booms and let go of when the market inevitably cools
(Schulenburg & Clark, 1996).
When a mining company's primary goal is to sustainably raise the demand for its products over
time, it will often turn to temporary workers to do more with less. To minimise the cost of
frequently changing permanent personnel to satisfy seasonal job demands, a corporation may
choose to use casual workers rather than permanent staff if it expects production to dip for a
period of time. This is normally carried out during a scheduled maintenance period. For the
duration of the shutdown, all plant operations will be put on hold while necessary maintenance,
repairs, equipment replacement, and internal maintenance are carried out. The miners hire a
huge number of temporary workers to keep operations going at this time of year.
Employee perceptions on labour brokering in Zimbabwe mining sector

Like any social and employment system, labour hire has an impact on organizational citizens,
the employer and employee (Boyce et al., 2007). On employees, labour broking can affect their
job satisfaction levels and the degree of commitment to the organizations they work for (Judge,
Thoresen, Bono & Patton, 2011). Despite that, labour hire becomes an option to turn to when
the economic outlook turns out pressing an opportunity to earn income for sustenance in times
of economic hardship despite poor basic working conditions and min mum rewards (Berchem,
2005). For the employer, labour hire has been seen to provide competitive advantage an avenue
to pursue greater efficiencies (Jauch, 2007). This lack of full time employment is characterised
78

ISSN 2518 - 4334
by, in most cases, the absence of an indefinite employment contracts and the execution of duties
at the employer’s locality under the employer’s direction and supervision (Boyce et al., 2007).
People employed through labour broking go to work every day to ensure that they have a roof
over their heads and can sustain themselves on a daily basis (Berchem, 2005). However, in
their readiness to exert their physical and mental labour in exchange for remuneration, there is
always an element of uncertainty (Boyce et al., 2007). Tannert, Elvers & Jandrig (2007) refer
to uncertainty as the vagueness about future events a state of limited knowledge and
imprecision. The situation of labour broking shows that, temporary employees are in constant
fear of job losses as they can easily be replaced, sometimes without notice, especially due to
conflicts or other matters arising from the employment relationship (Boyce, 2006). The
triangular contractual agreement guarantees no continued employment of temporary
employees compared to the traditional employment contract under which the permanent
employees execute their duties (Henson, 2011& Boyce et al., 2007).
In the case of temporary employees, the core of stigmatization falls on work status, because
the “stigma associated with temporary work is derived from a lack of status” (Boyce et al.,
2007). Despite the fact that some temporary employees are employed in high skill and
professional occupations, Cohen (2008) argues that the status difference is inherent in
temporary work. This is evidenced by a variety of factors such as low pay, lack of pension and
other benefits, stereotypical lack of intelligence and the impermanent nature of the temporary
employees’ employment relationship.
The above argument is supported by Boyce, Ryan, Imus, Morgeson & Hauer (2005) when they
found that at least one fifth of temporary employees in light industrial occupations reported
various types of stigmatization. The focal point is that, in the case of temporary employment,
stigmatization entails being dealt with in a devalued manner, because of possessing several
significant features; in this case, because an employee is a temporary employee (Boyce et al.,
2007).
Unethical behaviour of co-workers, bad working conditions and stress are escape elements
commonly responsible for employee mobility as a result of labour brokering (Aamodt, 2007).
Premji (2005) found that bad managers are the chasers of good quality employees. Aamodt
further informs that conflict that is not dealt with in the early stages, poor and stressful working
conditions are some of the factors causing organizational turnover. Also, as Aamodt puts it,
unmet expectations in the form of pre-conceived ideas about pay, working conditions,
organizational culture and advancement opportunities were also found to be directly
responsible for employee migration where labour is hired through agencies. Aamodt (2007)
however, argue that labour broking is an important form of employment and is needed for
businesses to compete with the low wages paid by mining companies. This fact was confirmed
by ADCORP (2014), which showed that permanent employment had decreased and temporary
employment contracts had increased. Labour broking can thus be seen as a remedy for poverty
and the poor economic growth in both developed and developing countries (Finnemore and
79

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Joubert 2013). The argument for labour broking is largely focused on improving the country's
economic growth and unemployment situation.
Research Methodology
Research approach
An exploratory qualitative approach was applied in this study. Qualitative methods were used
to interpret the participants' views regarding the implications of labour brokering in selected
mining companies in Mashonaland West Province of Zimbabwe. This would have been
difficult to achieve if the researchers had used only quantitative methods. New ideas and
insights are encouraged through qualitative research designs. The interpretive paradigm
approach was followed in this research study because the researchers needed to understand
how employees in the human capital department perceive changes to the labour landscape in
the contemporary business environment as it affects their organisations as well.
Research procedure
Ten participants from five mining companies participated in this study. According to Elo et al.
(2014), trustworthiness can be improved by spending adequate time with the participants. The
researcher spent reasonable time with the participants and assured them that this was not his
first time carrying out research which had implications for miners’ work-life balance. This fact
enhanced the trustworthiness of the study, because the researcher's experience promoted a good
working relationship with the participants. After the interviews, further telephone discussions
were held with some of the participants to clarify any misunderstandings and to ensure that the
participants and the researcher were in agreement over the responses obtained during the
interviews. Data saturation occurred after the sixth interview and there was no need to gather
more information.
Population
The population of this study were employees working in five selected mining companies in
Mashonaland West Province and making use of labour brokers constituted this study's research
population.
Sample
A purposive sampling technique was used to identify ten participants for this study. Ten
participants were purposively selected based on their experiences in labour brokering and
expertise in labour laws. In addition, participants should have been employed through labour
brokering. A purposive sample was used because the participants served a very specific
purpose - one of the criteria of the participants was to have knowledge about the changes in
labour relations (Robinson 2013).
Data collection
Qualitative research can be conducted through words (Tesch, 2015) because every person uses
words to communicate through language. In this study, words were used to interpret the
information. The researchers used tape recordings so that they could later transcribe the
interviews verbatim. The data obtained from the interviews was typed in one-and-a-half
80

ISSN 2518 - 4334
spacing with wide margins, which enabled the researchers to add written notes and comments.
The researchers were able to identify important concepts, as well as recurring themes and ideas,
from the transcripts. Individual interviews were used to explore and describe the participants'
knowledge and experience. A specific time was set and the interviews were conducted in a
private room at the participants' workplace to ensure there were no disturbances. Each
interview took approximately an hour (Rice & Ezzy 2002). The interviews were semi-
structured and consisted of broad objectives, which were reflected in the questions asked. The
participants were encouraged to explain their views and experiences in a specific situation and
the researcher explored matters that arose therefrom. This balanced type of interview enabled
the researchers to reach the research goal. Field notes were made, which contained information
about the interviews, the researcher's personal feelings, impressions and the setting.
Data analysis
Tesch's (1990) data-gathering process was applied. Important concepts, as well as recurring
themes and ideas, were gathered from the transcripts, which ensured that themes could be
identified and categorised. The transcripts were then reviewed to identify any additional
concepts or themes that had not been noted initially. Variations and similarities between the
different interviews were noted (Saldana 2016).
Ethical considerations
To meet ethical requirements, the researchers obtained written informed consent from each
participant prior to each interview. The interviews were conducted in a private boardroom and
confidentiality was guaranteed by making sure that the data was available only to the
researchers. The participants remain anonymous and no one had access to the data except the
researcher
Results and Discussion

Response Rate
The scheduled interviews targeted 10 respondents, however only 7 were successfully
conducted translating to 70% response rate. High response rate was attributed to the importance
of the matter to the sustainability of mining sector in the context of Zimbabwe.
Discussion
The results were based on themes presented by respondents in the study. The objective of the
study sought to assess labour brokering as a corporate strategy for sustaining joblessness in
Zimbabwe mining sector and also to analyse employee perceptions of labour brokering in
Zimbabwe mining sector. However, based on this objective Respondent 1 had this to say:
…labour brokering reduces human resources inefficiencies. Accordingly, our mining
organization engages in labor brokering as a method of managing human resource
inefficiencies, which require effort and time while focusing on the company's strategic
objectives.
81

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Another Respondent 2 also had this to comment:
…engagement of labour brokering enhances organizational productivity since
employees get to be recruited based on their highly competent skills. From
my experience in this organisation, management began to pay greater labour
expenditures near $2.5 million annually at a loss in production, and the
mine had to turn to labour brokering by contracting FC Platinum in order to
retain profit margins.
Respondent 3 asserted that:

Quality of the people from the labour brokers is very poor, so what do we do
now? If you need a boilermaker or welder, then we pay very high rates for a guy
that has a boiler shop and we hire his best employees to do the job and he goes
away when he is finished. With the changes we can see that contract workers
become more productive to try and become permanent.
Respondent 4 added that quality of employees taken from the labour broker is not satisfactory
and competitive and this cost the organisation in training new employees to acclimatize
a new work environment and had this to comment:
…it is going to cost you a lot more on training because we need to employ a new worker
every 3 months and these employees must be trained and supplied with safety wear and
gear.
The responses were in line with literature. According to Jauch (2013), companies use labour
brokers to; reduce the impact of strikes by permanent workers, increase labour flexibility and
cut labour costs, avoid having to deal with disciplinary cases, outsource labour relations, avoid
social responsibility toward staff, and avoid labour unions. Mutorashanga (2015) argues that
labour brokering improves the adoption of new skills and personnel with updated competence,
which is critical for improving firm performance.
The survey also confirms what management teams of mining companies and labour brokers
already know: that one of the main reasons a mining company regards labour brokering as vital
is to learn new and different skills. When asked about the mine's approach to managing skill
transfer and development, Respondent 3 had this to say:
The more our firm engages in labour brokering and recruits new workers every three
months, the better we manage skill transfer and development. We had workers that
weren't very open to change or improvement in their skills sets before we instituted our
labour brokerage strategy. Therefore, a labour broker is a resource for finding
qualified new employees.
The respondents were also asked about the level of employee engagement and they felt this
was linked with labour brokering and Respondent 4 had this to argue:
82

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Although new hires may worry about their future employment, they perform well and
are dedicated to building teams and exchanging information. In order to ensure that
our day- to-day mining operations are as efficient and productive as possible, we
have hired numerous individuals with experience working for the Anglo-American
mining business.
Arguments were made during data collection suggesting that a mining company using Labour
brokers is more likely to acquire new skills and expertise through recruitment. Ability in one's
chosen field of study or occupation is highlighted. The findings were supported by Han (2012),
who also posits that labour recruiting can be done to boost labour quality by bringing in fresh
talents. Data also showed that brokers' management, in conjunction with the mining firm's
management, viewed labour brokering as a means of reducing human resource inefficiencies.
As a result, Respondent 5 had this to allude:
The best way to continue focusing on our vision and minimise human relations focus
was to engage an efficient Labour broker and give the company all responsibilities to
manage the labour recruitment for hired vacancies while we focus on the mine's core
business.
Respondent 6 also commented that:
Approximately 60% of a mining company's workforce is employed for periods of two

weeks or less than three months. Most of the people we ask about through our
brokerage firm do so every two to three months. To stay on the right side of the law, the
contract cannot be rehired more than three months in a row. If an employee is employed
for more than three months consecutively in the same role, he or she would be
considered a permanent employee.
Respondent 7 also had this to say:

Supervisory or critical level employees, such as those in the safety, health, and
environment (SHE) department, may be hired on an annual basis because our mine
prioritises safety, and if this department is not adequately represented at mines, we may
end up incurring additional costs as charged by NSSA due to unsafe acts and unsafe
conditions. This division may be provided a contract for 6 months or more, in contrast
to divisions like operations, which may only be offered a 3-month contract, despite the
fact that they are responsible for the lives of every employee in the company.
The results corroborate the claims made by Max (2015), who argues that labour brokering is
practised by businesses to rein in inefficient uses of human resources, a process that
necessitates dedication to both operational and strategic goals.
Conclusions
83

ISSN 2518 - 4334
The labour broker assembled a large and varied workforce for the mining firm. The study's
findings suggest that mining companies replace departing permanent workers with contract
workers to cut costs and protect against employee turnover. The growth of the labor-brokerage
sector can be attributed to this tactic. In the mining industry, the labour broker acts as a
temporary replacement buffer for workers who are absent for short periods of time due to
illness, maternity leave, or other reasons. Findings suggested that brokers were employed by a
mining corporation to reduce the potential for human mistake and danger while also
overcoming inefficiencies and risks. The study concluded that labour brokers are necessary for
managing costs like those associated with long-term insurance policies like NSSA insurance,
medical insurance, and other funeral annuity costs, as well as for gaining new skills and
knowledge from newly hired employees and reducing human resource inefficiencies and risks
that could prevent the company from carrying out its mission. The survey finds that most
workers have a positive outlook on employment brokers. Their employment status was a major
factor in this. However, the study's results revealed that lower-level mine employees saw the
upcoming implementation of the labour broker plan as a ploy by the mine to shift responsibility
to lower-level employees and threaten their rights as workers. The research also found that due
to the nature of the labour brokering system, short-term contracts (lasting between two weeks
and three months) are given top priority, especially for entry-level general staff roles in all
departments. In conclusion, the research showed that improving and regulating labour
brokering could contribute to lowering Zimbabwe's unemployment rate by boosting workers'
emotional security.
Recommendations
The results of this study cannot be extrapolated to other businesses using labour brokers
because they were collected in a mining setting with contract personnel. In light of this, it is
suggested that the research be repeated with a bigger sample size and additional participating
businesses. Finally, it is recommended that more research be conducted to better understand
the concerns of contract workers, permanent employees, and management in labour brokers
regarding the impact of labour broking reforms on businesses and workers.
References
1. Akinwale, A. (2014). “Precarious Working Conditions and Exploitation of Workers in
the Nigerian Informal Economy,” Social Science Diliman, 10(1), pp.117-146.
2. Ala-Mursula, L.; Vahtera, J.; Linna, A.; Pentti, J.; Kivimaki, M. (2010). “Employee
work time control moderates the effects of job strain and effort-reward imbalance
on sickness absence: the 10-town study,” Journal of Epidemiology and Community
Health, 59, pp. 851–857.
3. Albertsen, K.; Kauppinen, K.; Grimsmo, A.; Sørensen, B.; Rafnsdóttir, G.; Tómasson,
K. (2014). Working time arrangements and social consequences – What do we
know? Nordic Council of Ministers, Copenhagen.
4. Amable, M.; Vanroelen, C.; Tarafa, G.; Muntaner, C. 2014. “Precarious employment:
Understanding an emerging social determinant of health,” Annual Review of
Public Health, 35, pp. 229-253.
84

ISSN 2518 - 4334
5. Barker, F. (2011). The South African labour market: Theory and practice. (5th ed).
Pretoria:
6. Basson, A.C., Christianson, M.A., Garbers C., Le Roux, P.A.K., Mischke, C. &
Strydom,
7. Botes, A. (2013). The history of labour hire in Namibia: A lesson for South Africa.
Potchefstroom Electronic Law Journal, 16(1), 506-536.
8. Brand, J., Todd, C. & Laubcher, T. (2012, April). Labour law amendments. Lecture
notes. Johannesburg: Bowman Gilfillan Attorney Group.
9. Bush, A.; McKee, S.; Bunn, T. (2013). “Multiple Jobholder Mortality Patterns in
Kentucky: An examination of occupational fatalities,” American Journal of Industrial
Medicine, 56, pp. 881-888.
10. Calvo, Mcdonald, and Bolay (2019). A report on the Fair Work Ombudsman’s Inquiry
into the labour procurement arrangements of the Baiada Group in New South
Wales, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra.
11. Cassim and Casale, (2018). Welfare State Regimes, Gender, and Depression: A
Multilevel Analysis of Medium and High Income Countries,” Social and
Economical Determinants of Health.
12. Chanakira, Mujere and Spiegel, (2019). Safety and Health of Migrant Workers:
Understanding Global Issues and Designing a Framework towards a Solution,
ILO, Geneva.
13. E.M.L. (2005). Essential labour law. (4th ed). Pretoria: Labour Law Publications.
14. Englert and Runciman (2019). Labour protection in a transforming world of work,
Report IV, International Labour Conference 104th Session, Geneva.
15. Ferreira, G.M. (2005). Developments in labour relations in South Africa: Ten years of
democracy (1994-2004). Department of Public Administration and Management,
University of South Africa, Unisa Press, 24(2), 197-214.
16. Finnemore, M. & Joubert, Y. (2013). Introduction to labour relations in South Africa.
(11th ed). Durban: LexisNexis.
17. Govindjee (2017). Association among Working Hours, Occupational Stress, and
Presenteeism among Wage Workers: Results from the Second Korean Working
Conditions Survey,” Annals of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 26:6.
18. Govindjee, 2017; Senne and Nkomo (2019). Pushing the envelope: the
‘informalization’ of labour in post-communist new EU member states,” Work,
employment and society, 21(3), pp. 551-564.
19. Grogan, J., Maserumule, P. & Govindjee, A. (2015). Juta’s annual labour law update
2015. Cape Town: Juta and Company.
20. Harvey, S. (2011) Labour brokers and workers’ rights: Can they co-exist in South
Africa? South African Law Journal, 128(1), 100-122.
21. Krefting, I. (1991). Rigor in qualitative research: The assessment of trustworthiness.
American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 45(3): 1-15.
22. Kvale, S. (1996). Interviews: An introduction to qualitative research interviewing.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
85

ISSN 2518 - 4334
23. Mavunga, R.A., (2010). Critical analysis of labour brokers: Should they be regulated
or banned in South Africa? Master’s thesis, University of Pretoria, Pretoria.
24. Runciman and Hlungwani (2022). Flexible employment, flexible eating and health
risks,” Critical Public Health, 24/4: 461-475.
25. Runciman and Hlungwani (2022). Non-standard forms of employment: Report for
discussion at a meeting of experts on non-standard forms of employment,
Geneva
26. Schoeman and Blaauw (2017). Contingent workers: Workers’ compensation data
analysis of strengths and limitations,” American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 57,
pp. 764-775.
27. Schoeman and Blaauw (2017). Contract to assess the potential impact of emerging
trends and risks on labour inspection methodologies in the domain of occupational
health and safety (the NERCLIS* Project), Report prepared for the European
Commission, Luxembourg.
28. Senne and Nkomo (2019). “Falling through the legal cracks: the pitfalls of using
workers’ compensation data as indicators of work-related injuries and illnesses,”
Policy and Practice in Health and Safety, 6(2), pp. 63-84.
29. Steele (2013). In search of good quality part-time employment, ILO, Geneva.
30. Swanepoel, B.J. & Slabbert, J.A. (2012). Introducing labour relations management in
South
31. Van Eck, B.P.S. (2010). Temporary employment services (labour brokers) in South
Africa and Namibia. Potchefstroom Electronic Law Journal, 13(2), 107-204.
a. Van Schaik Publishers.
32. Venter, R., Levy, A., Holtzhausen, M., Conradie, M., Bendeman, H. & Dworzanowski-
Venter, B. (2012). Labour relations in South Africa. (4th ed). Cape Town: Oxford
University Press.
86

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Goat marketing challenges for smallholder communal farmers: The case of Beitbridge,
Matabeleland South Province, Zimbabwe
Mutimukuru-Maravanyika, T1 and Chimwai, L2

1
Department, School, Great Zimbabwe University, Masvingo, Address
2
Department, School, Great Zimbabwe University, Masvingo, Address
Abstract
Goats play a crucial role in the lives of rural farmers, particularly in semi-arid regions of
Zimbabwe mainly because of their adaptability to arid conditions. More than ninety percent of
smallholder farmers own goats and maintain stocks of goats for both household meat
consumption and household cash needs as goats are liquid. Goats therefore contribute to
household food, nutritional security and household income. This study investigated the
challenges that smallholder farmers faced in the marketing of goats in Beitbridge District in
Matabeleland South. The study revealed that despite positive developments such as the
introduction of goat auctions, small farmers in Beitbridge continue to face a plethora of
challenges including: lack of feed; failure to access external markets; loss of livestock due to
theft and predators; and low market prices for goats. These marketing challenges were
interlinked and found along the entire value chain. Addressing them therefore require a value
chain approach. The study recommends that: smallholder farmers venture into value addition
to increase their income; make effort to become price makers through, for instance; selling to
niche markets; and adopting the use of the marketing mix in planning and implementing their
goat businesses.
Key words: smallholder goat production, marketing,
Introduction and background

Goats play a crucial role in the lives of rural farmers, particularly in semi-arid regions of
Zimbabwe by contributing to household food and nutritional security and income (S. Homann
et al., 2007). This is because goats are well-adapted to arid conditions, making them a viable
livelihood option for rural farmers living in such areas. More than 90% of smallholder farmers
own goats and goat production has the potential to provide a strong return on investment for
smallholder producers in most developing countries (Sabine Homann, 2008). This is because
goats’ reproduction rate is relatively high, taking 5-6 months for a kid to mature and be
available for sale or breeding. In many developing countries such as Zimbabwe, smallholder
farmers maintain stocks of goats because they can easily be converted to cash (Baah et al.,
2012).
87

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Despite the importance of goats to smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe, the goat sector has faced
several marketing challenges including; a lack of organized marketing systems - the vast
majority of goats are sold using informal marketing channels that are characterized by poorly
managed and unrealistic carcass grading and pricing; and inadequate promotion of goat meat -
farmers often get disadvantaged by the presence of middlemen who profiteer by paying low
prices when buying goats from smallholder farmers and then selling them to lucrative urban
markets where they fetch higher prices (Musara et al., 2013; Pradier et al., 1995). A number
of steps have been taken in the country to deal with the above-mentioned marketing challenges:
a) the formation of the Goat Forum in 2006 that aims, among other things, to explore ways for
promoting profitable marketing systems for goat farmers; b) formation of several social media
goat farmers groups that discuss and share vital marketing information that help farmers to gain
more profit from selling goats; c) promotion of improved goat breeds such as Kalahari and
Boer Goats to improve the quantity of meat from goats and; d) the setting up of goat auction
systems in smallholder farming areas (Nyathi, 2008; Sarupinda & Tavesure, 2009) and the
promotions of goat farmer exhibitions at high profile platforms such as at the Zimbabwe
International Trade Fair (ZITF) (Sarupinda & Tavesure, 2009), for instance.
Despite efforts implemented by goat stakeholders to improve the marketing of goats,

smallholder goat marketing systems have continued to be mainly informal, and inefficient with
farmers facing numerous challenges (S. Homann et al., 2007; Sabine Homann, 2008; Kusina
& Kusina, 2001; Musara et al., 2013). So far, limited studies have been done (Dube et al., 2017;
S. Homann et al., 2007) to understand the challenges farmers continue to face with regard to
the marketing of their goats in Beitbridge District, Matebeleland South Provinces. This study
aims to unravel these challenges so as to contribute to this growing body of knowledge as well
as identify ways to improve goat marketing in the smallholder sector in Zimbabwe.
Research methodology
We used a qualitative research design to generate an in-depth understanding of the challenges
farmers faced in marketing their goats and to gain an understanding of farmers’ perceptions of
what should be done to deal with these challenges. We adopted a case study research design to
understand how marketing was done in Beitbridge using real-life examples of the smallholder
goat companies that were operational in Beitbridge. To complement the case study, we
conducted a quantitative survey to understand the challenges that smallholder farmers were
facing individually in marketing their goats.
We used a mixed- method approach and made use of both quantitative data and qualitative data
collection techniques. To kick-start the research, we conducted a desk study to understand goat
marketing issues for smallholder farmers as well as to identify the stakeholders involved in
goat production and marketing in Beitbridge. This was followed by fieldwork in Beitbridge.
We started the fieldwork by conducting key informant interviews guided by a checklist of
questions (see Annex 2). A total of 8 key informants were interviewed and these included: two
agricultural extension officers; one agricultural extension supervisor; two staff members from
88

ISSN 2518 - 4334
CARITAS Masvingo; one veterinary officer from the Beitbridge veterinary office; and two
students from Lupane University who were on attachment at the newly formed goat companies.
In addition, a total of 3 focus group discussions were organized, one for each of the three
companies involved in goat fattening and marketing. We used participant observation to verify
and observe various aspects of goat marketing on the ground. We also took advantage of
opportunities that arose during the fieldwork and managed to witness goat-selling negotiations
by the three goat companies with various goat buyers in Beitbridge and beyond e.g. Beitbridge
SPAR, Busy Curve Butchery, and other butcheries located in Beitbridge town.
To collect more data on the challenges faced by smallholder farmers, one of the researchers
(Tendayi) joined one goat WhatsApp group, the Progressive Goat Farmers which was created
on 14 November 2018, consisting of 587 goat farmers. Some members of the group were
located in Beitbridge, others in various places elsewhere in Zimbabwe, whilst others were
located outside the country – all the members on this platform were smallholder goat farmers.
Discussions on this platform by goat farmers were monitored over some time (about 5 months)
to understand the marketing challenges they faced and their perceptions of what should be done
to deal with these challenges.
We collected quantitative data to complement the work using a questionnaire (Annex 1). We
also collected records kept by goat companies for tracking the changes in weights of the goats
that were being fattened for sale.
Data analysis
Most of the collected data was qualitative. For the qualitative data, analysis began in the field
and was done simultaneously with data collection. Meaning and understanding developed
slowly over time in a non-linear fashion as the researcher was conducting the research. To
analyse the data, a number of steps were used including:
• Becoming familiar with the data through reading and re-reading the data, writing
down impressions, looking for meaning and determining which pieces of data have
value.
• Focusing the analysis by identifying key questions that need to be answered through
the analysis. This involved looking at a particular question or topic and then looking
at all responses to that question.
• Categorizing the data and creating a framework by identifying themes or patterns
consisting of ideas, concepts, behaviours, interactions, phrases and so forth.
• Identifying patterns and making connections through identification of themes from
responses given and identifying relationships between themes or data sets, and
attempting to find explanations from the data.
• Interpreting the data and explaining findings.
89

ISSN 2518 - 4334
The quantitative data was analysed using Excel, to generate frequencies that helped the
researcher to understand the characteristics of respondents. Excel was also used to assess the
weight gains and losses of the goats that were being fattened for sale by the goat companies.
Analytical framework
We used ideas from the marketing field to understand the challenges faced in Beitbridge goat
marketing. Marketing is an important business function that deals with customers (Kotler &
Armstrong, 2018). Marketing is the process of managing markets to bring about profitable
customer relationships. Many times, the process of creating the relationships takes time with
sellers actively searching for buyers and trying to understand their needs and wants. Even
though marketing is mainly seen as an activity that is conducted by sellers, buyers/ customers
to participate in marketing as they search for products and interact with companies to obtain
information and buy products that satisfy their wants. With developments in information
communication technologies (ICTs), buyers have increasingly become actively engaged in
marketing processes. Marketing has therefore become a two-way affair, with marketers now
not only concerned about how companies can influence customers, but how customers can
influence companies and each other.
The modern view of marketing takes marketing as not only referring to selling and advertising,
but as part of the larger marketing mix (a set of marketing tools that work together to engage
customers, satisfy customer needs, and build customer relationships – see more details below).
Using the new view, marketing is defined as the process by which companies (and in our case
smallholder farmers) engage customers and build customer relationships by creating customer
value so as to make a profit from them in return (Kotler & Armstrong, 2018). To create
effective relationships, sellers must look for and engage buyers, identify their needs, design
good market offerings, set prices for them, promote them, and store and deliver them. Core
marketing activities include consumer research, product development, communication,
distribution, pricing, and service.
The marketing mix is a set of principles that are at the heart of any marketing strategy. The 7
elements of the marketing mix include product, price, place, promotion, people, processes and
physical evidence. Each of these elements is described separately below:
• Product: A product must do what the customer wants it to do. It must meet the
customer’s need or want. To identify a suitable product, a business should conduct
market research to understand the tastes, requirements and buying habits of its target
audience. Conducting market research before engaging in the production of a
product helps sellers come up with a product that is driven by the needs of the
customer. Simply creating a product under the assumption that it will find its place
in the market is a recipe for disaster.
• Price: After developing a product, it must be sold at a price that the target audience
considers good value for money. When calculating a product’s price, it is essential
that all costs entailed in producing, promoting and delivering that product be taken
into account to avoid making losses.
90

ISSN 2518 - 4334
• Place: The product must be available where the customers expect to find it.
Presentation of the product is also important. Place also takes into account the
logistical factors affecting a product’s profitability, such as storage and distribution.
In addition, it also takes into account, marketing channel strategy, one of the major
strategic areas of marketing management (Rosenbloom, 2012). Marketing channels
refer to the route taken by a product as it moves from the producer to the consumer
or end user of the product.
Marketing channels are critical and should be operated in such a way as to support and enhance
the other strategic variables of the marketing mix in order to meet the demands of the firm’s
target markets. Because of developments in ICT, customers now expect more channel choices
to gain access to various products and services from all over the world. Such channels include,
for instance, walking into a ‘brick and mortar’ store to buy products, viewing products online
using the internet and using a touch-screen phone to purchase the products online. Customers
today expect a simple, quick, and seamless buying experience which has posed challenges for
many companies (Rosenbloom, 2012).
To meet this challenge, marketing channels must be managed efficiently and effectively.
Customers normally rely on marketing channels to make products and services from around
the world conveniently available. For efficiency, there is need for coordination of multi-
channels as this does not happen by chance. A multi-channel strategy is important for: resulting
in a set of marketing channels that makes products and services conveniently available to
customers wherever they are located; and enhancing synergy. An example of multi-channel
synergy is when customers use online channels to obtain information about a product before
purchasing it in a conventional “brick and mortar” channel. Other elements of the marketing
mix are described below.
• Promotion: After creating a product, it is important to promote it to an appropriate

audience using appropriate channels. Such channels may include branding,
advertising, social media, promotions and exhibitions just to mention a few.
• People: It is critical to realise that after producing a product, the communication
and behaviour of customer-facing staff is critical as it impacts on the perceptions of
the customer. Even if a company develops a good product, if those who engage with
customers are impolite, they may put the customers off. Capacity development on
good communication skills for staff who engage with customers is critical.
• Processes: The processes for delivering a product to customers are important as they
affect the customers experience, level of satisfaction, and lifetime value to the
business. Such processes include: website user experience, delivery time, delivery
methods and service, in-store waiting time, communication with customer support
after purchase and aftercare
• Physical evidence: This refers to the physical context and paraphernalia like
receipts, “thanks for ordering” cards etc. that come along with the product. Having
91

ISSN 2518 - 4334
these in qualities expected by the customer helps to reinforce the product’s and the
seller’s credibility.
The marketing mix provides an ideal framework for effective marketing of products and for
designing a marketing strategy. Each of the elements of the marketing mix must be analysed
so as to come up with strategic considerations for each of the Ps (those described in the bullets
above). Eliminating any of the elements in efforts to market products can be a recipe for
disaster. Analysing how each of the Ps was handled in the marketing of goats can help in
understanding why certain efforts were successful or otherwise.
The study site
This study was conducted in wards 2, 3, 5, 6, 11 and 13 Wards of Beitbridge District (Figure
4). Beitbridge was selected for three main reasons, a) its proximity to Masvingo province where
the researchers were based and b) its large goat population– Beitbridge has the second largest
goat population in Zimbabwe after Binga (S. Homann et al., 2007), and c) the fact that some
efforts have been made to improve the marketing of goats in the District, e.g. the introduction
of the goat auctions.
ZIMBABW E
Beitbridge district
Mat South
Province
11
13
6 3
5 N
W E
Beitbridge 2
town
S
60 0 60 120 Kilometers
Figure 1: Map Showing Beitbridge District and the Study Sites (Wards)
Goat production in the district was done for both subsistence and commercial farming. Goat
numbers kept by the farmers within the district ranged from 0 to 132, with an average of 45
goats per farmer. The common breeds of goats were the Boer, Matabele, Kalahari and different
92

ISSN 2518 - 4334
types of crosses of indigenous and improved breeds. The main reasons farmers keep goats
include generating income regularly and for household consumption.
The district lies in Natural Region V in Matabeleland South Province (Figure 1). The natural
region is characterized by low and erratic rainfall and receives an average annual rainfall of
250–450 mm during the period of November and March. The district is characterised by poor,
sandy soils and little rain which makes crop production unviable (Dube et al., 2017; Goat
actions opening market opportunities for smallholder farmers in Western Provinces of
Zimbabwe, 2009). The district is therefore mostly suited for livestock production and livestock
species including cattle, goats, donkeys, sheep and pigs. Most small farmers make a living out
of rearing livestock as the district has over 2 million cattle and 1.8 million goats (Sarupinda &
Tavesure, 2009). The animals are used for milk production, draft power and are occasionally
sold to traders who supply markets in the towns.
Studies conducted in the district show that, despite the fact that farmers own such large numbers
of goats, they still do not earn enough income to meet their basic needs (e.g. food, clothes) and
many fail to send their children to school. The main reason cited for this was poorly developed
marketing systems. To try and deal with the problem of poor marketing systems, goat auctions
have been introduced in the district (Sarupinda & Tavesure, 2009).
Results and discussion
Goat production systems for smallholder farmers in Beitbridge

Focus group discussions revealed that goats were being kept for two main reasons in
Beitbridge: for meat and for breeding stock. Farmers keeping goats for breeding mainly
specialised in improved meat breeds such as the Boer goats, whilst those keeping goats to sell
as meat kept mainly indigenous breeds and crosses (of indigenous breeds and improved
breeds).
Three goat production systems were being used by farmers in Beitbridge, namely: intensive,
semi-intensive and extensive systems. The type of system was said to influence the weight of
the goats and hence influenced the profitability of the goats when they were being sold. Some
farmers were engaged in the production and marketing of their own goats, whilst others were
just involved in fattening and selling goats. Because goats are living creatures, they do not stop
feeding until they are sold (and will continue to feed when they go to the new owner. Thus, the
type of production system is critical as it determines the final weight and condition of the goats
when they are sent for sale. The way each of the three production systems was operationalised
in Beitbridge is described separately below.
Intensive goat production systems: Farmers using the intensive systems were said to be few.
Some farmers were feeding their goats on locally produced feeds (usually a mixture of any of
the following, lab lab, acacia pods, maize stover, Lucerne, banner grass, velvet bean, just to
93

ISSN 2518 - 4334
mention a few), whilst others were feeding them on commercial feeds and sometimes
supplementing them with local feeds. Commercial feeds were said to be expensive and
unavailable locally. For the local feeds, some farmers collected these from their fields and
forests, whilst others grew their own fodder crops (e.g. Lucerne, banner grass and velvet bean).
Examples of farmers using this system were the newly formed goat companies and small scale
commercial farmers with expensive goat breeds like the Boer goats. One commercial farmer
who keeps Boer goats said that he purchased expensive pure breeds from South Africa and
hence was not willing to let them roam around the community, where there was high risk of
theft. Another example was the newly formed goat companies who decided to experiment with
commercial and local feeds. The goats they were fattening were fed locally available feeds,
whilst part of the stock was fed commercial feeds. The differently fed goats were involved in
an experiment to compare the growth rates and profitability of goats fed on commercial feeds
and those fed purely on locally available feeds. At the beginning of the experiment, the
companies recorded the initial weights of the goats and thereafter continued to record the
weights regularly to check on the growth of the goats.
Semi -intensive system. Some farmers allowed their goats to feed on the range lands but also
provided them with supplements when they came back home in the evenings. Such goats were
said to be in much better health conditions as they got adequate nutrition through the
supplements provided. One farmer, who was also one of the directors of the goat company in
Fula community, kept her own goats under a semi-intensive system and they were said to be
healthier and weighed more than the goats that her company was keeping under the intensive
system.
Extensive Goat Production Systems: This was the dominant system in Beitbridge where
livestock were made to find their feeds by themselves in the rangelands. For farmers with large
numbers of goats, the goats were being headed by trained shepherd dogs. One farmer explained
how the dogs were trained for such an important task. He said that usually when training dogs
to herd the goats, farmers take puppies around three months of age. Each puppy is made to stay
with the goats and is fed from the goat pen. He said that the puppy is not allowed to leave the
goat pen at all and is supposed to go with the goats when they go to feed in the range lands. He
said that, as time goes on, the dog will begin to think that it is actually one of the goats and it
will develop a sense of belonging to the goat herd. The farmer said that the shepherd dog is
usually fed at specific time periods, e.g. around lunch time and therefore it comes back with
the goats at that time. He said that in the rangelands it is difficult for the goats to find water and
when the dog brings them back, they get an opportunity to drink water.
Several challenges are faced when using shepherd dogs to herd goats, as discussions with
farmers revealed. First, it becomes very complicated to introduce new goats to the herd. One
farmer said that he once lost three goats that he had acquired. He said that he took the goats
into the pen in the evening when the goat herd was back. The next morning, he only found
heaps of meat as the dog killed them. He said that after that incident, he learnt that he should
not drastically introduce the new goats to any herd, but must start by introducing them
94

ISSN 2518 - 4334
gradually – i.e. letting them stay in an area close to the herd first for some days until the
shepherd dog gets used to them and accepts them as part of the family. Second, farmers reported
incidents when goats were brought back but with wounds on their bodies. The farmers
explained that such would be usually caused by a dog bite – they said that when a goat does
not listen to instructions, the shepherd dog bites them, usually on the same spot. Third, farmers
explained that sometimes the goats were stolen by thieves. One farmer said that even though
the shepherd dogs were so good at protecting the goat herds from predators and unarmed
people, sometimes armed thieves could kill them and steal the goats. One farmer once lost 56
goats when thieves killed his shepherd dog. Fourth, though extremely helpful, in situations
when a doe (or several does) give birth to more than one kid, shepherd dogs, will only be able
to carry one kid home and the rest of the kids will be left in the rangelands.
Farmers said that goats being kept under the extensive system usually get inadequate nutrition
as feeds were difficult to get, especially in the current year (2019) as there was a drought.
Goat breeds found in Beitbridge
The 19 people who were interviewed had a total of 701 goats, with an average of goats 37 goats
per respondent. The majority of goats owned by the respondents were crosses of improved
meat breeds and indigenous breeds (Table 1). Other breeds that farmers had included Boer and
Matebele goat breeds (Table 1).
Table 1: Goat Breeds in Beitbridge Communities
Goat Breeds Number %

Boer 48 6.85
Matebele 15 2.14
Cross between improved and
indigenous 628 89.59
Other 10 1.43
Total 701 100.00
Challenges that farmers faced in marketing their goats
Goat farmers faced several other challenges (Table 2). These are discussed separately below.
Table 2: Challenges faced by smallholder goat farmers in marketing their goats
Yes No
Challenge Number % Number %
Low prices 11 57.89 7 36.84
95

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Foot and Mouth Restrictions 2 10.53 15 78.95
Stock Theft 2 10.53 14 73.68
No Formal Markets for Goats 5 26.32 12 63.16
Eaten by predators 3 15.79 14 73.68
Buyers refusing to pay after purchase 4 21.05 13 68.42
Expensive transport for sending the goats to 3 15.79 14 73.68
the market
Shortages of feeds for the goats 6 31.58 11 57.89
Failing to find big buyers who buy in bulk 1 5.26 16 84.21
Beitbridge District under foot and mouth disease quarantine hence farmers cannot access
outside markets for live goats
Beitbridge District was declared a Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) area, [together with several
areas such as Mupfure area in Shamva, Rushinga, Chao Resettlement Area of Mazowe,
Matepatepa, Mt Darwin, Centenary (excluding Mukumbura), Uzumba Maramba Pfungwe and
Mudzi] though Statutory Instrument 250/2018 (Mphisa, 2019). The District, together with
other Districts in Matabeleland South, has been put under quarantine to contain the outbreak
of FMD. Farmers however felt that blanket quarantine was unfair as some areas and animals
were said to be clean. Farmers involved in Boer goat production were the worse hit as many of
them sell breeding stock. Due to restrictions, only live goats that were going for direct slaughter
were allowed to be moved from Beitbridge to other areas whilst live animals for breeding
purposes could not leave the District.
To deal with this problem, some farmers in Beitbridge had already started putting pressure on
the government to conduct research and lift the blanket ban as some areas and livestock were
not affected by FMD. Lifting the ban was said to enable goat farmers to access outside markets
– e.g. other areas in Zimbabwe, South Africa and the United Arab Emirates where Muslims are
found in large numbers and have a huge demand for goat meat. Other farmers suggested that
the government must enforce measures that help in preventing wildlife from being in contact
with domestic animals (e.g. ensure farmers put fences around their farms) to prevent the spread
of FMD.
Lack of feeds for the goats

Due to the drought that was being experienced in Beitbridge, some goats were starving to death,
resulting in losses to the farmer. Farmers explained their difficulties in accessing good local
feeds, and in situations where some farmers were growing fodder for sale, these were said to
be very expensive. Commercial feeds were said to be expensive and out of reach for many
farmers.
96

ISSN 2518 - 4334
The lack of feed was one of the main reasons why most of the goats that were being sold were
small and did not reach the required weights. In the case of the goat companies that were
fattening goats for sale and keeping them under different regimes, the results after a month of
the fattening process were disappointing (Table 3)
Table 3: Average weight gain for goats that were being fattened for sale under different
management systems by Tusanani Company in Fula village
Diet Initial Weight Animal Live Weight Measurements

(Weekly Intervals)
12/6/2019 19/6/19 26/6/19 3/7/2019 10/7/2019

Intensive Commercial Feeds 25.35 24.2 25.2 25.95 26.45
Free Range 23.17 22.83 24.00 24.17 24.42
Intensive Local Feeds 22.90 21.00 21.05 20.52 20.55
To deal with this problem, the goat farmers suggested that all farmers grow their own fodder
crops. In areas where water was scarce, they suggested that farmers adopt rain water harvesting
techniques to enable them to grow fodder crops.
Lack of readily available formal markets for goats

Farmers complained that auctions were taking place only once every month and hence there
was no readily available formal market for selling goats. In other communities, the auctions
had not yet introduced. To solve this problem, farmers suggested that the auctions be
introduced in those areas where they were not yet introduced. They also suggested the need to
introduce market linkages, especially with customers in town as these were many and were
offering better prices as well.
Stock theft
Farmers in Beitbridge experienced the challenge of stock theft. This was especially a problem
when animals were being allowed to graze on their own on rangelands. One farmer, as
explained, above, once lost 56 goats. To deal with this problem, farmers suggested the use of
shepherd dogs in combination with people. This combination would stop thieves from killing
the shepherd dogs to steal the goats.
Livestock eaten by predators

Some livestock farmers explained experiencing losses after their goats were eaten by predators.
As explained above, some farmers have begun to engage shepherd dogs to guard their goats
while in the rangelands. Again, here farmers suggested the use of shepherd dogs as these were
said to be good at protecting the goats from predators.
Lack of goat production and marketing information (e.g. pricing, buyers and sellers etc)
97

ISSN 2518 - 4334
An analysis of the discussion of farmers under the Progressive Goat Farmers Whatsapp group,
revealed a serious lack of information by farmers from various places. Farmers in this group
share their knowledge and skills when it comes to marketing and production information. The
discussions around production and goat marketing issues are shown in Figure 2.
Conversation 1: Farmers sharing market issues on the Whatsapp platform

14/11/18, 12:16 - +263 71 514 7990 created group "Progressive Goat Farmers"
19/07/19, 08:26 - +263 77 229 1180: Latest goat meat prices
19/07/19, 08:27 - +263 77 277 5093: Ndemuno here? [are these prices in Zimbabwe?]
19/07/19, 08:32 - +263 77 229 1180: Yes these are bond prices at Koala
19/07/19, 08:39 - +263 71 458 0864: Inferior goat 13 x 20 = $260 not bad. About US$26
19/07/19, 08:49 - +263 77 320 0854: Are these live weights or carcass weights?
19/07/19, 08:50 - +263 71 458 0864: It must be carcass l guess
19/07/19, 08:51 - +263 77 229 1180: Carcass weights
19/07/19, 09:14 - +27 74 409 0913: What is the average carcass weight of local, Boer goats
19/07/19, 09:22 - +263 71 458 0864: Without matumbu tsb kana 5kg [Carcass weight without offals]
19/07/19, 09:24 - +263 77 277 5093: Turkey irinani here
19/07/19, 09:24 - +263 71 458 0864: With such a pricing structure you better sell a huge old goat coz there is no
incentive for quality.
Conversation 2: Farmers sharing production information in the Progressive Goat Farmers Whataspp Platform
19/07/19, 20:25 - +44 7411 701501: Guys I regret not being able to fully irrigate my bana grass... am told the
crop is shooting/ukuhluma/kubukira without irrigation. This was going to be a big relief for supplement. By the
way 3 bucks are kept zero grazing without any issues
19/07/19, 20:27 - +27 74 409 0913: Zero grazing. How are you sustaining them. I need to get a buck that will be
maintained like a
19/07/19, 20:28 - +27 74 409 0913: How are costs of zero grazing one buck per month
19/07/19, 20:28 - +44 7411 701501: Bana grass, Lucerne and any other materials from garden really.
19/07/19, 20:30 - +44 7411 701501: I will say almost nothing /minimal to be honest unless if one goes for
commercial ones.
19/07/19, 20:30 - +44 7411 701501: We have about 8 or so luceanea trees, a bit of moringa , then those that I
mentioned above
19/07/19, 20:32 - +27 74 409 0913: You have the basic infrastructure. For me it will everything from pocket if
it's zero grazing for now
19/07/19, 20:37 - +44 7411 701501: Basic infrastructure like what? Nothing major, small garden fenced, in your
case a well and a few beds if each then you can try
19/07/19, 20:40 - +27 74 409 0913: How small? I mean the garden which will accommodate a buck or two 12
months a year
19/07/19, 20:47 - +44 7411 701501: They don’t eat as much as we think to be honest. Am hoping to get a few
pictures and you will see the body condition
19/07/19, 21:06 - +27 74 409 0913: Thank you
98

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Figure 2: Excerpts from WhatsApp conversations by farmers on the Progressive Goat Farmers
WhatsApp group
Looking at the conversations on the group, it was clear that farmers lack critical production
and marketing information for goats. Production issues that farmers were discussing included:
a) the different goat breeds available and their characteristics; and how the breeds are supposed
to be managed. Some farmers in the group accused others of weakening the performance of
expensive breeds (such as Boer goats) through pampering; b) different fodder crops, their
nutritional value and their management practices; and c) goat diseases and how they can be
treated – just to mention a few. Marketing issues that farmers were sharing on the platform
included: prices of goat meat at different markets; prices of breeding stock for different breeds;
others were buying and selling goats on the platform too – both for breeding and for meat.
To deal with this issue, farmers suggested that Agritex and the Government Veterinary
Department should train them on goat diseases and how these could be treated. The farmers
also needed more information about these diseases as well. The two departments could share
written materials as well so that farmers become aware of the different diseases and how they
can be treated.
Lack of customers who buy goats in bulk locally

Farmers complained that it was difficult to find buyers who wanted to buy large numbers of
goats in Beitbridge. Such bulk buyers could only be found in far areas like Bulawayo and
Masvingo and this posed transport challenges as in many cases farmers were to meet the
transport costs. Farmers suggested that abettors must open branches in Beitbridge so that they
can buy in bulk from farmers.
Market channels used by farmers and the challenges faced
Farmers in Beitbridge utilised various market channels for selling their goats including:
Butcheries, schools, traders (some who sell in South Africa and offer high prices for the goats),
local auctions, local communities and processors (Figure 3). Selling products in more than one
channel, like what most farmers were doing is called multi-channel marketing. Farmers faced
different challenges as they used the different channels. These are discussed separately under
each channel.
99

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Figure 3. Channels used for marketing goats by farmers in Beitbridge
The majority of the respondents had ‘local community’ and ‘Butcheries’ as part of their main
channels for selling goats (Table 4, Figure 4). Butcheries were chosen because of the high
prices they were said to offer, and local communities were chose because of the opportunity
for farmers to negotiate prices with buyers.
Table 4: Market channels that were used by respondents in marketing their goats
Yes No
Market Channel Number % Number %
Butcheries 10 52.6 9 47.4
Traders 7 36.8 12 63.2
Abattoirs 1 5.3 18 94.7
Schools 9 47.4 10 52.6
Local Auctions 8 42.1 11 57.9
Local Community 16 84.2 3 15.8
Local supermarkets 1 5.3 18 94.7
100

ISSN 2518 - 4334
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
% of respondence utilising
20 each market channel
10
0
Figure 4: Percentage of respondents utilising each market channel
When asked what market channels they preferred, respondents 26% of respondents chose
Butcheries and the local community as their preferred market channels (Table 5).
Table 5: Market channels that farmers preferred
Which market channel do you prefer Frequency Percent

Butcheries 5 26.3
traders/ middlemen 1 5.3
Schools 2 10.5
Auctions 2 10.5
local market - sale to community members 5 26.3
local supermarkets 1 5.3
Canteens 1 5.3
Total 17 100
Livestock auctions
Auctions were said to be organised once every month in some communities e.g. those in ward
11. In other communities, the auctions were yet to be introduced (e.g. those in ward 3). At the
auctions, goats were sold alongside cattle. The auctioneers were said to be mostly officials of
the Rural District Council (RDC) who charged 12% levy on the final price of the goat when
sold (According to respondents, average goats were selling for about USD25 or 350 Rands and
this meant the council would get USD3 or 42 Rands when an average goat was sold). Various
101

ISSN 2518 - 4334
stakeholders were said to be involved in the auction including the RDC and the Vet
Department. Before each auction, the government Veterinary Department had a role of
inspecting the animals for diseases and authorising the auction to proceed or not. For the
Department to do the inspection, the RDC was supposed to pay a small amount of money
(RTGS10/beast) to the Vet Department. After buying the animals, buyers of goats are required
to pay a once off payment of 10 RTGS (for all the goats purchased) to get a permit to move
them to their own farms – in addition, those intending to send them for slaughter were also
required to pay an extra 2RTGS to the Veterinary Department for each beast to be slaughtered.
42% of respondents were utilising the auctions as their market channels (Table 4) – meaning
the auction was not so popular with local communities. Only 10% of respondents chose
auctions as their preferred market channel (Table 5, Figure 4). Many respondents were unhappy
with the prices they were getting at auctions – they regarded them as being too low. They
complained that at the auctions, no scale was used resulting in big animals being sold cheaply
and also there was no infrastructure for goats. Many farmers said they were now avoiding
taking their animals to auctions because of the low prices. From what they were saying, only a
few buyers frequented these auctions and because of the limited competition, farmers felt that
they were being ripped off at the auctions. Farmers also complained about the lack of facilities
for handling goats at the auctions.
To deal with the problem of low prices, farmers suggested the need for them to speak with one
voice – e.g. by forming associations/ unions. Such unions could assist farmers in seeking buyers
and advertising goats for farmers.
Traders
Many respondents did not prefer this market channel mainly because of the low prices that the
traders were offering farmers at the farm gate. Traders also frequented local auctions and one
farmer explained that sometimes they intercept farmers who will be going to the auction and
negotiate to purchase farmers’ goats before the auction. After purchasing the goats from
farmers, the traders would sell to various consumers e.g. those in towns (who were said to offer
high prices for the goats), to butcheries, abettors and processors.
However, in rare cases, some traders were said to sell goats in South Africa. Such cross-border-
traders were said to offer farmers higher prices, as high as 400 Rands/ goat. In South Africa,
the traders were said to sell the goats for prices as high as 1200 Rands/ goat because of the
huge demand for goats there. Because of the high prices they were offering, some farmers felt
that these cross- border traders were the best market channel for their goats.
The traders were said to smuggle the animals to SA ‘via the bush’, and this was said to be a
dangerous venture. The traders were sometimes ambushed by police/ soldiers manning the
border post whilst in transit to South Africa. If caught, the traders risked losing all their animals
and being arrested. Such traders when travelling to SA were said to be armed. The researcher
was informed that they were also suspicious and one had to be careful when visiting them at
102

ISSN 2518 - 4334
their homestead. When the researcher got an opportunity to visit the homestead of one such
trader, she was told that her vehicle was not supposed to stop on the way but go straight to the
traders’ homestead. Stopping to see someone on the way to the trader’s home was said to be
suspicious and could put the visitor in great danger when he or she arrived at the trader’s
homestead. When she asked why this was so, she was informed that the trader would assume
that you were trying to gather information about him/her from other members of the community
and were probably moving with the police (or soldiers) and were coming to investigate and
arrest him/her.
Dealing with the cross-border traders was a difficult task as these were on the wanted police
list. To deal with this challenge, farmers suggested that the government takes measures to
ensure that official trade in goats is promoted between the two countries – e.g. by lifting the
blanket FMD quarantine for areas that do not have the disease in Beitbridge.
Butcheries
This was one of the most preferred market channels (Figure 4, Table 5). When asked why they
preferred selling their goats to butcheries, respondents said that they offered higher prices. The
butcheries used scales in many cases and paid according to the weight of the goats. The only
challenge that farmers faced with this channel was the limited number of butcheries. Only a
few goats could be sold using this channel because of the limited demand.
Local community
This was one of the most preferred market channels by respondents. This involved selling the
goats to local community members for either breeding purposes or for meat (community
members included staff working at local schools as well). Those who preferred this market
channel did so because they could negotiate prices unlike at the auction where negotiations
were not possible. Challenges faced when selling in this channel included: that some people in
the communities bought goats on credit, and sometimes refused to pay for goats when farmers
were demanding their payments; low prices for goats even after negotiations. To deal with this
problem, it was suggested that farmers could purchase their scales and weigh their animals
before sale so that they negotiate for higher prices. Suggestions were also made for farmers to
desist from selling their livestock, especially in desperate situations when they were in dire
need of cash, to avoid being taken advantage of by buyers.
Table 6: A summary of challenges that farmers faced in marketing their goats and the suggested
solutions
Challenges What can be done to solve them

• No readily available formal • Need to organise farmers into groups or associations
markets as auctions happen so that they can speak with one voice.
once every month. In some • Need to establish market linkages and market the
communities, the auction has goats in big towns
not yet been introduced
103

ISSN 2518 - 4334
• Need to introduce goat auctions in communities
where they have not yet been introduced
• Low prices – especially at • To solve this problem, farmers need to speak with
auctions – at the shows, they one voice. Need for farmers to have associations/
do not use scale. unions or groups that can also help to look out for
buyers and advertise their goats
• At farm gate, farmers can buy a scale and use it to
weigh their goats before sell – this can help them to
negotiate for more prices
• Farmers to do what they can so they become price
makers
• Farmers to avoid selling their animals when they are
in urgent need of cash. This makes buyers to take
advantage of them especially when selling at the
farm gate
• FMD making it difficult for • The government to conduct research and lift the ban
farmers to sell their goats in areas where the diseases are not available. This
outside of the district will enable goat farmers to access markets outside of
the District – e.g. other districts in Zimbabwe, South
Africa and the United Arab Emirates where Muslims
are found and have a huge demand for goat meat
• Lack of feeds resulting in low • Farmers to adopt water harvesting techniques and
weights for the goats grow fodder crops (e.g. velvet bean, banner grass
and Lucerne). Commercial feeds are too expensive
• Failing to find bulk buyers in • There is need for abattoirs to open branches in
Beitbridge. This posed Beitbridge. At the moment they are located too far
transport challenges. For away
instance, it is expensive to
send our animals to abettors as
these are located too far away
• Lack of information on animal • Need training on how to treat animal diseases
diseases and how these must • Need information from Agritex and Vet on how to
be treated. Farmers also had handle the diseases
problems accessing some
drugs as these were not locally
available and had to be
sourced from South Africa
104

ISSN 2518 - 4334
The case study: experiences of the goat marketing companies in marketing their goats
With assistance from the International Livestock and Research Institute (ILRI) and its partner,
CARITAS in Beitbridge, local goat farmers decided to form their own companies so as to
engage in goat production and marketing. The three companies were all formed and registered
in early 2019 (see an example in Figure 6 of the certificate of incorporation for one of the
companies). The companies were Kondelela Livestock (Private) Limited, Fhattalamatshelo
Agro-Products (Private) Limited and Tusanani Livestock (Private) Limited.
Figure 5: A certificate of one of the newly formed goat companies - Kondelela in Beitbridge
Fhattalamatshelo Company was based in Chomunangana Village in Ward 11. The company
consisted of five young male directors, two of whom were present and actively involved in the
business whilst three had left the village. The second company, Kondelela was based in
Masulungane Village in Ward 11 and consisted of seven women directors all of whom were
105

ISSN 2518 - 4334
based in the community. The third company, Tusanani Livestock Company (Private) Limited
was based in Fula Village of Ward 3 and consisted of a mixture of men and women directors
who were all based in the village.
Capacity development for company directors

After the formation of the companies, the ILRI and CARITAS facilitated several trainings to
build the capacities of the company directors. Topics covered during the training included:
livestock and meat grading, record keeping, ration formulation, post-harvest handling and
marketing.
Purchase of the goats for fattening

Upon formation, the companies got loans to purchase goats from ILRI. Each company got a
loan of about 2500 USD. Each company purchased the goats, at a local auction arranged by
ILRI where sellers were told to bring goats that were aged between 3 and 9 months. IRLI was
buying the goats at a price of $1/kg. Farmers were told that the ceiling price was 25USD and
it was up to the farmer to bring their goats if they were more than 25kg for the company would
not pay for the extra kg. The young age was to ensure that the goats could be fattened and also
to ensure the meat was of high quality. Using their loans, the companies, in total purchased a
total of 300 goats.
The management systems and the performance of the goats

Since this was their first time to be involved in goat fattening, ILRI advised the three companies
to experiment with different feeding systems so as learn about each of them. The companies
therefore experimented with different systems namely intensive system using local feeds,
intensive system using commercial feeds and extensive system/ free range (only one company
tried this system). Commercial feeds were donated by ILRI – each company got 20bags of goat
commercial feeds. The companies were required to find their local feeds. The companies
recorded the initial weights of the goats and continued to monitor the weights over time. The
companies were fortunate to get students who came on attachment and these helped in the
record keeping and monitoring of the goat weights.
Each company was to look for local feeds as these were locally available. Each company was
supposed to fatten the goats in 45 days after which they were to sell them. The overall
performance of the goats for all companies was disappointing. For instance, the intensive local
feeds resulted in an overall loss of weight - goats kept for fattening by Fhattalamatshelo
Company lost an average of about 2kg per goat after the fattening process (Table 7). When
discussing with one of the students who was on attachment on why this was so, he mentioned
that this was mainly because the feeds were inadequate in the first place. Also he said that the
smaller goats lost a lot of weight because of bulling. They were all being fed in the same feeding
troughs and the bigger goats chased away smaller goats during feeding.
106

ISSN 2518 - 4334
The feed being given to the goats was too little – goats are supposed to eat feed that is 3% of
their weight – according to the average weight, the goats were supposed to be given 600g of
feed – but now they were being given 200g of feed. The goats at Tusanani were bought at
around 30USD – they had an average weight of about 23 – those commercially fed goats had
gained up to 31 kg of weight – a gain of 8kg – this gain is more than that obtained from the
farmers in the other villages. The farmers were giving the goats very good attention but the
feeds were just not enough for the locally fed goats. The goats being fed on the local feeds had
overally lost weight; this was mainly because many of them were small and had lost weight
due to bullying and also adaptation. The farmers ultimately decided to separate the goats so
that the small ones could get enough feed.
Table 7: Weight gain for goats kept by Fhattalamatshelo Company under the intensive system
using local and commercial feeds
Initial
weight 7/11/2019
(22/05/19) 6/20/2019 6/27/2019 6/4/2019
Local feeds 22.37 20.64 20.54 20.65 20.4
Commercial
23.89 23.19 23.24 23.45 25.79
Feeds
The marketing of the goats

By the time the study was being conducted, the three companies had a total of 300 goats all
ready for selling and they were now past the 45- day period and were now almost approaching
60 days. By this time the commercial feed was finished and it was now becoming very difficult
to feed the goats. The goats were at different stages though – some were big and others were
small. The three companies were running out of feed and some goats were beginning to lose
weight due to lack of feed. After realising the situation, a meeting was called for by CARITAS
to discuss and agree on how the goats would be marketed. This meeting came about after the
new statutory instruments that banned the use of foreign currency in local transactions - this
was a big challenge as the companies had bought all their goats in USD. Besides, in Beitbridge,
almost everyone was selling their goods and services in Rands and no-one was using RTGS
money anymore.
To come up with a price of their goats, the farmers were asked to consider the buying prices of
the goats and all the costs incurred including labour, water and feeds so that they would make
sure they did not make a loss. They were also advised to take into account the high quality of
their meat as the goats were young and tender. After the meeting, the representatives of the
three goat companies, together with staff from CARITAS, decided to visit several butchers in
Beitbridge to find out if they wanted to buy their goats.
107

ISSN 2518 - 4334
The first port of call for the Company representatives was SPAR. At the beginning of their goat
projects, a representative from CARITAS was asked to discuss with the manager at SPAR
Beitbridge who had promised to buy all the 300 goats at once when ready for the market. Now
when they got to SPAR, the representatives heard the manager for SPAR had travelled and had
gone to South Africa for a funeral. Efforts to try and reach him were fruitless. The
representatives then decided to start fresh discussions with the acting manager who had no idea
about the previous discussions. The acting manager informed them that SPAR had only
capacity to buy only 20 goats per week, and would only pay for the cold-dressed mass (Figure
6). He told the representatives that they were supposed to meet their transport costs as well
(Table 8). The representatives of the companies, during the discussions, looked uneasy and
lacked confidence and the CARITAS staff continued to respond to the manager when he asked
questions about the goats – the numbers, sizes and prices etc. This is probably because the
representatives were participating in such discussions for the first time, and were also unsure
about the details of goats for the rest of the companies – in this particular case, they were trying
to sell all the 300 goats that the companies owned together. After the discussions, the team
realised that they were going to make a loss. Besides, they would need to find more feed for
the goats as SPAR was not going to buy all the goats at once. Immediately they decided to
visit other butcheries and contact other buyers elsewhere.
Figure 6: One member of the group (a representative from Tusanani Company) and the SPAR
representative during the visit to explore an opportunity for SPAR to buy the company goats
The outcomes of the discussions with the different buyers are presented in Table 8. The group
also called abattoirs outside Beitbridge (e.g. Caswell Meats in Masvingo and another abettor
in Bulawayo) and discovered that they were willing to buy all the goats – the prices they were
giving however, were quite low although the farmers were to meet all the transport costs for
transporting the goats to the abettors.
108

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Table 8: Buyers that goat companies visited in trying to sell their goats and the findings
Name of Their conditions and prices

organization
Beitbridge They were willing to buy 20 goats per week (they said they
SPARs preferred to buy only a few goats per time so that the meat remained
fresh – said the meat turns darker if it stayed in the cold room for a
long time). SPAR would only pay for the cold-dressed mass and
farmers would have to meet the transport and slaughtering costs for
the goats. SPAR also said that they were willing to pay cash
depending on the amount they would have received per day in sales.
Busy Curve The shop was willing to buy 10 goats per week (due to lack of space
in the cold room) but could increase its capacity to 15 goats per
week if the quality was good and the meat was selling fast. In
negotiations that followed, the manager agreed to pay a price of
RTGS19/kg for the cold dressed mass. The farmers were to meet
the cost of transportation of the goats to the abettor, and the manager
agreed to pay the slaughter fees. The manager on this day did not
have any goat meat in stock and was eagerly waiting for the farmers
to bring the goats.
Jayas Restaurant This restaurant was frequented by Muslims and the owner was
Indian. The owner refused to come out of her house and told her
worker that she didn’t have money to buy goats. At this restaurant,
sadza182 with goat meat was selling at a higher price than sadza with
beef - sadza with goat/chicken/ fish was selling at 25Rands/plate;
sadza and beef was 20Rands/ plate
The visit to potential buyers in Beitbridge revealed that none of the buyers were willing to buy
all the 300 goats at once. However, phone calls to abattoirs in Masvingo and Bulawayo showed
that these were willing to buy as many goats as possible – the abattoirs however were offering
low prices, and farmers were supposed to meet the costs of transporting the goats to the
abattoirs. After the discussion with a trader in Bulawayo who was offering a slightly high price
(in Foreign Currency), it was agreed that the companies further pursue this buyer and try and
negotiate with him so he could buy all the 300 goats at once. By the time these discussions
were done, the companies had already run out of feeds and the condition of the goats was
deteriorating due to insufficient food.
Final selling of the goats
182
Zimbabwe’s staple food – a thick porridge made from maize flour
109

ISSN 2518 - 4334
When the Bulawayo trader came and saw the goats, he proposed to only select the big goats
from the three companies and buy these using Rands. The company directors, with guidance
from CARITAS, refused to sell only a few goats. When the directors refused to change their
position, the trader left. The situation of the goats was further deteriorating and as CARITAS
was informed about this, they negotiated with a butcher in Beitbridge who asked the companies
to bring all their goats and only selected the big goats that he wanted and paid for those in
Rands. The remaining goats were sold to Sabi Meats in Chiredzi and the companies had to
meet the transportation costs – they used the Rands they got from selling the goats in Beitbridge
to meet the transport costs. For payment, the farmers received the money in RTGS transfer and
Eco-cash. Overally, they made a loss and were unable, after the sale to pay back the loans they
received from ILRI. The companies decided to use the little money they received in RTGS to
start purchasing new goats for the next fattening project.
Discussion
The data provided above has clearly shown that despite improvements that have taken place in
the marketing of goats (e.g. the introduction of the goat auctions), goat farmers in Beitbridge
still face many marketing challenges. The challenges span across the whole value chain from
input supply, production and marketing of the goats and these are related and intertwined.
When it came to input supply for goat production, farmers faced several challenges as they
lacked feeds – the commercial feeds were said to be too expensive, and local feeds were hard
to find. The farmers faced many production challenges including a lack of knowledge of the
different breeds and how they are supposed to be managed, lack of knowledge about fodder
crops and their management systems, theft of livestock, and threats of predators and diseases.
Marketing challenges were many and included: no readily available formal markets for goats,
low goat prices, farmers failing to access markets outside of Beitbridge District because of the
FMD quarantine, failure to find bulk buyers locally, and lack of marketing information.
The study has clearly shown the inseparable relationship between challenges related to input
supply, production and marketing of goats. From the case study, it is clear that the type of
system used for producing the goats had a strong bearing on the prices that farmers finally
fetched for their goats. In goat fattening systems, the local feeds resulted in an overall loss of
weight by the goats for all three companies – and this caused the companies to make losses. It
is important to realise that goat farmer’s will only stop incurring the costs of feeds after the
goats are purchased. The marketing efforts must ensure that goats will have enough feed all the
time before sale. The companies had bought enough feed for the goats for a fixed period and
when the goats were not bought after this period, the situation deteriorated as there was no
more feed for the goats.
For farmers producing goats for sale, the issue of feeds for the goats cannot be over-
emphasized. Farmers need to choose the best system and ensure that adequate feeds are
available before embarking on goat production ventures. When adequate feeds have been
sourced, the issue of the death of kids due to lack of feeds will be eliminated. When well
110

ISSN 2518 - 4334
organised, farmers will benefit when their does give birth to more than one kid as this boosts
their stock numbers. There is a need for various opportunities to be explored to save the kids
from starving to death.
Goat marketing in Beitbridge and the marketing mix

As already mentioned, marketing is a process of engaging customers and building customer
relationships in order to create customer value to make a profit in return (Kotler & Armstrong,
2018). To create effective relationships, sellers (like the goat producers) must look for and
engage buyers, identify their needs, design good market offerings, set prices for them, promote
them, and store and deliver them. After understanding the different customers and their needs,
effective marketers then plan on addressing the elements of the marketing mix so as to create
value and make profits. To understand goat marketing efforts by smallholder farmers in
Beitbridge, I will critically look at how they addressed each of the elements of the marketing
mix.
The product: the goats

Looking at the case study presented above, it is clear that farmers in Beitbridge did not
understand the needs of their customers clearly. The companies aimed to produce goats with
quality meat to sell at high prices. By looking at their marketing processes up to the final selling
of the goats, it is clear the company did not realise their objective of making huge profits.
Although buyers like Busy Curve had an interest in the quality of the meat, all of the buyers
were mostly interested in the size of the goats – and they wanted to pay for the cold-dressed
mass. The trader from Bulawayo was only interested in buying the big goats that would also
give him more meat when selling them. This clearly shows that the companies had little
understanding of the needs of the customers. The companies, when embarking on the fattening
project, were guided by the product-concept-orientation (Kotler & Armstrong, 2018). This
orientation assumes that consumers will favour products that offer the most in quality,
performance, and innovative features. Guided by this concept, marketers focus on strategies
that make continuous product improvements. According to (Kotler & Armstrong, 2018) too
much focus on the company’s products can also lead to marketing challenges as the needs of
customers are ignored. This was a key reason why the marketing efforts for the goat companies
were unsuccessful.
To understand the needs of the customers, market research should have been done before the
goat companies embarked on the goat production process. In hindsight, the companies rather,
would have focused on buying young goats that were bigger in size and weight to ensure that
they would yield more money when sold. The smaller goats would have been eliminated.
Market research could have helped the companies to know the channels they were going to use
for marketing their goats. Due to limited knowledge, the companies planned to sell to one
client, SPA Beitbridge. However, it later turned out that SPA would only buy a limited number
of goats per week. The goat companies ended up using multi-channel marketing and sold to
111

ISSN 2518 - 4334
butcheries and processors. A careful understanding of available marketing channels could have
helped the companies to think about multi-channel marketing in advance.
Pricing of goats
Determining the price of products is critical to marketing efforts as explained already in chapter
3. The price determines whether the consumer will buy the product or not and also determines
the profitability of the business. The price must take into account all the costs incurred in
production and should be seen as value for money by the customers. Goat farmers in Beitbridge
however, were price takers and not makers and this was one of the reasons why the companies,
for instance, made huge losses after selling their goats. At auctions (a formal market),
negotiations are eliminated and the sellers do not have control over the final price of their goats.
Farmers therefore are mere price takers and not makers – and in the case of Beitbridge, they
got low prices for their goats, and many farmers shunned this channel. The low prices at the
auctions were also partly because of fewer buyers who were frequenting the auctions thereby
providing only little competition. To get higher prices, farmers should consider participating
in much bigger auctions like those taking place in the province where more buyers are likely
to come and compete (Gipson, 1994).
Looking at the case study, the farmers were price takers everywhere where they sold their goats,
and they were not happy with the prices they received of their goats. There is therefore a strong
need for the farmers to take steps to ensure that they become price makers and not takers.
Efforts such as selling to niche markets, e.g. selling the goat meat in healthy shops where
health-conscious customers are willing to pay higher prices. Even though several heath
concerns have been raised on red meat, such concerns do not apply to goat meat. Goat meat is
said to compare favourably with chicken in terms of calories and protein, but it is lower in total
and saturated fat, making goat meat superior (Luginbuhl, 2007)
Promotion of the goats

Promotion of products is critical to get the product and its features known to customers.
Looking at the marketing process by the goat companies (provided in the case study), it is clear
that the promotion was done way too late, and little effort was put in letting people know the
product and its quality. The companies waited until the goats were ready for sale and then
started contacting the buyers in Beitbridge and beyond – this was too late as the situation of
the goats became dire after the companies ran out of feeds. A lesson learnt from the case study
is that it is critical that efforts to promote the product be made way before the goats are ready
so that customers are secured (either through contracts) in advance. Another lesson from the
case study is that verbal contracts are unreliable – it is critical to secure the market by having
a written contract that both customers and sellers can rely on.
To improve competition at auctions, the auctioneers can also make an effort to promote the
goat auctions to customers even beyond Beitbridge – where more customers come to the
auctions; this creates more competition and can result in the farmers getting higher prices for
their goats. It is however important to realise that the Blanket quarantine that was imposed on
112

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Beitbridge for FMD is a hindrance to promotion efforts to lure customers from out of the district
to come, especially for those looking for breeding stock. Farmers need to take the initiative to
put pressure on the government to conduct studies for identifying areas that are affected by the
disease and lift the ban for areas that are not affected. In addition, measures to contain and
eradicate FMD must be taken into account. Such measures include (Syed & Graham. J, 2013):
• Encouraging farmers to fence their farms as well as fencing game areas to prevent
contact between domestic livestock and wildlife populations, especially in areas
where FMD is known to circulate.
• Rapid culling of infected animals and appropriate disposal of their carcasses, which
is particularly important in non-endemic areas.
• Restriction on movements of animals back onto premises which have been infected.
The place
This was a critical element in the marketing of goats. In the case study, it became clear that
most bulk buyers (e.g.) that could buy the goats in bulk were located at far distances (e.g.
Masvingo, Chiredzi and Bulawayo). Since the companies wanted to sell their goats to one
buyer, knowing about the various transportation options and negotiating in advance for cheaper
transport could have helped to reduce costs. Efforts to secure cheaper transportation could
include; negotiating the costs and developing a contract with the transporter in advance; or
negotiating with customers in advance for prices that ensure that they realise their profits.
A critical look at the case study shows a lack of understanding of the marketing channels and
hence there was no strategy for managing the multi-channels to enhance synergy. Companies
initially were planning to sell their goats using one channel but ended up selling them using
multi-channels. There was no channel strategy as the channels were just chosen randomly as
the farmers became desperate as the condition of the goats was rapidly deteriorating.
The people
The people who offer a service/ product to final customers are critical as they can make them
buy or not buy. Discussions between the company representatives and the SPA Staff showed
that the company representatives lacked the skill and confidence to sell. It is critical that going
forward, the companies’ capacity to market and sell their goats be built up.
Conclusions and recommendations

Several conclusions can be drawn from this study and these are discussed separately below:
• Challenges that farmers face with goat marketing are numerous and are found along the
entire goat value chain –a value chain approach must be employed in efforts to address
these challenges.
• Goat marketing efforts that fail to embrace and take into consideration the marketing
mix elements are bound to fail.
• Careful planning about channels to use for selling goats is important so that farmers are
aware of the cost implications involved in the different channels. With multi-channel
marketing, farmers will be able to reach many customers seamlessly and efficiently.
113

ISSN 2518 - 4334
• Though local community auctions create a local formal market for goats, they offer far
lower prices that most farmers shun them.
• Several recommendations can be made from this study to improve smallholder goat
marketing in Beitbridge and in the smallholder sector elsewhere in Zimbabwe. The
recommendations for farmers include. The need to
• make efforts to become price makers rather than their current position of price taking.
This can be done by them embarking on value-adding activities for their products.
Value addition can be done through for instance producing and selling biltong rather
than fresh meat or live goats. Biltong is an expensive dried meat that can be easily
stored. By selling biltong (or other value-added products), farmers will be focusing on
a certain segment of the market (niche marketing) and hence they become price makers
rather than price takers. Farmers can also become price makers by, for instance,
promoting and selling goat meat as a healthy meat to healthy conscious customers
through healthy shops. Healthy- conscious customers will pay a lot of money to eat
healthy food – and hence can be an important segment to target when marketing goats.
• venture into goat contract farming to secure markets for their goats. This involves
farmers negotiating with various buyers in advance, and signing contracts (rather than
oral promises like what the goat companies did when they spoke with the SPAR
manager). Looking for a market when the goats are ready for slaughter like what the
goat companies did, is a recipe for disaster.
• explore online marketing channels to reach a wide range of customers e.g. those in areas
outside of the district and outside the country like those in the Arab countries. A huge
market for goats exists in Arab countries, for instance, and farmers in FMD clean areas
should be able to access such markets to sell their goats. Improvements in ICTs have
already occurred and many farmers can access the internet through their mobile phones.
Such ICT developments should be taken advantage of as well.
• join hands and market their products collaboratively to gain market power. When they
are selling jointly, the farmers will be able to speak with one voice and hence will be
able to determine the prices of goats. On the other hand, when working jointly, farmers
will be able to take advantage of economies of scale – this helps them to buy their inputs
cheaply.
• embrace fodder production as part of their goat production ventures. This will help them
to reduce the costs of feeds and ensure that their goats have enough to eat until they are
sold. Various fodder plants are available in Beitbridge District already and farmers need
to actively seek knowledge on how these can be produced. To complement this, farmers
need to consider soil and water conservation techniques such as rainwater harvesting
techniques as water is a critical resource for livestock and fodder production. and
• identify and participate in bigger regional auctions that have opportunity to provide
them with better prices for their goats
References
1. APHIS Veterinary Services. (2013). Foot and Mouth Disease.
114

ISSN 2518 - 4334
2. Baah, J., Tuah, A.K., Addah, W., Tait R.M., 2012.Small ruminant production
characteristics in urban households in Ghana. Livest. Res. Rural Dev., 24 (5)
(2012), pp. 1-13
3. Davie, L. (2013). Anatolian dogs protect cheetahs. Brand South Africa.
https://www.brandsouthafrica.com/people-culture/people/anatolian-dogs-protect-
cheetahs
4. Dube, S., Chakoma, I., & Bahta, S. (2017). Analysis of the goat value chain in
Beitbridge district of Zimbabwe.
5. G.O.Z. (2012). Comprehensive agricultural policy framework. In Comprehensive
agricultural policy framework (Draft, Vol. 1, Issue April). Government of
Zimbabwe.
6. Gipson, T. A. (1994). Marketing Channels & Strategies.
7. Homann, S., van Rooyen, A., Moyo, T., & Nengomasha, Z. (2007). Goat production
and marketing: Baseline information for semi-arid Zimbabwe. International Crops
Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics.
8. Homann, Sabine. (2008). Promoting goat markets and technology development in
semi-arid Zimbabwe for food security and income growth. In A. van Rooyen & S.
Homann (Eds.), Enhancing incomes and livelihoods through improved farmers’
practices on goat production and marketing: Proceedings of a workshop organized
by the Goat Forum. ICRISAT.
9. Kotler, P., & Armstrong, G. (2018). Principles of Marketing (Seventeen). Perason.
10. Kusina, N. T., & Kusina, J. (2001). Goat Marketing Model for Enhanced Revenue
Generation by Smallholder Farmers in Zimbabwe. TSAP PROCEEDINGS, 28.
11. Luginbuhl, J. (2007). Meat Goat Production in North Carolina.
12. Ministry of Lands Agriculture and Rural Resettlement. (2018). National agriculture
policy framework (2018-2030) (First Draf). Government of Zimbabwe.
13. Mphisa, R. (2019). FMD locks down farmers.
http://www.cfuzim.com/2019/02/27/fmd-locks-down-farmers/
14. Musara, J. P., Chimvuramahwe, J., Chivheya, R., Mwadzingeni, L., Munyati, V., &
Chivheya, R. (2013). Why not commercial goat production? exploring rural
communities’ preference for livestock enterprises. case of matsai communal area,
Zimbabwe. Journal of Agricultural Research and Development, 3(May), 026–034.
15. Nyathi, N. (2008). The Goat Forum. In A. van Rooyen & S. Homann (Eds.),
Enhancing incomes and livelihoods through improved farmers’ practices on goat
production and marketing: Proceedings of a workshop organized by the Goat
Forum. ICRISAT.
16. Pradier, A., Lecroisey, F., & Gaunthier, J. (1995). A sector study: The goat meat
commodity chain in Zimbabwe with special emphasis on Masvingo. CIRAD.
17. Rosenbloom, B. (2012). Marketing channels. Cengage Learning.
18. Goat actions opening market opportunities for small holder farmers in Western
Provinces of Zimbabwe, (2009).
115

ISSN 2518 - 4334
19. Sarupinda, D., & Tavesure, F. (2009). Goat auctons opening market opportunities
for smallholder farmers in Western provinces of Zimbabwe. SNV, Netherlands
Development Agency.
20. Sibanda, L. M. (1992). Studies on the productivity and nutrition of Matebele goats.
DPhil Thesis. Department of Agriculture, University of Reading.
21. Syed, M. J., & Graham. J, B. (2013). Foot-and-mouth disease: past, present and
future. Veterinary Research, 44(116).
116

ISSN 2518 - 4334
A Review on the Invasiveness, Uses and Opportunities of Rusakadzi (Helichrysum
kraussii) in Zimbabwe.
Charakupa Takudzwa LeeMarvin1; Mudzengi Clarice Princess1; Poshiwa Xavier1; Clapperton

Chakanetsa Mavhunga2.
1 Department of Livestock, Wildlife and Fisheries, Gary Magadzire School of Agriculture,

Engineering and Natural sciences, Great Zimbabwe University, P. Bag 1235, Masvingo,
Zimbabwe
2 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
Corresponding author: charakupatakudzwa0.ct@gmail.com
Abstract
Livestock based livelihoods of most semi-arid areas are mainly dependent on rangelands for
animal nutrition. However, invasive species such as Helichrysum kraussii reduce rangeland
productivity. The aim of this study was to review invasiveness, uses and opportunities
associated with Helichrysum kraussii. Data used in this review was accessed through Google
Scholar, academiaedu.com, Science Direct, Research Gate and Sci-hub. Literature review
indicates that Helichrysum kraussii is an evergreen increaser native shrub characterized by
aromatic and therapeutic properties. The shrub establishes well in poor and overgrazed sandy
grasslands or open woodland. H. kraussii has become invasive in rangelands because of its
unpalatability, adaptability and reproductive capacity, leading to its adaptive nature and
dominance within vegetation communities hence reducing the rangeland’s capacity to recover.
The health benefits of H. kraussii continue to be reviewed. The extensive literature search has
revealed how H. kraussii can treat human headaches, keloid scars, coughs and pulmonary
tuberculosis in the form of a whole or part of the plant. Scientific studies on H. kraussii indicate
that it has a wide range of pharmacological potential including anti-oxidative, anti-cancer and
antiviral properties. Culturally, H. kraussii is believed to have supernatural properties even
though some cultural uses have been verified by phytochemistry, the current knowledge could
be improved. H. kraussii has potential for use in the medical field as its extracts are effective
against HIV and cancer.
Key words: Helichrysum kraussii, invasive.
Introduction
The proliferation of invasive species and their detrimental capacity to degrade productive
rangelands has resulted in widespread invasion of Savanna rangelands. Globally, both
indigenous and alien invasive species invaded millions of hectares of the natural environment
(Joshi, 2006). Invasive species are a threat to biodiversity as they spread quickly therefore
promoting monoculture or total occurence of plants like Lantana camara which have been
observed to be allelopathic (Kato-Noguchi and Kurniadie, 2021). Similarly, Helichysum
117

ISSN 2518 - 4334
kraussi (H. kraussii) has potential to cause veld deterioration (Gusha & Mugabe, 2013),
similarly to invasive native and alien species which are fast replacing the desired plants
resulting in livestock feed scarcity now becoming common in Zimbabwe, coupled with climate
change (Gusha, 2013). Consequently, this reduces rangeland grazing capacity and imposes a
serious threat on livestock production (Gusha et al., 2017). Livestock plays a major role as
assets for livelihoods and food security in low economically developed countries and marginal
areas unsuitable for crop production (Godber & Wall, 2014). Based on the degree of value
attached to livestock production, regular rangeland assessment, management and monitoring is
of paramount importance.
Helichrysum kraussii, Achyrocline batocana Oliv. & Hiern/ Achyrocline steetzii Vatke/
Gnaphalium kraussii (Sch. Bip.) (Hilliard, 1983, Hoskovec, 2018) or Straw everlasting
(English) or Rusakadzi / Mupumhanhuka (Shona) is a yellow flowered perennial evergreen
increaser native shrub that does well in dense stands, poor and overgrazed sandy soils,
grasslands, or open woodland (Flora of Zimbabwe, 2008). The plant has been used cross
culturally from medication in respiratory infections, sexually transmitted infections and for
religious purposes (Lourens, 2008 et al., 2008). The plant has potential for use in
dermatological products and treatment of some viral diseases (Lourens et al., 2008). However,
this invader leads to incapacitation of communal grazing lands to support livestock (Gusha &
Mugabe, 2013). As a result of its unpalatability and invasiveness, H. kraussi is a cause for
concern.
Invasive species like Helichrysum kraussii are widespread throughout Southern Africa and are
usually prevalent in the rural areas (Mhlongo, 2021). However, mechanisms driving native
species invasiveness are poorly understood. Thus, there is a need to research more into them.
Some of the information is also yet to be verified scientifically (Maroyi, 2013) (Van Wyk &
Gericke, 2000) (Weitz & Thring 2005).
The main aim of this study was to review the invasiveness, uses and opportunities associated
with H. kraussii. Specifically, the review sought to (i) determine how much of a threat H.
kraussii poses to be an environmental weed, (ii) the ways in which the plant is being utilized
by communities from diverse backgrounds and (iii) innovative ways to utilize its existence to
improve livelihoods through value addition. Information obtained from this study will be used
in revisiting some of Zimbabwe’s policies like the Noxious Weeds Act Chapter 19:07 and
Environmental Management Act Chapter 20:27, future studies on its ecology and value
addition.
Methods
The selection of relevant literature for the narrative review was made through a thorough search
using the name Helichrysum kraussii, Achyrocline batocana Oliv. & Hiern, Achyrocline
steetzii Vatke, Gnaphalium kraussii, Straw everlasting or Rusakadzi / Mupumhanhuka in
scientific databases such as Google Scholar, academiaedu.com, Science Direct, Research Gate,
Sci-hub and Wiley Online Library, Nature, Semantic Scholar for articles published from a
118

ISSN 2518 - 4334
period of 1912 to 2023. Searches focused on paper title and abstracts in research articles, books,
book chapters, conference proceedings, dissertations, theses, scientific reports, herbarium
specimens and editorial letters. An electronic search was conducted with the assistance of
skilled academics for the twenty-one articles. The eligibility criteria consisted of any
information relating to Helichrysum kraussii starting from the Asteraceae family, the uses of
this plant and its ecology, with irrelevant papers being screened. Relevant papers were selected
by thoroughly screening the titles, abstracts then full articles in the data extraction searches.
Exclusion criteria consisted of irrelevant information or unreliable/ineligible sources.

Description of Helichrysum kraussii
Helichrysum kraussii/Achyrocline batocana Oliv. & Hiern/ Achyrocline steetzii Vatke/
Gnaphalium kraussii (Sch. Bip.) is a terrestrial, tropical southern African plant species of the
Asteraceae family, Asteral order, Inuleae tribe, with a range extending from Angola through
Zambia and Zimbabwe to Mozambique and South Africa (Hoscovec, 2018). It was named after
Christian Ferdinand Friedrich von Krauss (1812 - 1890), a professor at Stuttgart, German
scientist, traveler and collector who collected extensively in South Africa. H. kraussii is a
small, woody, yellow flowered perennial, evergreen increaser native shrub that establishes well
in dense stands, poor and overgrazed sandy grasslands, or open woodland (Flora of Zimbabwe,
2008). It is popular for its aromatic and therapeutic properties.
Helichrysum kraussii has a height of 1-1,5m, with stiff, grey-green hairy, leafy branches, leaves
are sessile and linear. The leaves are linear, up to 2 cm long and about 0.2 cm wide, rolled
along the edge, pointed at the top, hairy or on the face, white on the reverse. It has cylindrical
bracts, up to 0.35cm long and only 1 mm wide, growing in dense culms, arranged in 5 rows,
overlapping, shiny and light yellow in colour (Bellmann, 2009) (Hoskovec, 2018). The stem is
shrubby, robust, branches virgate, canous; with strongly revolute margins and mucronate
(Wood et al., 1912).
119

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Fig 1. Helichrysum kraussii plant starting to flower.
Source: Author (2023)
Drivers of plant species invasions

Clarity lacks as to why some species become invasive while others naturalize hence questions
relating to plant invasion appear to lack satisfactory answers (Rejmanek & Richardson, 1996;
Jelbert, 2019). In trying to differentiate invasive from non-invasive species, Rejmanek and
Richardson, (1996) mention that, seed mass and minimum juvenile period have been used to
categorize plants. The enhanced plant invasion risk in eucalyptus plantations, in the early stages
by Asteraceae species, may be due to different factors. Anthropogenic disturbance during
eucalypt plantation often removes small trees and shrubs, therefore minimizing populations of
important dominant species understory, thus paving way for the recruitment of herbaceous
plants. The increased light availability and soil temperature but low soil water availability
under eucalypt plantations may benefit the growth of drought tolerant pioneer plants.
Asteraceae species often produce a large quantity of small seeds that are easily dispersed by
wind or animals; maximizing reproductive capacity (Kanowski, 2005).
120

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Great sexual reproduction is a key demographic correlate of invasiveness, as the performance
of invasive species is the same as invaders having lives which are strongly reliant on propagule
pressure in invasion, suggesting that adaptation mechanisms influencing sexual reproduction
are of importance (Moroń et al., 2021). Each adult plant for H. kraussii can produce twenty
thousand (20 000) seeds per annum (propagation and propagule pressure), ripening and
maturing between September and October in Savanna environment giving it a competitive
advantage over grasses as it is also unaffected by fire and remains persistent (Owen, 1992).
Propagule pressure, residence time, or extreme events becoming more frequent and chance are
important factors that determine invasiveness of a plant (Richardson & Petr Pysˇek, 2006). In
order for a plant to become invasive, it should possess two properties, which are not mutually
exclusive, physiological tolerance and plasticity, or genetic differentiation. This is adaptive
evolutionary change characterized by genetic drift and hybridization, among other factors.
Invasion patterns observed in the field at one site may be difficult to represent other sites
because those observations are subject to specificity of time, place and spatial scale
(Theoharides & Dukes, 2007).
H. kraussii invasion is promoted by, among others, top soil disturbance, and soil moisture. An
increase in soil moisture negatively affected size for H. kraussii and further highlights the
susceptibility of the drier high lying areas were conditions promote larger individuals of this
species (Owen, 1992).
Environmental variability promotes the invasion of knotweed, and many other invasive plants.
The mechanism explaining this dominance might be the knotweeds’ ability to capitalize on
high resource availability, they it can respond quicker to nutrition, and have higher growth
rates, than native plant species (Parepa et al., 2013). In places they are introduced, invasive
knotweed is most dominant, and cause great damage, along rivers where periodic floods create
disturbance and nutrient pulses (Parepa et al., 2013).
Other plants as Lantana camara have as many as 14 phenolic compounds that can reduce the
seed germination and growth of young plants. These are called allelochemicals that promote or
inhibit the crop growth based on their concentration and the concentration of these
allelochemicals increases from root, stem to leaf making the leaf toxic to grazing animals.
Lantana infestations at some sites have been so persistent that they impede the regeneration of
rainforest as Lantana is a very effective competitor and is capable of interrupting the
regeneration processes of other indigenous species by decreasing germination (Sharma et al.,
2005).
Rodriguez & Holben, (2004) mention that escape from natural enemies, and plant–soil
feedback processes are also important in determining invasiveness. If a plant is introduced into
an environment that lacks their usual herbivores, it will experience selection favor, thus
individuals will allocate less energy to defense and more to growth and reproduction (Leger
and Rice, 2003).
121

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Buczkowski (2010) argued that native species may possess invasive characteristics which
enable them to expand their ecological territory. The author’s studies show that aggressive
traits may evolve in species as an adaptation mechanism to environmental conditions and these
observations have been observed in nature when native species occupy new habitats in their
native ranges. Focus has been on avoiding the entry by alien invaders but there is a need to
consider indigenous species that have responded to environmental changes or anthropogenic
factors and simply upgraded their aggressiveness.
Ecology of Helichrysum kraussii

Helichrysum kraussii grows on grassy and scrubby habitats, often on sandy ground. The plant
blooms from June to September in Savanna climate (Hoscovec, 2018). It is a wiry unpalatable
sclerophyllous shrub and therefore unaffected by animal grazing or browsing. Increasing
grazing pressure may cause an increased ability for H. kraussii to out compete desirable grass
species through the increased interception of light as a result of increased volumes (Dalton,
2007). This shows how much of a threat this plant is.
Fig 2. H. kraussii seedling in the veld
122

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Fig 3. Transplanted H. kraussii seedling
Fig 4. H. kraussii in an abandoned field in Chihota District, Mashonaland East, Zimbabwe
123

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Source: Author (2023)
Effect of plant invasion at an ecosystem level

Biological invasions are one of the major drivers of restructuring and malfunctioning of
ecosystems and plant invasion is an emerging contributor of global change worldwide (Zhou
& Staver, 2019). At an ecosystem level, invasive plants have radically altered fire regimes, in
some cases causing regime shifts and transforming woodlands or savannas to grasslands
(Foxcroft et al., 2017). Bajwa et al., (2016) mentions that biological invasions were widely
considered to be largely confined to anthropogenically disturbed sites. The widespread
disruption of ecosystems by invasive species was not globally perceived as a major threat but
it has become clear that species abundance, diversity and estimated species richness have been
altered, however, these have been reversed following control (Bajwa et al., (2016). With
reference to Parthenium weed, a well-known noxious invasive species, the author sheds light
on how it invaded diverse climatic and biogeographic regions.
Invasions lead to functional homogenization within communities, which probably reduces the
rangeland’s capacity to recover (Castro-Díez, 2016), reduced productivity and herbaceous
species diversity (Zende et al., 2017), adversely affecting herbaceous species plant vigor, basal
cover and species richness in a study on Dichrostachys cinerea by Mudzengi et al., (2014).
Despite insufficient information regarding invasion mechanisms and interference with
ecosystem stability being available, morphological advantages, reproductive biology,
competitive ability and adaptation to abiotic stresses have been cited as some of the major
causes. Additionally, the ability to grow in wide range of edaphic conditions, allelopathic
potential against pasture species favorable for invasive plant growth, its reproductive output,
and therefore its future spread and infestation contribute effectively (Bajwa et al., 2016). These
observations can be attributed to the fast growth, giving it competitive advantage with respect
to acquisition of light, nutrients and other resources.
i. Invasiveness of Helichrysum kraussii

Communal grazing areas are dominated by the invading shrub Helichyrsum kraussii in
Masvingo and this suggests that, if control measures are not put in place, livestock production
may not be feasible in communal rangelands in the near future because of rangeland
deterioration. Gusha et al., 2017. In a study by Gusha et al., (2017), it was observed that
communal rangelands had low grazing capacity, with significantly high levels of woody
species, unpalatable wiry grass species, low biomass yield and were dominated by the invading
shrub Helichyrsum kraussii. These findings suggest that if control measures are not put in
place, livestock production may not be feasible in communal rangelands in the near future
because of high levels of rangeland deterioration. Invasive and less palatable plant species are
prevalent on most rangelands. Finding ways of utilizing them should be a research priority for
there is a need to find environmentally friendly and effective methods of controlling them
(Mudzengi et al.,2014; Gusha, 2018).
124

ISSN 2518 - 4334
In a research across Zimbabwe, it was observed that alien invasive Lantana camara, and natives
as Helichrysum kraussii, Acacia species and Dichrostachys cinerea were increasing in
abundance in most rangelands, affecting the availability of herbage for livestock grazing thus
worsening the challenges faced by communal farmers. (Gusha et al., 2016).
Effect of H. kraussi on other herbaceous species

Helichrysum kraussii was observed to effectively exclude the establishment of grasses but
allow woody species to grow underneath. Interestingly its growth results in an increase in light
transmission through to the soil surface with an increase in diameter and this may explain the
presence of a number of woody species being able to establish beneath the canopies for this
species. Thus H. kraussii is able to facilitate woody establishment where permitted to grow
through to larger individuals and has been identified as a precursor to woodland shrub and fores
(Owen, 1992). As an invasive plant, H. kraussii has radically altered fire regimes, in some
cases causing regime shifts and transforming woodlands or savannas to grasslands (Foxcroft et
al., 2017). Burning has no effect on the growth response of H. kraussii as the plant rejuvenates
readily from the root system (Owen, 1992).
Effect of H. kraussi on woody species

The number of other woody species establishing beneath H. kraussii may be due to changes in
the transmission of light through the canopy where an increase in canopy diameter resulted in
an increase of photosynthetically active radiation at the soil surface (Dalton, 2007). Asteraceae
family is the most important source of invasive plant species in China. It is ranked third (7.42%)
in species importance in the early stages in eucalypt plantations. Among the 20 invasive species
recorded in the eucalypt plantations, 9 species were destructive invasive species and 7 of these
species belonged to Asteraceae (Jin et al., 2015). The importance of Asteraceae was remarkably
higher in eucalypt plantations than in contrast vegetation (Kanowski, 2005).
Effect on microorganisms
Soil microbes have both negative and beneficial effects on invasive plants. Pathogenicity,
root–fungus mutualism and driving the nutrient cycles on which plants depend on are some of
the major functions (Callaway et al., 2004) These effects contrast each other. Positive feedback
occurs when plant species accumulate microbes near their roots that have beneficial effects on
the plants that cultivate them, such as mycorrhizal fungi and nitrogen fixers therefore
promoting invasion. Contrary to that, negative feedback occurs when plants are affected by
pathogenic microbes, creating conditions that are increasingly hostile to the plants that cultivate
the pathogens and this enhances community diversity by increasing species turnover rates
(Callway et al., 2004).
Plants of the Asteraceae family, often manifest themselves alongside allelopathic properties,
the ability to form arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) and common mycorrhizal networks
(Mikhailovich & Valeryevna, 2021), which is believed to have helped tribes of this family to
spread around the world, that is, positive feedback. Arbuscular mycorrhiza can significantly
improve plant nutrition, water availability, soil structure and fertility, as well as stress
125

ISSN 2518 - 4334
resistance and tolerance, for example, arbscular mycorrhiza minimizes effects of stress caused
by pathogens, heavy metals, and soil salinization (Jentschke & Godbold, 2000). Plants do not
receive large benefits from AM when there is high availability of nutrients, but AM enhances
plant development under conditions of nutrient deficiency, explaining why H. kraussii is found
in overexploited land.
ii. Uses of Helichrysum kraussii by communities

Helichrysum kraussii has since been used in the medical field, in a traditional way for its
aromatic, antibacterial and antiviral properties. Depending on the condition being treated,
either the whole plant or a specific part of the plant was used. The main uses include its use in
treating respiratory infections, sexually transmitted infections, cultural uses or dermatological
applications.
Treatment of headaches
Highlights the different uses of H. kraussii plant parts for the treatment of different conditions
(Lourens et al., 2008). Medicinally, Helichrysum kraussii is used to treat headaches and the
whole plant is used in the process (Mashiloane, 2010).
Treatment of respiratory infections

In other areas, the whole plant is burnt, salt is added to ash and ingested by mouth to treat
coughs (Swanepoel, 1997). The Karanga smoke dried flowers and seeds in a pipe smoke as a
remedy for coughs and pulmonary tuberculosis. The findings are in concurrence with Watt and
Breyer-Brandwijk, (1962) who mentions that H. kraussii Sch. Bip. is smoked in a pipe for the
relief of cough and as a remedy for pulmonary tuberculosis. Alternatively, in the treatment of
tuberculosis, the whole plant was dried, pounded and taken orally with warm water, taken thrice
a day (Baloyi & Semenya, 2019). This is an unusual way to treat a respiratory infection.
Treatment of sexually transmitted infections

The root mixed with salt and other ingredients are applied to the child's side with a small
amount given orally (Lourens, 2008). The root is used to treat Venereal disease, an STI
(Lourens, 2008). These results are similar to those of Swanepoel (1997) who mentions that the
Venda drink the decoction of the root for the problems of the genitalia.
Cultural uses/incense
Roots and leaves infusion are used to wash the body, an act to drive bad spirits away. It is burnt
as an incense by KwaZulu-Natal diviners (Hilliard,1983).
Other uses
The Lenge in Mozambique use the ground, toasted plant mixed with salt and other remedies as
a local application to the child’s side (Swanepoel,1997). Leaf decoction is used to wash keloid
scars, that is, thick raised scars resulting from excess collagen during wound healing (Hilliard,
126

ISSN 2518 - 4334
1983). In a collection by Magwede et al., (2019), the authors highlight that the root is a
medicine but did not explain how it is used and what it treats.
iii. Opportunities associated with Helichrysum kraussii and value addition

Invasive and less palatable plant species are prevalent on most rangelands. Finding ways of
utilizing them should be a research priority for there is a need to find environmentally friendly
and effective methods of controlling them (Mudzengi et al.,2014; Gusha, 2018).
Climate change adaptation and mitigation

Despite its devastating effects, in times where global warming and climate change are evident,
plants like H. kraussii characterized by their drought tolerance, perennial, evergreen, high
biomass and invasive nature, could be used in carbon sequestration hence reducing the
devastating effects of the above mentioned processes. Firstly, they are not affected by
seasonality +hence photosynthesize all year round, thus reducing the amount of atmospheric
carbon dioxide. Secondly, the residue remaining after essential oil extraction can be used in
vermicomposting therefore promoting carbon capture and storage via biological means. Lastly,
they have essential oils that contain terpenes made up of multiple isoprene units made up of 5
or more carbon atoms. This alone is a carbon store (Munnu et al., 2014).
Production of dermatological products

In a study conducted to investigate the potential of southern African plants against P. acnes,
based on antimicrobial, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity, Helichryssum kraussii was
able to inhibit P. acnes growth at 62.5 μg/ ml. Active antibacterial species H. kraussii also
showed good antioxidant activity with IC50 of 4.24 μg/ml, (De Canha et al., 2018). This shows
that H. kraussii essential oils can be incorporated in skin care products that are medical.
Cancer medication
A study to determine the antioxidant and anti-cancer activities of traditionally used medicinal
plants was established. The extracts were tested for cytotoxicity against epidermoid carcinoma
(A431) and cervical epithelial carcinoma (HeLa). The antioxidant activity was also determined.
H. kraussii was able to inhibit the A431 and HeLa cells with 50% inhibitory concentrations
(IC50) ranging from 34.90–56.20 μg/ml. H. kraussii showed high 2,2-diphenyl-1-
picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) inhibitory activity, with IC50 values ranging from 2.41–5.25 μg/ml.
This shows how effective an antioxidant and anticancer this plant is. (Twiley et al., 2017). The
species is important in ethnopharmacological practices, hence could contribute perfectly well
to aromatherapy. The plant has also proved to have anti-cancer properties (Twilley et al., 2017).
Potential for HIV vaccine and an antibiotic

H. kraussii, exhibited promising HIV inhibition at 2.5 μg/mL (N80%) (Yazdi et al., 2019).
Helichrysum kraussii contains prenyl-butryl phloroglucinol acid which is highly effective
against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, B. pumulis, M. kristinae, Bacillus subtilis,
Escherichia coli and S. marcescens. Aurenoic acid is equally effective against Staphylococcus
aureus, Bacillus cereus, and Bacillus subtilis (Vuuren, 2008).
127

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Studies show that Helichrysum spp. are very rich in phenolic compounds for their antioxidant,
antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory activities as they have since been used for traditional
medicinal practices of many countries around the world (Maryam et al., 2019). In an
investigation of the synergistic activity of plant extracts, the combination of Helichrysum
odoratissimum and Helichrysum kraussii proved to be highly effective against P. acnes hence
its application dermatologically (De Canha, 2014). Helichrysum kraussii contains prenyl-
butryl phloroglucinol acid which is highly effective against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus
cereus, B. pumulis, M. kristinae, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli and S. marcescens.
Aurenoic acid is equally effective against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, and Bacillus
subtilis (Vuuren, 2008). These acids are important components of essential oils the plant
contains.
Use of Helichrysum kraussii as a feed

Despite H. kraussii having been documented to be unpalatable, in a small fenced confinement,
in the dry season, the eland switched to evergreen trees and shrubs such S. lancea and H.
kraussii, which were avoided in the wet season. Eland in the Zimbabwean Lowveld showed a
similar pattern by browsing on woody plants that offer the greatest amount of green leaves,
shifting to less palatable species (Parrini et al., 2019). This shows that indeed, the plant is
palatable but less acceptable. This could be an opportunity to explore the nutritional content of
the plant.
Control of Helichrysum kraussii

Despite literature missing on the control of H. kraussii, these are some methods that we can
use to eradicate this invasive species. However, most of these methods work in combinations.
According to Sharma et al., (2005), mechanical control can be used if machinery is available
to uproot the whole plant in the case of Lantana camara. Alternatively, chemicals like
glyphosate can be used to spray a large area (Nergi et al., 2019). However, this is a non-
selective herbicide that will damage non-target vegetation leading to loss of biodiversity.
Sustainable Development Goals on Invasive plants

According to the United Nations (2016), Goal 15 of the sustainable development goals (SDGs)
focuses on sustainably, halting and reversing land and natural habitat degradation, and stopping
biodiversity loss. In this context, preserving diverse forms of life on land requires is of
paramount importance and is against invasions that promote monoculture and reduce
diversification. It also focuses on measures to prevent the introduction and reduce the impact
of invasive alien species on land and water ecosystems and control or eradicate the priority
species.
Conclusion
Helichrysum kraussii is fast becoming a threat to desired species and is a cause for concern. If
it is not controlled, livestock production might not be feasible in future. However, it promotes
growth of woody species. Also, this plant has a potential to play a pivotal role in combating
128

ISSN 2518 - 4334
climate change, even though there is a need to back this information statistically. H. kraussii
is mainly used for the restoration of health as the benefits are mainly on respiratory infections,
STIs and cultural beliefs. However, the scientific experiments to link cultural practices are
minimal. Thus, there is room for improvement.
Value addition of this plant into a vaccine, antibiotic or dermatological products can be
practiced as scientific experiments have proved its efficacy towards a number of microbes. It
can also be used as a feed for the eland, however with limited palatability. The genus
Helichrysum has been studied extensively. However, not much attention has been paid to H.
kraussii specifically. The issue of invasiveness is still debatable as very little information is
available on the matter. Social aspects of biological invasions are less documented, this hinders
the development of sound and effective management of invasive species. Studies on biological
invasions mainly focused on ecological aspects often neglecting the social aspects hence the
importance of public participation in decision making.
Acknowledgements
This work was conducted within the framework of the Great Zimbabwe University
Agroinnovations in Dryland Agriculture Programme (www.gzu.ac.zw). We are grateful for
funding from the Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Innovation, Science and
Technology Development (MHTEISTD).
References
1. Akaberi M., Sahebkar A., Azizi, N., & Emami S.A. (2019). Everlasting flowers:
Phytochemistry and pharmacology of the genus Helichrysum. Industrial Crops and
Products, 138, 111471.
2. Bajw, A.A., Chauhan B.S., Farooq M. (2016). What do we really know about alien
plant invasion? A review of the invasion mechanism of one of the world’s worst weeds.
Planta 244, 39–57.
3. Baluška F., & Mancuso S. (2020). Plants, climate and humans: Plant intelligence
changes everything. EMBO reports, 21(3), e50109.
https://doi.org/10.15252/embr.202050109.
4. Bellmann H. (2009): The Big Book of Plants. – Euromedia, Prague.
5. Buczkowski G. (2010). Extreme life history plasticity and the evolution of invasive
characteristics in a native ant. Biological Invasions, 12(9), 3343-3349.
6. Callaway R.M., Thelen G.C., Rodrigue, A., & Holben W.E. (2004). Soil biota and
exotic plant invasion. Nature, 427(6976), 731-733.
7. Castro-Díez P., Pauchard A., Traveset A. & Vilà, M. (2016), Linking the impacts of
plant invasion on community functional structure and ecosystem properties. J Veg Sci,
27: 1233-1242.
8. Dalton B.P.A. (2007). The coastal grasslands of Maputaland, South Africa: Effects of
fire and grazing on vegetation structure, diversity, and composition (Doctoral
dissertation).
129

ISSN 2518 - 4334
9. De Canha M.N., Kishore N., Kumar V., Meyer D., Nehar S., Singh B., & Lall N. (2018).
The potential of Clausena anisata (Willd.) Hook. f. ex Benth against Propionibacterium
acnes. South African Journal of Botany, 119, 410-419.
10. Flora of Zimbabwe: Species information: Helichrysum kraussii (zimbabweflora.co.zw)
11. Foxcroft L.C., Pyšek P., Richardson D.M. (2017). Plant invasion science in protected
areas: progress and priorities. Biol Invasions 19, 1353–1378.
12. Godber O.F. & Wall, R. (2014), Livestock and food security: vulnerability to
population growth and climate change. Glob Change Biol, 20: 3092-3102.
13. Gusha J. (2018). Invasive plant species of savanna rangelands: Are they a threat or an
opportunity. [Unpublished doctoral thesis]. University of Zimbabwe.
14. Gusha J.& Mugabe P.H. (2013), Unpalatable and wiry grasses are the dominant grass
species in semi-arid savanna rangelands in Zimbabwe, International Journal of
Development and Sustainability, Vol. 2 No. 2, pp. 1075-1083.
15. Gusha J., Masocha M., & Mugabe, P. H. (2017). Impact of grazing system on rangeland
condition and grazing capacity in Zimbabwe. The Rangeland Journal, 39(3), 219-225.
16. Gusha J., Masocha M., Mugabe P.H. (2017) Impact of grazing system on rangeland
condition and grazing capacity in Zimbabwe. The Rangeland Journal 39, 219-225.
17. Gusha J., Mugabe, P.H., Masocha M., Halimani T.E., & Ngongoni N.T. (2016).
Invasive plants, bush encroachment and rangeland degradation: Farmer’s perception
and the current status of Zimbabwe rangelands.
18. Hilliard O.M. (1983) Helichrysum. In Flora of Southern Africa 33(7), 2, Leistner OA
(Ed.). Botanical Institute of South Africa, Pretoria, 61-310.
19. Hoskovec L. (2018). Helichrysum kraussii Sch. Beep. – smil / slamiha. Botany.cz.
20. https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2016/goal-15/
21. Jelbert K., Buss D., McDonald J., Townley S., Franco M., Stott I., Hodgson D. (2019).
Demographic amplification is a predictor of invasiveness among plants. Nature
communications, 10(1), 1-6.
22. Jentschke G., & Godbold D.L. (2000). Metal toxicity and ectomycorrhizas. Physiologia
plantarum, 109(2), 107-116.
23. Jin D., Huang Y., Zhou X.L., Chen, B., Ma, J., & Yan, Y.H. (2015). High risk of plant
invasion in the understory of eucalypt plantations in South China. Scientific reports,
5(1), 1-8.
24. Joshi, RC. (2006, September). Invasive alien species (IAS): concerns and status in the
Philippines. In Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Development of
Database (APASD) for Biological Invasion. FFTC, Taichung, Taiwan, China (pp. 1-
23).
25. Kanowski J., Catterall C.P., & Wardell-Johnson G.W. (2005). Consequences of broad
scale timber plantations for biodiversity in cleared rainforest landscapes of tropical and
subtropical Australia. Forest Ecology and Management, 208(1-3), 359-372.
26. Kato-Noguchi, H. and Kurniadie, D., 2021. Allelopathy of Lantana camara as an
invasive plant. Plants, 10, 1028.
27. Kolar C.S., & Lodge D.M. (2001). Progress in invasion biology: predicting invaders.
Trends in ecology & evolution, 16(4), 199–204.
130

ISSN 2518 - 4334
28. Lourens A.C.U., Viljoen A.M., van Heerden F.R. (2008). South African Helichrysum
species: A review of the traditional uses, biological activity and phytochemistry,
Journal of Ethnopharmacology, Vol.119, Issue 3, Pages 630-652.
29. Magwede K., Van Wyk B. E., & Van Wyk A. E. (2019). An inventory of Vhavenḓa
useful plants. South African Journal of Botany, 122, 57-89.
30. Maroyi, A. Traditional use of medicinal plants in south-central Zimbabwe: review and
perspectives. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine 9, 31 (2013).
https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-9-31
31. Mashiloane, M. R. R. (2010). Medicinal Plants used By Mamotintana Community in
Mankweng, Limpopo Province (Doctoral Dissertation, University Of Limpopo).
32. Mfutimukiza D. Evaluating rangeland potentials for cattle grazing in a mixed farming
system. MSc Dissertation. International institute for Geo-Information Science and
Earth Observation, Enschede, Netherlands.ty.
33. Mhlongo E.S. (2021). Perceptions of the role of Lantana camara on human well-being
and rural livelihoods in Vhembe Biosphere Reserve, South Africa (Doctoral
dissertation, Rhodes University).
34. Mikhailovich M.D., & Valeryevna S.S. (2021). Does arbuscular mycorrhiza favor
invasion of some Asteraceae tribes?. Вестник защиты растений, 104(3), 144-152.
35. Moroń D., Marjańska E., Skórka P., Lenda M., & Woyciechowski M. (2021). Invader–
pollinator paradox: Invasive goldenrods benefit from large size pollinators. Diversity
and Distributions, 27(4), 632-641.
36. Mudzengi C.P, Kativu S., Dahwa E., Poshiwa X., Murungweni C. (2014) Effects of
Dichrostachys cinerea (l.) Wight & Arn (Fabaceae) on herbaceous species in a semi-
arid rangeland in Zimbabwe. Nature Conservation 7: 51–60.
37. Munnu S., Neha G., Eranki P.R, Prashant G. (2014). Efficient C sequestration and
benefits of medicinal vetiver cropping in tropical regions. Agronomy for Sustainable
Development, Springer Verlag/EDP Sciences/INRA, 34 (3), pp.603-607.
38. Negi G., Sharma S., Vishvakarma S.C., Samant S.S., Maikhuri R.K., Prasad, R.C., &
Palni, L. (2019). Ecology and use of Lantana camara in India. The Botanical Review,
85(2), 109-130.
39. Omotayo A.O., Ndhlovu P.T., Tshwene S.C., & Aremu A.O. (2020). Utilization Pattern
of Indigenous and Naturalized Plants among Some Selected Rural Households of North
West Province, South Africa. Plants (Basel, Switzerland), 9(8), 953.
https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9080953.
40. Parepa, M., Fischer, M. & Bossdorf, O. Environmental variability promotes plant
invasion. Nat Commun 4, 1604 (2013).
41. Parrini F., D’Ammando G., & Marshal J.P. (2019). Seasonal shifts in habitat use and
diet by eland confined in a small fenced reserve. African Journal of Ecology, 57(3),
394-403.
42. Rejmanek M., & Richardson D.M. (1996). What attributes make some plant species
more invasive? Ecology, 77(6), 1655-1661.
131

ISSN 2518 - 4334
43. Richardson D.M., & Pyšek P. (2006). Plant invasions: merging the concepts of species
invasiveness and community invasibility. Progress in Physical Geography, 30, 409 -
431.
44. Rodriguez A., & Holben W.E. (2004). Soil biota and exotic plant invasion. Nature, 427,
731-733.
45. Semenya S.S., & Maroyi A. (2019). Ethnobotanical survey of plants used by Bapedi
traditional healers to treat tuberculosis and its opportunistic infections in the Limpopo
Province, South Africa. South African Journal of Botany, 122, 401-421.
46. Sharma G.P., Raghubanshi A.S., & Singh J.S. (2005). Lantana invasion: an overview.
Weed Biology and Management, 5(4), 157-165.
47. Swanepoel D.P. (1997). The medicinal value of the Southern African Asteraceae
(Doctoral dissertation, University of Pretoria).
48. Theoharides K.A., & Dukes J.S. (2007). Plant invasion across space and time: factors
affecting nonindigenous species success during four stages of invasion. New
phytologist, 176(2), 256-273.
49. Twilley D., Langhansová L., Palaniswamy D., & Lall, N. (2017). Evaluation of
traditionally used medicinal plants for anticancer, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and
anti-viral (HPV-1) activity. South African Journal of Botany, 112, 494-500.
50. van Vuuren S.F. (2008) Antimicrobial activity of South African medicinal plants,
51. Watt J.M. and Breyer-Brandwijk M.G. (1962). The medicinal and poisonous plants of
Southern and Eastern Africa. 2nd edn. E and S. Livingstone, London.
52. Weisser P.J. (1978). Changes in area of grasslands on the dunes between Richards Bay
and the Mfolozi River, 1937 to 1974. Proceedings of the Annual Congresses of the
Grassland Society of Southern Africa, 13(1), 95-97.
53. Wood J.M. & Evans, M.S., Natal plants (1899-1912)
54. Yazdi S. E., Prinsloo G., Heyman H.M., Oosthuizen C.B., Klimkait T., & Meyer J.J.M.
(2019). Anti-HIV-1 activity of quinic acid isolated from Helichrysum mimetes using
NMR-based metabolomics and computational analysis. South African journal of
botany, 126, 328-339.
55. Zaloumis N.P., & Bond W.J. (2016). Reforestation or conservation? The attributes of
old growth grasslands in South Africa. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society
of London. Series B, Biological sciences, 371(1703), 20150310.
https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0310.
56. Zende M., Kativu S., & Mhlanga L. (2017). Impact of Lantana Camara On Vegetation,
Primary Productivity and Soils At Imire Ranch, Zimbabwe. Kirkia, 19(1), 101–109.
57. Zhou Y., and Staver A.C. (2019). Enhanced activity of soil nutrient-releasing enzymes
after plant invasion: a meta-analysis. Ecology 100.
132

ISSN 2518 - 4334
A mini-review of conservation challenges and sustainable use of Lippia javanica
(Zumbani): A case of developing countries
Sawunyama Lawrence
Department of Physics, Geography and Environmental Sciences, School of Natural Sciences,

Great Zimbabwe University, Off Old Great Zimbabwe Road, P.O. Box 1235, Masvingo,
Zimbabwe
Corresponding author: lsaunyama@gzu.ac.zw
Abstract
The use of Lippia javanica is expanding in developing nations due to its value as a source of
herbal products, including food, personal care items, and herbal medications. For example, the
Covid-19 pandemic caused a spike in the utilization of this herbal plant. As a result,
maintaining the L. javanica species through sustainable management and conservation is now
vital to prevent the extinction of this useful plant. There are currently insufficient in-depth
review articles that concentrate on L. javanica conservation and management. Consequently,
to close this knowledge gap, the current research assumes that overexploitation of L. javanica
is occurring as a result of unsustainable harvesting practices, habitat damage, and climate
change. This review examines the use of Lippia javanica in developing nations using reputable
academic sources like Google Scholar, Web of Science, Scopus, and ScienceDirect. Based on
current information, L. javanica is used as a preservative, food source, insecticide, acaricide,
remedy for food poisoning, healthcare medicine, security measure, and a host of other
applications. Analysis of various harvesting methods and their effects are also included.
Moreover, various approaches to Lippia javanica conservation and management are also
proposed. Prospects for future research are addressed by emphasizing the significance of
developing inventory and status monitoring methods and promoting the cultivation of L.
javanica. This mini-review paper offers sustainable techniques for L. javanica management
and conservation, to protect it for the benefit of the present generation as well as for future
generations.
Key words: Medicinal plant harvesting; Conservation; Lippia javanica; Sustainable
Introduction
Lippia javanica is an erect, tiny, woody annual shrub with several stems that grows to a height
of 1 to 4.5 m. It has strong, aromatic leaves that smell like lemons, as well as a little nutlet that
contains an endosperm-free seed. Its creamy white flowers contain didynamous stamens and
are grouped in a thick, spherical spike at the tip of the stalk. L. javanica is a member of the
Verbena, sometimes known as the vervain, family, which includes over 840 species of trees,
shrubs, and herbaceous plants divided into 32 genera [1-3]. The plants, in the vervain family,
133

ISSN 2518 - 4334
grow fast and thrive in most soil types in sunny regions when grown from seeds or cuttings. In
Africa, L javanica is found in central, eastern, and southern parts. It is predominantly found in
the margins of woods, grasslands, stream banks, open bushveld and open woodlands. L.
javanica can be farmed or found growing in the wild [4-6].
According to estimates from the World Health Organisation (WHO), among other sources, 70–
95% of people in developing countries still primarily obtain their basic treatment from
medicinal plants [7]. The use of these medicinal plants has resulted in livelihood improvement
through income generation and access to readily available and cheap healthcare [8, 9]. One of
the herbal plants that have captured the interest of the botanical world is L. javanica, due to its
significance in various applications [10].
Due to its chemical composition and medicinal properties, L. javanica is widely used in
developing countries in a wide range of application that includes (1) food additives and
beverage, (2) ethnoveterinary medicine, (3) treatment of human ailments such as malaria, skin
infections, respiratory problems and gastrointestinal diseases and (5) used in repellents and (6)
use in aromatherapy [1, 11, 12]. All these applications are a result of the presence of several
minerals and bioactive phytochemical compounds such as tannin, phenolic glycosides,
alkaloids, amino acids, flavonoids, iridoids, and essential oils. The essential oils include
linalool, myrcene, limonene, 2,6-dimethylstyrene, neral, geranial and geraniol [13, 14].
The composition of chemical compounds varies from place to place according to geographic
region and this difference can be attributed to geographic differences in type of soil, levels of
precipitation, temperature, light intensity, humidity, etc [15]. The presence of these
phytochemical compounds and minerals also (1) brings about the different pharmacological
activities of the plant such as antioxidant, anticancer, antimalarial, antidiabetic and better free
radical scavenging activity, (2) protects the plant from diseases and damages and (3) brings
about the colour and aromaticity of the plant. L. javanica essential oils have been shown to
have antibacterial action against respiratory infections, which explains why the plant is often
used to treat respiratory conditions like bronchitis, colds, and coughs [16]. Ngassapa et al [5]
also reported the exhibition of antimicrobial activity by L. javanica as a result of the presence
of natural oils. Bhebhe et al [17] reported the presence of phenolic compounds (tannins) in L.
javanica. The presence of phenolic compounds in Lippia javanica can inhibit enzymes linked
to the development of human diseases and has been used to treat a variety of common human
ailments, including hypertension, metabolic issues, incendiary infections, and
neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, these results support the widespread use of L. javanica
as a refreshing beverage.
In another study, Osunsanmi et al [13] investigated the phytochemicals present in L. javanica

and their antioxidant potential. Results showed that the plant is a good source of natural
antioxidants due to the presence of phenols. This makes the plant the best candidate in the
management of oxidative stress diseases. Recently, L. javanica saw an upsurge in use during
the COVID-19 pandemic, primarily in underdeveloped nations for the prevention and treatment
of respiratory symptoms [18-20]. Although L. javanica is listed as a Least Concern (LC)
134

ISSN 2518 - 4334
species in official records [21], overuse in recent years has threatened the plant with extinction
[22].
Most research on L. javanica has focused on its uses; very few, however, have highlighted the
issues related to the plant's management and conservation. Therefore, this review article
focuses on the updated uses of L. javanica, and the challenges associated with each application.
Furthermore, conservation and management challenges with the usage of L. javanica are
addressed, along with recommendations for remedies. Ultimately, the goal of this review study
is to offer broad technical recommendations for the sustainable use and preservation of Lippia
javanica in developing countries.
Table 1: Uses of Lippia javanica in developing countries.

Country Uses Part of plant Plant Ref
harvesting
method
Kenya Preservative effect on milk Stem - [23]
Zimbabwe acaricidal activity against leaves - [24]
cattle ticks
Malawi insecticidal Mature - [14]
leaves
Zimbabwe Neuroprotective effects dry leaves - [25]
South Africa disinfection of meat that leaves - [26]
has been infected with
anthrax
Botswana used as a caffeine-free tea leaves - [27]
South Africa decongestant for colds and Leaves [16]
coughs
South Africa dietary inclusion on broiler leaves hand [28]
chicken feed collected
South Africa
antidote for food poisoning Roots [26]
Botswana Used as an antidote for Roots - [29]
food poisoning
Mozambique Influenza Leaves and - [30]
roots
South Africa good insect-repellent Leaves and [31]
activity flowers
135

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Ivory Coast Antimalarial activity in leaves and - [32]
vitro on Plasmodium stalks
falciparum.
Kenya Food additive Leaves, twigs - [33]
Swaziland Pubic sores Leaves [34]
Zimbabwe Abdominal pains Leaves - [35]
Ethiopia Fence Whole plant [36]
Planted
around
homesteads
Method
University thesis repositories, Clarivate's Web of Science, Scopus, Research Gate, Google
Scholar, and ScienceDirect were among the academic databases from which relevant
information was retrieved to meet the objectives. "Developing countries" and " Lippia
javanica" were searched terms that were used. A second search was done on the conservation
and sustainable harvesting of both Lippia javanica and other medicinal plants.

Conservation concerns and management strategies of Lippia javanica
Concerns regarding the conservation and management of medicinal plants such as L. javanica
have been raised by the growing commercialization of their sale and the increasing reliance on
herbal products. Unsustainable harvesting, climate change, and habitat loss are the main
challenges threatening L. javanica’s survival. There is proof that these activities are destroying
L. javanica to the point that conservation efforts must increase to save the plant so that it can
support a variety of human lifestyles [37, 38].
Unsustainable harvesting
Table 1 illustrates how L. javanica is a multipurpose plant with several uses for its entire parts.
As a result, the plant should be harvested in a way that will guarantee its survival throughout
the landscape as well as in designated collecting areas. However, a lot of individuals, mainly
in nations with limited resources, indulge in non-sustainable harvesting practices. Destructive
harvesting methods and over-exploitation are examples of these unsustainable harvesting
practices. Unsustainable L. javanica harvesting has come from the removal of the plant from
wild populations without any kind of oversight or control, ignorance of sustainable harvesting
methods, and unclear land use rights [39].
The primary environmental impact of non-sustainable harvesting methods is the decline in the
rates of reproduction, growth, and survival of the intended species. The gathering of L. javanica
from the veld by cutting the plant and uprooting it entirely attests to some of the extraordinary
136

ISSN 2518 - 4334
destructive harvesting methods [37]. Even though removing only the most desirable portions
of the plant is advantageous for plant survival and regrowth, harvesting of L javanica is not a
more common example of a situation where this practice is followed. For example, in an
investigation reported by Mpofu et al [28], they harvested both the stems and the leaves of L.
javanica for their feeding trials yet their study only used the leaves. The destructive harvesting
of L. javanica, in which the stem was taken along with the leaves even though the leaves were
the only portion that would be valuable, is further illustrated in Figs. 1a and b. A sustainable
approach in each of these cases would have been to remove the leaves (Fig. 1.c and d) rather
than trimming the stems or striping the leaves to promote rapid plant regeneration.
Additionally, irresponsible harvesting causes damage to the plant, making it more vulnerable
to disease. Removing leaves from the tree without breaking them and trimming the stem and
twigs also helps to reduce damage to the trunk. [40, 41]. Further beneficial methods for
harvesting L javanica include: (1) carefully removing the roots without damaging the tap root;
(2) carefully removing the stem or bark without damaging the innermost layer that aids in the
plant's drying out; and (3) carefully plucking the leaves without breaking the shoots [42, 43].
L. javanica over-exploitation and destructive harvesting can be prevented by: (1) using ex-situ
conservation by propagating the plant in farms and home gardens; (2) limiting access to or
encroachment on forest resources; and (3) embracing indigenous conservation strategies like
social controls and taboos like harvesting plants no larger than the palm of a hand. These
actions could be very helpful in both producing huge amounts of L. javanica and safeguarding
these resources from unsustainable harvesting techniques [39].
137

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Fig 1(a & b). Unsustainable harvesting practices (c&d) sustainable harvesting practices [44]
Climate change and habitat loss
Climate change is well acknowledged to have substantial effects on the existence of medicinal
plants. There have been reports linking the decline in medicinal plants like L. javanica to
climate change. Climate change can lead to a scarcity of L. javanica by raising temperatures
and reducing rainfall, which will prevent the plant from growing to its maximum potential and
from regenerating after being harvested [45-47]. For instance, Rankoana [48], reported that,
during very hot seasons a reduction in the growth rate of L. javanica can cause the plant to die
before maturity. In another study, Singini et al [49] studied the effect of temperature on the
medicinal properties of L. javanica. The findings indicated that L. javanica exhibited coping
strategies for a short period against high temperatures, but that longer exposure caused more
harm. Climate change will therefore adversely affect a plant's ability to develop, the chemical
composition of its phytochemicals, and its defence mechanisms. The effects of climate change
as well as harmful substances and pesticide pollution on L. javanica can all be addressed
through cultivation. Stable production is ensured by controlled growing conditions during
cultivation, which also increase active compound yields and decrease harvest volume.
138

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Anthropogenic factors like deforestation, urbanization, land preparation and mining have been
shown to further threaten L. javanica existence through habitat loss. Therefore, efforts must be
focused on essential habitats, such as secondary forests, disturbed regions, and agro landscapes
to conserve these species. [50-52]. The management of L. javanica for present and future use
can be aided by ex-situ conservation in the form of seed banks and botanical gardens in the
event of significant or minimal loss of wild habitat [53]. Lippia javanica can be managed more
effectively in situations where its habitat is lost if it is harvested from an area where the plant
is abundant while preserving healthy populations [54]. The anthropogenic activities that result
in habitat loss can also be lessened through the implementation of traditional management
practices, rooted in cultural norms, taboos and religious beliefs, even though officially backed
programs tend to ignore them. These techniques have proven to be effective in encouraging
sustainable usage and biodiversity conservation, by helping in the regulation of activities that
impact the environment and control the collecting and harvesting of this medicinal plant with
minimal loss and damage to the plant [55].
Conclusion and Future Perspectives
Research on the conservation and management of L. javanica is scarce in the majority of

developing nations. Therefore, empirical investigations that rely on the observation and
assessment of the sustainability and management of L. javanica that the researchers themselves
have direct involvement with may be considered for future research.
Excessive exploitation of this herbal plant through unsustainable harvesting, overharvesting,

climate change and loss of habitat due to anthropogenic activities cause resource damage to the
point that more conservation work is required to keep such resources safe. It is also necessary
to examine both the positive and the harmful practices so that the positive practices are
encouraged while the harmful ones are discouraged. Maintaining and preserving the
community's expertise in using native plant species is also beneficial to the preservation of its
cultural legacy. Cultivating L. javanica is an appealing solution for its management since it can
provide optimal levels of environmental conditions and nutritional requirements. Cultivation
is beneficial because it can increase the population of some plant species, which lessens the
harvest strain on naturally occurring species. In addition to expanding their availability for
commercial use, large-scale L. javanica cultivation has the potential to create jobs. The issues
of sustainable harvesting of herbal plants such as L. javanica are to some extent addressed in
the environmental statute and in the draft policy for the regulation of the work of users but very
little is known beyond the national institutions about these policy guidelines. Therefore,
implementing legislative actions and strategies that advise users on sustainable harvesting of
L. javanica is also a necessary way that can be used to prevent the medicinal plant's extinction
in light of its steadily increasing uses [56]. The establishment of inventory and status
monitoring systems can also be used in the management of L. javanica.
References
139

ISSN 2518 - 4334
1. Maroyi, A., Lippia javanica (Burm. F.) Spreng.: traditional and commercial uses
and phytochemical and pharmacological significance in the african and indian
subcontinent. Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine, 2017.
2017.
2. Mujovo, S.F., Antimicrobial activity of compounds isolated from Lippia javanica
(Burm. f.) Spreng and Hoslundia opposita against Mycobacterium tuberculosis and
HIV-1 reverse transcriptase. 2010, University of Pretoria.
3. Olivier, D., E. Shikanga, S. Combrinck, R. Krause, T. Regnier and T. Dlamini,
Phenylethanoid glycosides from Lippia javanica. South African Journal of Botany,
2010. 76(1): p. 58-63.
4. Yassine, E., F. Abdellah, R. Chaimae, O. Bouchra and E. Lalami, Antibacterial
efficacy of essential oils from three Moroccan plants (Lavandula officinalis,
Origanum majorana and Thymus vulgaris) against clinical isolates. Int. J. Curr.
Pharm. l Rev. Res, 2016. 7(6): p. 360-366.
5. Ngassapa, O., D.K. Runyoro, E. Harvala and I.B. Chinou, Composition and
antimicrobial activity of essential oils of two populations of Tanzanian Lippia
javanica (Burm. f.) Spreng.(Verbenaceae). Flavour and fragrance journal, 2003.
18(3): p. 221-224.
6. Shode, F., S. Sabiu, J.O. Aribisala and K.K. Govender, An Updated Review (2015–
2022) on the Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Importance of Lippia javanica
(Burm. f.) Spreng. 2023.
7. Volenzo, T. and J. Odiyo, Integrating endemic medicinal plants into the global
value chains: The ecological degradation challenges and opportunities. Heliyon,
2020. 6(9).
8. Organization, W.H., WHO global report on traditional and complementary
medicine 2019. 2019: World Health Organization.
9. Kala, C.P., P.P. Dhyani and B.S. Sajwan, Developing the medicinal plants sector in
northern India: challenges and opportunities. Journal of Ethnobiology and
Ethnomedicine, 2006. 2: p. 1-15.
10. Lall, N. and N. Kishore, Are plants used for skin care in South Africa fully
explored? Journal of ethnopharmacology, 2014. 153(1): p. 61-84.
11. Mutie, F.M., Y.M. Mbuni, P.C. Rono, E.M. Mkala, J.M. Nzei, M. Phumthum, and
Q.-F. Wang, Important Medicinal and Food Taxa (Orders and Families) in Kenya,
Based on Three Quantitative Approaches. Plants, 2023. 12(5): p. 1145.
12. Maroyi, A., Traditional use of medicinal plants in south-central Zimbabwe: review
and perspectives. Journal of ethnobiology and ethnomedicine, 2013. 9(1): p. 1-18.
13. Osunsanmi, F.O., G.E. Zharare and A.R. Opoku, Phytochemical Constituents and
Antioxidant Potential of Crude Extracts from Lippia javanica (Burm. f.) Spreng
Leaves. Pharmacognosy Journal, 2019. 11(4).
14. Kamanula, J.F., S.R. Belmain, D.R. Hall, D.I. Farman, D.J. Goyder, B.M. Mvumi,
and P.C. Stevenson, Chemical variation and insecticidal activity of Lippia javanica
(Burm. f.) Spreng essential oil against Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky. Industrial
crops and products, 2017. 110: p. 75-82.
140

ISSN 2518 - 4334
15. Ghasemzadeh, A., H.Z. Jaafar, M.F.M. Bukhori, M.H. Rahmat and A. Rahmat,
Assessment and comparison of phytochemical constituents and biological activities
of bitter bean (Parkia speciosa Hassk.) collected from different locations in
Malaysia. Chemistry central journal, 2018. 12: p. 1-9.
16. Viljoen, A.M., S.v. Subramoney, S.F. van Vuuren, K. Başer and B. Demirci, The
composition, geographical variation and antimicrobial activity of Lippia javanica
(Verbenaceae) leaf essential oils. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 2005. 96(1-2): p.
271-277.
17. Bhebhe, M., T.N. Füller, B. Chipurura and M. Muchuweti, Effect of solvent type
on total phenolic content and free radical scavenging activity of black tea and herbal
infusions. Food Analytical Methods, 2016. 9: p. 1060-1067.
18. Villena-Tejada, M., I. Vera-Ferchau, A. Cardona-Rivero, R. Zamalloa-Cornejo, M.
Quispe-Florez, Z. Frisancho-Triveño, and J.A. Yañez, Use of medicinal plants for
COVID-19 prevention and respiratory symptom treatment during the pandemic in
Cusco, Peru: A cross-sectional survey. PloS one, 2021. 16(9): p. e0257165.
19. Marumure, J., Z. Makuvara, L. Sawunyama, C. Gufe and T. Marumure, Indigenous
Health Practices and Lifestyles: Can They Help Zimbabwe Transform Its Health
Systems in the Face of the COVID-19 Pandemic? The COVID-19-Health Systems
Nexus: Emerging Trends, Issues and Dynamics in Zimbabwe, 2023: p. 147-167.
20. Kugedera, A.T., N. Sakadzo, T. Museva, L.K. Kokerai, G. Muridzi and A. Musara,
Role and commercialisation of indigenous knowledge in the control of Covid-19
pandemic. The Dyke, 2021. 15(2): p. 43-57.
21. List, T.I.R., The IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. 2022.
22. Mood, K., P. Jogam, A. Sirikonda, M.S. Shekhawat, G.K. Rohela, M. Manokari
and V.R. Allini, Micropropagation, morpho-anatomical characterization, and
genetic stability studies in Lippia javanica (Burm. f.) Spreng: a multipurpose
medicinal plant. Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture (PCTOC), 2022. 150(2): p.
427-437.
23. Onyango, C., L. Gakuya, F.M. Mathooko, J. Maina, M. Nyaberi, M. Makobe and
F. Mwaura, Preservative effect of various indigenous plants on fermented milk from
Maasai community of Kajiado County. Journal of Applied Biosciences, 2014. 73:
p. 5935-5941.
24. Madzimure, J., E.T. Nyahangare, H. Hamudikuwanda, T. Hove, P.C. Stevenson,
S.R. Belmain and B.M. Mvumi, Acaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute
oral toxicity of Lippia javanica (Burm F.) Spreng. Tropical Animal Health and
Production, 2011. 43: p. 481-489.
25. Suleman, Z., G.A. Engwa, M. Shauli, H.T. Musarurwa, N.A. Katuruza and C.R.
Sewani-Rusike, Neuroprotective effects of Lippia javanica (Burm. F.) Spreng.
Herbal tea infusion on Lead-induced oxidative brain damage in Wistar rats. BMC
Complementary Medicine and Therapies, 2022. 22(1): p. 1-10.
26. Hutchings, A., Zulu medicinal plants: An inventory. 1996: University of Natal
press.
141

ISSN 2518 - 4334
27. Mujovo, S.F., A.A. Hussein, J.M. Meyer, B. Fourie, T. Muthivhi and N. Lall,
Bioactive compounds from Lippia javanica and Hoslundia opposita. Natural
product research, 2008. 22(12): p. 1047-1054.
28. Mpofu, D.A., U. Marume, V. Mlambo and A. Hugo, The effects of Lippia javanica
dietary inclusion on growth performance, carcass characteristics and fatty acid
profiles of broiler chickens. Animal Nutrition, 2016. 2(3): p. 160-167.
29. Hedberg, I. and F. Staugård, Traditional medicinal plants. Vol. 3. 1989: Ipelegeng
Publishers.
30. Bandeira, S., A. Massingue Manjate and O. Filipe, An ecological assessment of the
health of the Chibuto wetland in the dry season Mozambique: Emphasis on
resources assessment utilization and sustainability analysis. 2006.
31. Govere, J., D. Durrheim, N. Du Toit, R. Hunt and M. Coetzee, Local plants as
repellents against Anopheles arabiensis, in Mpumalanga Province, South Africa.
The Central African Journal of Medicine, 2000. 46(8): p. 213-216.
32. Valentin, A., Y. Pélissier, F. Benoit, C. Marion, D. Kone, M. Mallie, and J.-M.
Bessière, Composition and antimalarial activity in vitro of volatile components of
Lippia multiflora. Phytochemistry, 1995. 40(5): p. 1439-1442.
33. Kipkore, W., B. Wanjohi, H. Rono and G. Kigen, A study of the medicinal plants
used by the Marakwet Community in Kenya. Journal of ethnobiology and
ethnomedicine, 2014. 10(1): p. 1-22.
34. Amusan, O.O., N.A. Sukati and M.S. Shongwe, Some phytomedicines from
Shiselweni region of Swaziland. Journal of Natural Remedies, 2005: p. 19-25.
35. Gelfland, M., S. Mavi, R. Drummond and B. Ndemera, The traditional medical
practitioner in Zimbabwe: his principles of practice and pharmacopoeia. 1985:
Mambo Press.
36. Birhanu, T., D. Abera, E. Ejeta and E. Nekemte, Ethnobotanical study of medicinal
plants in selected Horro Gudurru Woredas, Western Ethiopia. Journal of Biology,
Agriculture and Healthcare, 2015. 5(1): p. 83-93.
37. Mokoka, N.N., Indigenous knowledge of fever tea (Lippia javanica) and effect of
shade netting on plant growth, oil yield and compound composition. 2007,
University of Pretoria.
38. George, J., M. Laing and S. Drewes, Phytochemical research in South Africa. South
African journal of science, 2001. 97(3): p. 93-105.
39. Semenya, S.S. and M.J. Mokgoebo, The Utilization and Conservation of Indigenous
Wild Plant Resources in the Limpopo Province, South Africa. Natural Resources
Management and Biological Sciences, 2020: p. 317.
40. Thiribhuvanamala, G., K. Parthiban and R. Seenivasan, Major diseases affecting
pulp wood trees and their management. Plantation and Agroforestry Pulpwood
Value Chain Approach, 2017: p. 337.
41. Mohan, V., Disease management technology for forest trees. 2016: Scientific
Publishers, India.
142

ISSN 2518 - 4334
42. Bukuluki, P., R. Luwangula and E.J. Walakira, Harvesting of medicinal plants in
Uganda: Practices, conservation and implications for sustainability of supplies.
Online International Journal of Medicinal Plant Research, 2014. 3(1): p. 1-10.
43. Lekganyane, D.M., The mystery behind muthi: a survey of bulbous and perennial
herbs traded at the Faraday Medicinal Market in Johannesburg using DNA
barcoding as an identification tool. 2019: University of Johannesburg (South
Africa).
44. Ndoro, T.E., Health Benefits of Zumbani and All You Need to Know About the
Plant, in Sundaymail. 2021: Zimbabwe.
45. Ren, Y., J. Liu, S. Liu, Z. Wang, T. Liu and M.J. Shalamzari, Effects of climate
change on vegetation growth in the Yellow River Basin from 2000 to 2019. Remote
Sensing, 2022. 14(3): p. 687.
46. Shafi, A., F. Hassan, I. Zahoor, U. Majeed and F.A. Khanday, Biodiversity,
management and sustainable use of medicinal and aromatic plant resources.
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants: Healthcare and Industrial Applications, 2021: p.
85-111.
47. Malahlela, O.E., C. Adjorlolo and J.M. Olwoch, Mapping the spatial distribution of
Lippia javanica (Burm. f.) Spreng using Sentinel-2 and SRTM-derived topographic
data in malaria endemic environment. Ecological Modelling, 2019. 392: p. 147-158.
48. Rankoana, S.A., Community perceptions of climate change and initiatives for the
conservation of endemic plants in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Weather, 2019.
74(9): p. 296-300.
49. Singini, E.J., Y. Nuapia, L. Chimuka and I.M. Risenga, The effect of elevated
temperatures on trichomes, essential oil composition and yield of Lippia javanica:
A chemometric approach. South African Journal of Science, 2023. 119(1-2): p. 1-
6.
50. Aguilar-Støen, M. and S.R. Moe, Medicinal plant conservation and management:
distribution of wild and cultivated species in eight countries. Plant Conservation
and Biodiversity, 2007: p. 399-407.
51. Scanes, C.G., Human activity and habitat loss: destruction, fragmentation, and
degradation, in Animals and human society. 2018, Elsevier. p. 451-482.
52. Ding, Y., Z. Li and S. Peng, Global analysis of time-lag and-accumulation effects
of climate on vegetation growth. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation
and Geoinformation, 2020. 92: p. 102179.
53. Chen, S.-L., H. Yu, H.-M. Luo, Q. Wu, C.-F. Li and A. Steinmetz, Conservation
and sustainable use of medicinal plants: problems, progress, and prospects. Chinese
medicine, 2016. 11: p. 1-10.
54. Khumalo, S.G., A. Fröde and P. Sola, Guidelines for the sustainable harvesting of
traditional medicinal plants in Zimbabwe. Southern Alliance for Indig‑enous
Resources, 2006.
55. Msuya, T.S. and J.R. Kideghesho, The role of traditional management practices in
enhancing sustainable use and conservation of medicinal plants in West Usambara
Mountains, Tanzania. Tropical Conservation Science, 2009. 2(1): p. 88-105.
143

ISSN 2518 - 4334
56. Mbinile, S.D., L.K. Munishi, I.B. Ngondya and P.A. Ndakidemi, Conservation and
management challenges facing a medicinal plant Zanthoxylum chalybeum in
Simanjiro area, Northern Tanzania. Sustainability, 2020. 12(10): p. 4140.
144

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Potential of Bambara groundnut in improving food and nutritional security: A review
Faith M Ruzengwe
Department of Livestock, Wildlife and Fisheries, Gary Magadzire School of Agriculture and
Engineering, Great Zimbabwe University, P O Box 1235, Masvingo, Zimbabwe
Corresponding author: xxxxxx
Abstract
Bambara groundnut (Vigna subtеrranеa) is a pulse that is drought resistant and composed of
healthy nutritional components, though it remains underutilised. The review evaluated the
potential of Bambara groundnut in improving food and nutritional security in Sub- Saharan
Africa addressing issues of malnutrition. Bambara groundnut contains protein (19 - 25%), fat
(4.5 - 7.4%), ash (3.2 - 4.4%), carbohydrate (49.0 – 63.5%), fibre (6.4%) and minerals
(magnesium, zinc, iron and potassium). Ripe seeds of Bambara groundnut can be milled into a
flour that can be used to make biscuits and/or otherwise mixed with cereals and boiled to make
porridge. The flour has also shown potential as a composite in bread production. However,
despite a high protein content, some of the food products formulated from Bambara groundnuts
are not acceptable based on sensory evaluation especially taste and flavour. Findings also
suggest that the processing method influences the sensory attributes and bioavailability of
nutrients in the formed products. Hence, these should be considered during the formulation of
the various food products from Bambara groundnut. Formulating various products from
Bambara groundnut will increase its consumption hence reducing the burden of food and
nutrition security.
Key words: Bambara groundnut, food security, nutritional composition,
Introduction
The shift by consumers to plant-based foods is expected to increase due to rapid growth in the
awareness of the environmental impacts of livestock and the health risks implications resulting
from overconsumption of meat (Monnet et al., 2019). Hence, there is a demand for more plant-
based diets and energy efficient processing (Monnet et al., 2019) which is a sustainable
approach to produce proteins, other nutrients and protein-enriched products (Assatory et al.,
2019). Plant proteins constitute an important source of essential amino acids required for good
health and are commonly used as protein supplements (Assatory et al., 2019). The amino acid
composition of the food protein represents its nutritional quality (Boye et al., 2010), whilst the
amino acid sequence together with the length of the peptide determine its structural and
functional properties (Bessada et al., 2019).
145

ISSN 2518 - 4334
According to Mazahib et al. (2013), Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) is a legume which
belongs to the family of Fabaceae. It is regarded as the third most important crop in Africa, but
it is recognised as a snack and not a lucrative cash crop due to its low status (Oyugi et al.,
2014). In addition, Bambara groundnut has been termed a woman’s crop hence it has been
given less value and priority in land allocation in Zimbabwe (Alercia, 2013; Forsythe et al.,
2015; Mubaiwa et al., 2018). Currently, Africa is faced with food security and global warming
threats therefore, Bambara groundnut might be a crop of hope to alleviate these challenges
because of its drought resistant features (Basu et al., 2007; Hillocks et al., 2012). In addition to
being tolerant to drought, Bambara groundnut is also tolerant to pests and diseases and has the
ability to produce a reasonable crop when grown on poor soils (Collision et al., 2000; Eltayeb
et al., 2011; Murevanhema & Jideani, 2013).
Bambara groundnut contains sufficient quantities of protein (20.5-26.0%), carbohydrate (50.5-

69.3%) and fat (4.3-7.9%) and amino acids higher than that found in most legumes (Arise et
al., 2015). It is also a good source of minerals such as iron, potassium, zinc, magnesium,
phosphorous and calcium (Hussin et al., 2020; Oyeyinka et al., 2019; Qaku et al., 2020).
However, it remains underutilised despite its potential for food security and income generation
(Forsythe et al., 2015; Mubaiwa et al., 2018). Besides the nutritional importance of Bambara
groundnuts, various problems such as beany flavours, long cooking hours and anti-nutritional
factors have been reported and these may hinder maximum utilisation of the crop (Honi, 2016).
Together with these problems the under utilisation of Bambara groundnut may be due to lack
of sufficient research to unlock its potential. Hence, this review focused on evaluating research
done on the nutritional benefits, anti-nutritional factors, effects of processing on the anti-
nutritional factors and various products from Bambara groundnuts. This was done with the
view that maximum utilisation of Bambara groundnut related products has the potential to
improve food and nutritional security.
Nutritional composition of Bambara groundnut

Bambara groundnuts have high nutritional qualities, containing 51- 60% carbohydrates and 16
-25% protein content which is similar to cowpea but slightly lower than soya bean protein
(Table 1) (Adegbola & Bamshaiye 2011; Hillock et al. 2012; Murevanhema & Jideani 2013).
Arise et al. (2015), reported that Bambara groundnuts contain approximately 63.5%
carbohydrates, 27% protein, 7.4% fat and 4.4% ash. Oyеlеkе et al. (2012) emphasised that the
high protein in Bambara groundnut is important for the body to repair and build new tissues.
Table 1: Nutritional composition of Bambara groundnut
Nutrient Composition
Ash (g/ 100g) 2.0 – 3.6
Crude protein (g/ 100g) 16.2 – 27.0
Crude fat (g/ 100g) 1.6 – 7.4
Carbohydrate (g/ 100g) 54.5 – 69.3
146

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Crude fibre (g / 100g) 1.8 – 12.9
Source: Arise et al. (2015); Adegbola & Bamishaiye (2011); Hillocks et al. (2012);
Murevanhema & Jideani (2013).
According to Halimi et al. (2019), Bambara groundnuts has a high mineral content compared
to other legumes. Bambara groundnuts have also been reported to be an excellent source of
calcium, iron and potassium (Table 2). Bambara groundnuts contain unsaturated fatty acids
that appeal to consumers from a health perspective. Although it increases the rate of
rancidification and oxidation, the use of artificial flavours and preservatives during processing
is discarded due to their higher concentration of soluble fibre than any other legume (Oladеlе,
2013). The total phytosterol content of Bambara groundnuts ranges from 15.9 mg/100 g to
255.2 mg/100 g (Wang et al., 2019). Rawal et al. (2015), reported that the total phytosterol
content of Bambara groundnuts is 221 mg/100 g. Phytosterols, like unsaturated fatty acids,
have beneficial health effects on the human body, including decreasing cholesterol, regulating
the immune system, and preserving the skin from aging. Furthermore, because of their high
antioxidant content, they can help prevent cancers (Rawal et al., 2015).
Table 2: Mineral composition of Bambara groundnut
Mineral Composition (mg/ 100g)

Iron 5.9 – 7.1
Potassium 1240 – 1290
Phosphorous 296 – 320
Sodium 3.7 – 4.8
Calcium 7.8 – 13.5
Source: Adegbola & Bamishaiye (2011); Hillocks et al. (2012); Murevanhema & Jideani
(2013).
The major non-essential amino acids in Bambara groundnut protein have been shown to be
aspartic acid (146.1mg/g crude protein) and glutamic acid (209mg/g crude protein) (Mune
Mune et al., 2011), this is the same as in other legume proteins such as from soya beans
(Adebowale et al., 2011, Feyzi et al., 2015) and black bean (Kudre et al., 2013). The principal
essential amino acids have been shown to be lysine (80.2 mg/g crude protein) and leucine
(102.1mg/g crude protein) (Mune Mune et al., 2011). In a study by Arise et al. (2015) lysine
was also found to be high at around 6 g/100g protein almost the same as in soya bean protein
(Adebowale et al., 2011). Arginine a conditionally essential amino acid was also found to be
high in Bambara groundnut around 7g/100g. In addition, Bambara groundnut is also high in
isoleucine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine and valine. According to Ijarotimi & Esho
(2009), Bambara groundnut has levels of essential sulphur containing amino acids higher than
147

ISSN 2518 - 4334
that those found in most legumes. Bambara groundnut can therefore be used as a
complementary protein in cereal grains (Boyе еt al., 2010).
The functional properties of Bambara groundnut are essential for the successful utilisation of
the crop. Functional properties are the intrinsic physicochemical characteristics affecting the
behaviour of food commodities during different processing methods (Aremu et al., 2007). One
of the main functional properties necessary in protein ingredients is gelation (Eltayeb et al.,
2011), among others such as emulsion, protein solubility, water and oil absorption capacity
(Aremu et al., 2007). Bambara groundnuts can therefore be mostly utilised in provision of
protein in areas where animal protein is deficient or expensive (Ijarotimi & Еsho., 2009).
Bambara groundnuts contain various amounts of nutrients able to provide nutritional benefits
that lead to improved nutrition, and food security. Due to the excellent nutritional value in
Bambara groundnuts, Ogundele et al. (2017) classified Bambara as a complete food. However,
though Bambara groundnuts are a good source of nutrients they also contain anti-nutritional
factors that can inhibit the bioavailability of some of these nutrients.
Anti-nutritional factors
Anti-nutritional factors in Bambara groundnuts
Bambara groundnuts contain levels of anti-nutrients such as trypsin inhibitor, phenolic
compounds, oxalate, tannic acid, phytic acid and phytin (Ijarotimi & Esho 2009). It has been
stated by Unigwe et al., (2017) that the red and brown Bambara groundnuts contain the highest
levels of tannins while the cream coloured ones have the lowest. These anti-nutrients are
substances that interfere with digestive processes and prevent the absorption of essential
nutrients, particularly minerals, in the body when they are consumed in foods containing them.
Anti-nutrients, according to Attaugwu et al. (2016), reduce the efficient utilization of nutrients,
negatively affecting their bioavailability. Anti-nutrients have been shown to reduce amino acid
bioavailability by up to 50% (Hamili et al., 2019).
The polyphenolic compounds in Bambara groundnuts reduces the bioavailability of minerals

and proteins by forming refractory compounds (Unigwе et al., 2018). Dubеy & Matеl (2018),
reported that phytate and oxalate in Bambara groundnut milk reduce calcium bioavailability
thereby preventing it from being absorbed. Additionally, phytate reduces the bioavailability of
iron, zinc, and magnesium. Insoluble complexes are formed as a result of the reaction with the
cations of minerals (Gibson et al., 2006). Sethi et al. (2016), also agreed that the phytic acid
contained in Bambara groundnuts prevents zinc and iron absorption. These anti-nutritional
factors need to be reduced so as to improve the nutritional value and increase the effective
utilization of the nutrients on the nuts. Bambara groundnuts must be processed (germinating,
roasting, soaking and cooking) prior to consumption in order to improve their palatability and
nutritional quality. These processes produce changes in nutritional composition and content of
bioactive compounds.
Effect of processing on the anti-nutritional factors in Bambara groundnut flour
148

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Heat treatment can reduce the activity of trypsin inhibitors and increase the digestibility and
protein utilization. Heat treatment is an effective means of inactivating the hеat-labilе anti-
atrophic factors of Bambara groundnut. Cooking, autoclaving, pressure cooking, extruding and
microwaving are some of the heat treatments commonly applied to Bambara groundnuts before
consumption (Mazahib еt al., 2013). Literature also suggests that simple treatment methods
such as soaking, boiling, and roasting can remove or reduce phytic acid in Bambara groundnut.
Mazahib et al. (2013), also supported that soaking and cooking increases the reduction of
tannins, phytic acid and polyphenols in Bambara groundnut. The bindings of formed
complexes and anti-nutrients are broken by thermal treatments. Boiling degrades the oxalate
and improves calcium absorption (Gibson et al., 2006).
Fermentation achieved through addition of culture bacteria is another means of enhancing

bioavailability for example in Bambara groundnut milk. Short-chain fatty acids are formed due
to the addition of the bacterial culture these enhance the solubility of bioavailable calcium,
hydrolysis of glucoside linkage, synthesis of vitamins, and production of bioactive peptides.
Probiotics such as lactobacillus in Bambara groundnut milk with estrogenic activity increase
the bioavailability of calcium by hydrolysis of glycoside bonds in the intestines (Dubеy &
Matеl, 2018). Furthermore, fermentation promotes the development of organic acids, which
enable the production of soluble ligands with trace minerals found in the gastrointestinal
system. As a result, some minerals, particularly zinc and iron, are better absorbed (Gibson et
al., 2006). The phytase enzyme, present in lactic acid, bacteria, and yeasts, is responsible for
phytate hydrolysis. In fermented Bambara groundnut milk, starter cultures such as bacteria and
yeasts increase isoflavone bioavailability, enhance protein digestion, and increase calcium
solubility. In fermented Bambara groundnut milk, calcium, magnesium, riboflavin, and niacin
were found to be in higher proportions than in unfermented Bambara groundnut milk (Rеkha
& Vijayalakshmi, 2010). Thus, the anti-nutrient content decreases, lead to improved
bioavailability and bio accessibility of nutrients, overall health and immunity improve (Rеkha
& Vijayalakshmi, 2010) thus improving food and nutrition security.
Various products from Bambara groundnut

Bambara groundnut is primarily used for human consumption either when fully ripe or
immature. Immature seeds can be consumed fresh after boiling or grilling, as a meal and even
mixed with immature groundnuts or green maize (Adegbola & Bamshaiye, 2011). When fully
ripe, the seeds are dried and roasted, broken into pieces, boiled, crushed and eaten as a relish.
Murevanhema & Jideani (2013) states that Bambara groundnut fresh pods can be boiled with
salt and eaten as a snack or roasted and crushed to make soup. Bambara groundnut seed are
boiled overnight with corn in Kenya, then soaked, crushed, and fried into stews (Hеllеr еt al.,
1997). Fresh pods are cooked with salt and pepper as snacks in some West African countries
(Hillocks et al., 2012). In Ghana, the seeds are soaked overnight and then cooked till porridge
is formed.
Recently studies have deduced Bambara groundnut potential for the development of various
food products such as biscuit and cake production, vegetable milk and yoghurt reported by
149

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Falade et al. (2014). The successful performance of Bambara groundnut flour as a food
ingredient depends on the functional characteristics and sensory qualities that it imparts to
products. In addition, the ripe seeds can also be milled into a flour that can be used to make
biscuits and/or otherwise mixed with cereals and boiled to make porridge (Barimalaa et al.,
2005, Adegbola & Bamshaiye, 2011). Bambara groundnuts can be mixed with peanut butter
and eaten with maize, but coarse Bambara groundnuts are processed into porridge. Other
authors emphasised that Bambara groundnuts can be used to fortify other traditional foods. Ogi
is a fermented sorghum porridge with Bambara groundnuts flour fortified at a ratio of 60:40
(Olufеmi, 2019), fortification of Bambara groundnut flour improves nutritional value. Fufu is
a cassava fortified with Bambara groundnut flour (Olapadееt al., 2014). Dried and ripe
Bambara groundnuts can be milled into flour and used to make cakes or mixed with granola to
make porridge (Oyеlеkееt al., 2012).
The flour has also shown potential as a composite in bread production (Alozie et al., 2009). In
Ghana, Bambara groundnut flour is used to make brim (Nti, 2009). Bambara groundnut flour
is mixed with water and seasoned with salt to make a firm dough, also known as the fermented
spiced awadawa in western Africa. Bambara groundnut flour is also used to make bread in
other parts of Africa, such as Zambia (Brough et al., 1993). Bambara groundnut flour can be
used to make mixed flour and can be incorporated into noodles production. Other studies have
found that fortifying meals with Bambara groundnut flour can easily achieve increases in
protein (Honi, 2016). The authors hypothesized that adding Bambara groundnut flour to the
noodles could correct nutrient imbalances in children consuming them.
According to Han et al. (2010), legumes such as Bambara groundnut are gluten free and have
low glycemic index, a characteristic that benefits people with diabetes, cardiovascular disease
and celiac disease. According to previous studies, Bambara groundnuts can compete with or
replace other conventional flours in a variety of processed products (Massawе et al., 2005).
The uses of Bambara groundnut flour in the supplementation of other flours such as wheat flour
have been reported in various studies (Nwosu, 2013). In the studies, the blended flours were
used to develop biscuits and the results showed that the biscuits were high in protein. With
Bambara groundnut incorporation, the diameter of the biscuits was increased and there was an
improvement in the flavour and texture of the biscuits. These changes were linked to the
changes in the functional properties of wheat flour when Bambara groundnut flour was added.
In another study by Alozieet al. (2009), Bambara groundnut was used to develop bread and the
resultant bread exhibited improved protein, ash and crude fibre content. Erukainure et al.,
(2016), state that the development and improvement constancy time was observed with
Bambara groundnut incorporation in wheat flour. Also, an increase in bread specific volume
was observed in another study with Bambara groundnut flour inclusion (Abdualrahman et al.,
2012). Thus the applicability of Bambara groundnut flour in bread production as well as in
improving the properties of bread when used as a composite flour. Such use will increase the
consumption of nutrient rich foods hence reducing issues to do with food and nutrition
insecurity.
150

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Murеvanhеma & Jidеani (2013) found that Bambara groundnuts may be used to make vegan
milk that is comparable to soy milk. Bambara groundnut milk can be prepared in the same way
as soymilk and is often used as weaning milk in many countries (Brough et al., 1993). It is also
used for religion (vegetarians) and health reasons (people who are allergic to milk protein, who
have a diet frее of cholesterol, lactose, and dairy products) (Granato еt al., 2010). Current
interest in Bambara groundnut milk stems from the fact that milk and dairy products are too
expensive for low-income earning people (Lawal et al., 2007). There is an increasing need to
switch to vegetable milk as an alternative to animal milk. Also, some people have an allergic
reaction to animal milk due to lactose intolerance whilst some just choose a different lifestyle.
Saturated fats in full-fat milk have also been linked to higher cholesterol levels (Miller et al.,
2000), prompting some people to switch to plant-based milk for a healthier diet. Bambara
groundnut milk is a low-cost, high-nutritional-value product. In this regard, researchers have
concentrated on products derived from fermentation, such as yogurt, buttermilk, and ripened
cheese analoguеs (Lawal et al., 2007). Lactose intolerance, cholesterol content, and allergenic
milk proteins are the key downsides of dairy consumption, making the development of new
probiotic products essential (Granato et al., 2010). Brough et al. (1993) looked into the
feasibility of creating Bambara groundnut milk for local consumption, and they found that there
was a lot of potential for Bambara groundnut milk plant-based yoghurt. Milk from Bambara
groundnuts was rated higher in acceptability than milk from other legumes such as soybean
and cowpea. Generally, there has been reported scarcity of milk supply mostly in developing
countries partly due to the increasing population (Salami et al., 2020; Onwеluzo & Nwakalor,
2009). In addition to this, there has been increasing concerns on cow milk allergies, lactose
intolerance, calorie concern and the prevalence of hypercholesterolemia (Jеskе еt al., 2018,
Supavititpatana еt al., 2010) thus the continuous search for alternative sources of milk. The use
of Bambara groundnuts as a milk source will help meet the burden of malnutrition hence
impacting food and nutrition security.
Conclusion
Bambara groundnut is a drought resistant legume, tolerant to pests and diseases and has the
ability to thrive in poor soils. The legume has a high nutritional value protein (19 - 25%), fat
(4.5-7.4%), ash (3.2-4.4%), carbohydrate (49.0–63.5%), fibre (6.4%) and minerals
(magnesium, zinc, iron and potassium). The anti-nutritional factors in Bambara groundnut can
be reduced by processing (soaking, autoclaving, roasting, fermentation or boiling) and the
bioavailability of nutrients improved. Ripe Bambara groundnut can be milled into flour to make
a number of products that can be consumed by people of all age groups. These products include
porridge, biscuits, bread, milk and yoghurt. An increase in the production of products from
Bambara groundnut protein can help improve food and nutrition security in developing
countries. More studies are needed to improve the sensory properties of Bambara groundnut
products.
References
1. Abdualrahman, M. A. Y., Ma, H., Yagoub, A. E. A., Zhou, C., Ali, A. O. & Yang, W.
(2016). Nutritional value, protein quality and antioxidant activity of Sudanese sorghum-
151

ISSN 2518 - 4334
based kissra bread fortified with bambara groundnut (Voandzeia subterranea) seed
flour. Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences.
2. Adebowale, Y. A., Schwarzenbolz, U. & Henle, T. (2011). Protein isolates from
Bambara groundnut (Voandzeia Subterranean L.): Chemical characterization and
functional properties. International Journal of Food Properties, 14, 758-775.
3. Adegbola, O. B. J. & Bamishaiye, E. (2011). Bambara groundnut: an underutilized nut
in Africa. Advances in Agricultural Biotechnology, 60 - 72.
4. Alozie, Y., Akpanabiatu, M. I., Eyong, E. U., Umoh, I. B. & Alozie, G. (2009). Amino
acid composition of Dioscoreadumetorum varieties. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition; 8,
103-105.
5. Alercia, A. (2013). Nutritious underutilized species-Bambara groundnut.
6. Aremu, M. O., Olaofe, O. & Akintayo, E. T. (2007). Functional properties of some
Nigerian varieties of legume seed flours and flour concentration effect on foaming and
gelation properties. Journal of Food Technology, 5, 109-115.
7. Arise, A. K., Amonsou, E. O., & Ijabadeniyi, O. A. (2015). Influence of extraction
methods on functional properties of protein concentrates prepared from South African
bambara groundnut landraces. International Journal of Food Science & Technology,
50(5), 1095-1101.
8. Assatory, A., Vitelli, M., Rajabzadeh, A. R. & Legge, R. L. (2019). Dry fractionation
methods for plant protein, starch and fiber enrichment: A review. Trends in Food
Science & Technology, 86, 340-351.
9. Barimalaa, I. S. & Anoghalu, S. C. (1997). Effect of processing on certain antinutrients
in bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) cotyledons. Journal of the Science of Food
and Agriculture, 73, 186–188.
10. Basu. S., Robеrts. J. A., Azam-Ali. S. N. & Mayеs. S. (2007). Gеnomе Mapping and
Molеcular Brееding in Plants, Volumе 3 Pulsеs, Sugar and Tubеr Crops C. Kolе (Еd.)
11. Bessada, S. M., Barreira, J. C., & Oliveira, M. B. P. (2019). Pulses and food security:
Dietary protein, digestibility, bioactive and functional properties. Trends in Food
Science & Technology, 93, 53-68.
12. Boye, J., Zare, F. & Pletch, A. (2010). Pulse proteins: Processing, characterization,
functional properties and applications in food and feed. Food Research International,
43, 414-431.
13. Brough, S., Azam-Ali, S. & Taylor, A. (1993). The potential of Bambara groundnut
(Vigna subterranea) in vegetable milk production and basic protein functionality
systems. Food Chemistry, 47 (3): 277-283.
14. Collision, C. T., Sibuga, L. P., Rarimo, A. J. P. & Azam-Ali, S. N. (2000). Influence of
sowing date on the growth and yield of Bambara groundnuts landraces in Tanzania.
Experimental. Agriculture, 36, 1-13.
15. Eltayeb, A. R. S., Ali, A. O., Abou-Arab, A. A. & Abu-Salem, F. M. (2011). Chemical
composition and functional properties of flour and protein isolate extracted from
Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean). African Journal of Food Science, 5, 82-90.
16. Falade K.O., Ogundele O.M., Ogunshe A.O., Fayemi O.E. &Ocloo F.C.K. (2014).
Physico-chemical, sensory and microbiological characteristics of plain yoghurt from
152

ISSN 2518 - 4334
bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) and soybeans (Glycine max). Journal of Food
Science and Technology. 52(9):5858-5865.
17. Feyzi, S., Varidi, M., Zare, F. &Varidi, M. J. (2015). Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum
graecum) seed protein isolate: extraction optimization, amino acid composition, thermo
and functional properties. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 95, 3165 -
3176.
18. Forsythe, L., Nyamanda, M., Mbachi Mwangwela, A. & Bennett, B. (2015). Beliefs,
taboos and minor crop value chains: the case of Bambara Groundnut in Malawi. Food,
Culture & Society, 18(3), 501-517.
19. Gibson, R. S., Perlas, L., & Hotz, C. (2006). Improving the bioavailability of nutrients
in plant foods at the household level. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 65(2), 160-
168.
20. Granato, D., Branco, G. F., Nazzaro, F., Cruz, A. G. & Faria, A. F. (2010). Functional
foods and non-dairy probiotic food dеvеlopmеnts. Trеnds Conc. Prod., 9: 292–302.
21. Halimi, R., Barkla, B, J., Mayеs, S. & King, G, J. (2019). Thеpotеntial of
thеundеrutilizеdpulsеbambara groundnut (Vigna subtеrranеa (L.) Vеrdc.) For
nutritional food sеcurity. J Food Compos Anal. (2019) 77:47–59.
22. Han, Y., Khu, D. M., Torres-Jerez, I., Udvardi, M., & Monteros, M. J. (2010). Plant
transcription factors as novel molecular markers for legumes. In Sustainable use of
Genetic Diversity in Forage and Turf Breeding (pp. 421-425). Springer Netherlands.
23. Heller, J., Begemann, F. &Mushonga, J. (1997). Characterisation and evaluation of
IITA`s Bambara groundnut (Vignasubterranea(L.) Verdc.). In: Proceedings of the
workshop on conservation and improvement of Bambara groundnut (Vigna
subterranean (L.) Verdc). 101-118.
24. Hillocks, R., Bennett, C. & Mponda, O. (2012). Bambara nut: A review of utilisation,
market potential and crop improvement. African Crop Science Journal, 20, 1-7.
25. Honi, B. 2016. Development of Orange Fleshed Sweet Potato and Bambara groundnut-
based snacks for School children in Tanzania. Master’s Thesis, Makerere University,
Kampala, Uganda, 2016.
26. Hussin, H., Gregory, P. J., Julkifle, A. L., Sethuraman, G., Tan, X. L., Razi, F., &
Azam-Ali, S. N. (2020). Enhancing the nutritional profile of noodles with bambara
groundnut (Vigna subterranea) and moringa (Moringa oleifera): A food system
approach. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 4, 59.
27. Ijarotimi, S.O. & Esho, R. T. (2009). Comparison of nutritional composition and anti-
nutrient status of fermented, germinated and roasted Bambara groundnut seeds (Vigna
subterranea). British Food Journal, 111: 376-386.
28. Kudre, T. G., Benjakul, S. &Kishimura, H. (2013). Comparative study on chemical
compositions and properties of protein isolates from mung bean, black bean and
bambara groundnut. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 93, 2429-2436.
29. Lawal, S.O., Adеbowalе, K.O. & Adеbowalе, Y.A. (2007). Functional propеrtiеs of
nativе and chеmicallymodifiеdprotеinsconcеntratеs from bambara groundnut. Journal
of Food Rеsearch International. 40, 1003– 1011
153

ISSN 2518 - 4334
30. Massawe, F. J., Mwale, S. S., Azam-Ali, S. N. & Roberts, J. A. (2005). Breeding in
bambara groundnut (Vignasubterranea(L.) Verdc.): strategic considerations. African
Journal of Biotechnology, 4(6), 463-471.
31. Mazahib, A. M., Nuha, M. O., Salawa, I. S. & Babikеr, Е. Е. (2013). Somе nutritional
attributеs of Bambara groundnut as influеncеd by domеstic procеssing. Intеrnational
Food Rеsеarch Journal, 20(3), 1165-1171.
32. Monnet, A. F., Laleg, K., Michon, C., &Micard, V. (2019). Legume enriched cereal
products: A generic approach derived from material science to predict their structuring
by the process and their final properties. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 86,
131-143.
33. Mubaiwa, J., Fogliano, V., Chidewe, C., Bakker, E. J., & Linnemann, A. R. (2018).
Utilization of bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) for sustainable food
and nutrition security in semi-arid regions of Zimbabwe. PloS one, 13(10), e0204817.
34. Mune, M. A. M., Minka, S. R., Mbome, I. L., & Etoa, F. X. (2011). Nutritional potential
of Bambara bean protein concentrate. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition.
35. Murevanhema, Y. Y. & Jideani, V. A. (2013). Potential of Bambara groundnut (Vigna
subterranea (L.) Verdc) milk as a probiotic beverage—A review. Critical Reviews in
Food Science and Nutrition, 53, 954-967.
36. Nti, C.A. (2009). Еffеcts of bambara groundnut (Vigna subtеrrеnеa) variеty and
procеssing on thе quality and consumеrappеal for its products. International Journal of
Food Science and Tеchnology. 44, 2223– 2242.
37. Nwosu, J. N. (2013). Production and evaluation of biscuits from blends of bambara
groundnut (Vigna Subterranaea) and wheat (Triticum Eastrum) flours. International
Journal of Food and Nutrition Science, 2(1).
38. Ogundele, O. M., Minnaar, A., & Emmambux, M. N. (2017). Effects of micronisation
and dehulling of pre-soaked bambara groundnut seeds on microstructure and
functionality of the resulting flours. Food Chemistry, 214, 655-663.
39. Oladele, E. O. P. (2013). Resistant starch in plantain (Musa AAB) and implications for
the glycaemic index. University of Leeds.
40. Olapade, A. A., Babalola, Y. O., &Aworh, O. C. (2014). Quality attributes of fufu
(fermented cassava) flour supplemented with bambara flour. International Food
Research Journal, 21(5).
41. Olufemi, A. (2019). Assessment of the nutritional qualities of a locally-produced
weaning blend of sorghum ogi flour fortified with Bambara groundnut flour. Int. J.
Biotechnol, 8, 115-124.
42. Oyeleke, G.O., Afolabi, O. & Isola, A.D. (2012). Some Quality and Carbohydrate
Fractions of Bambara Groundnut (Vignasubterranea L.)Seed Flour. IOSR Journal of
Applied Chemistry. 2(4), 16-19.
43. Oyeyinka, A. T., Pillay, K., & Siwela, M. (2019). Full title-in vitro digestibility, amino
acid profile and antioxidant activity of cooked Bambara groundnut grain. Food
Bioscience, 31, 100428.
154

ISSN 2518 - 4334
44. Oyugi, M., Nandi, O. M. J., Amudavi, D., & Palapala, V. A. (2014). Gender Influence
on Farmer’s level of involvement in Utilization and Conservation of Bambara
Groundnut.
45. Qaku, X. W., Adetunji, A., & Dlamini, B. C. (2020). Fermentability and nutritional
characteristics of sorghum Mahewu supplemented with Bambara groundnut. Journal of
food science, 85(6), 1661-1667.
46. Rawal, G., Yadav, S., & Nagayach, S. (2015). Phytosterols and the health. Medico
Research Chronicles, 2(3), 441–444.
47. Rekha, C. R., & Vijayalakshmi, G. (2010). Bioconversion of isoflavone glycosides to
aglycones, mineral bioavailability and vitamin B complex in fermented soymilk by
probiotic bacteria and yeast. Journal of applied microbiology, 109(4), 1198-1208.
48. Sethi, S., Tyagi, S., & Anurag, R. (2016). Plant-based milk alternatives an emerging
segment of functional beverages: A review. Journal of Food Science and Technology,
53(9), 3408–3423
49. Unigwe, A. E., Doria, E., Adebola, P., Gerrano, A. S. & Pillay, M. (2017). Anti-nutrient
analysis of 30 Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) accessions in South Africa.
Journal of Crop Improvement, 32: 1-17.
50. Wang, M., Zhang, L., Wu, X., Zhao, Y., Wu, L., & Lu, B. (2019). Quantitative
determination of free and esterified phytosterol profile in nuts and seeds commonly
consumed in China by SPE/GC–MS. LWT, 100, 355–361.
155

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Diamond in the Dirt: Repositioning the Teaching and Learning of Music Theory in
Secondary Schools in Zimbabwe
Praise Zinhuku
Department, School, Great Zimbabwe University, Address
Corresponding author: pzinhuku@gzu.ac.zw
Abstract
Effective study of the theory of music in secondary schools provides the basis for a successful
progressive musical education. The teaching and learning of the theory of music in Zimbabwe
is ineffective, yet it is the backbone of music studies. This study therefore sought to critically
explore challenges affecting the teaching and learning of the theory of music and explicate how
these challenges hinder the successful acquisition of music education. A descriptive approach
was implemented to carry out the study and data was gathered through face-to-face interviews
and participant observation. Purposive sampling methods were used to select four schools that
offer music as a subject in Masvingo district. Thick descriptions were applied in analysing data.
The study reveals several challenges that affect the teaching and learning of the theory of music.
These challenges include a negative attitude towards the subject, lack of funding, lack of
specialised music rooms, equipment, and accessories, inadequate training of music teachers,
and lack of prioritisation by school administrators. Therefore, the study recommends that
trained and appropriate skilled personnel, expertise, and physical resources be made available
in all secondary school institutions teaching musical education.
Key words: theory of music, challenges, teaching and learning, secondary schools, Zimbabwe

Music performs a crucial function in the psychological, social, political, religious, and cultural
aspects of a learner, especially in the music education process which is the focus of this study
(Barton, 2018; Gutierrez, 2019). However, the effective teaching and learning of the theory of
music in secondary schools are proving to be a problematic task globally due to various
economic, physical, social, political, and pedagogical issues (Ganyata, 2015,
Mupa&Chinooneka 2015; Welch et al, 2011; Serdyukov, 2017). Therefore, I argue that for an
effective and successful music education to take place in secondary schools the study of the
theory of music needs to be well-grounded and well-executed.
Globally, the teaching and learning of music theory is facing several challenges Machingura
(2019); Ganyata (2015). According to the Paul Hamlyn Foundation (2019), the value of music
education is still unsatisfactory in both the primary and secondary learning environment
regardless of the intensive interventions by government policies. Music educators around the
world are facing many challenges to ensure that all children have access to good quality
156

ISSN 2518 - 4334
developmental music education during their Secondary school years. Thus, the study sought to
examine challenges affecting the teaching and learning of the theory of music in secondary
schools which forms the basis of all music studies, and explicate how these challenges hinder
the successful acquisition of music education. The study also proposed strategies for effective
music education to materialise.
In emphasising the importance of learning music, Okongo (2009) observed that music plays an
essential role in child development processes. Thus, the awakening and nurturing of the
aesthetic spirit as part of the development of an aesthetic theory of music education is a
challenge for every teacher but brings great rewards, both tangible and non-tangible (Ulvik,
2020). The theory of music skills developed in music lessons is important to children and
imparts problem-solving skills to children as they produce their musical compositions. These
acquired skills are crucial in creating a well-rounded child in the twenty-first century (Okongo,
2009).
Therefore, the theoretical framework that shapes this study is the widely implemented Kodaly
methodology for music teaching and learning. The Kodaly method was developed in Hungary
in the 1940s and 1950s by the composer and music educator Zoltán Kodaly (1882-1967) as an
all-inclusive system for music education. This theory has been selected for its emphasis on
understanding that the theory of music learning is for everyone and that singing should be used
as a vehicle to develop music knowledge. The theory explains the best ways learners, especially
young ones, can be assisted to gain knowledge and skills in the study of theory of music.
Kodaly argues that singing is a fundamental aspect of developing music knowledge (Kodaly in
Eosze, 1982). As such singing should be a facilitator to develop various musical skills. Learners
should be exposed to singing as much as possible to develop various related music expertise.
Kodaly emphasises that, “a deeper musical education can at all times develop only where
singing forms its basis. Only the human voice, can be the fertile soil of a musical culture
extending to all” (Kodaly in Eosze, 1982).
Kodaly also emphasises the use of a child-developmental approach to music learning.

According to Choksy the Kodaly method uses a child-developmental approach to sequence,
the introduction of skills, after taking consideration of the capabilities of the child (Choksy,
1999). Kodaly’s pedagogy was summarised by Mason as “sounds before symbols; principles
before rules; and practice before theory” (2001, p.7). Another main contribution by Kodaly
relates to the practice of folk music from the child’s own culture as a means to develop music
knowledge. The Folk Music of Hungary (1971), notes that folk songs play a strategic role in
supporting learners to attain music skills. Participation and response to music in the mother
tongue enable the use of songs and games in the classroom environment. For example,
authentic music which is opulent in cultural traditions will make the attainment of the theory
of music skills stress-free.
A brief survey of the education sector in Zimbabwe unearthed that the sector has a long way to
go in achieving the much-needed academic progress. Mupa&Chinooneka (2015) investigated
157

ISSN 2518 - 4334
the existence of poor education standards in Zimbabwe and found that teachers do not engage
in various teaching methods. In addition, the teachers do not prepare an assortment of media
for usage in the teaching and learning process thereby limiting instructional materials to
textbooks and syllabuses. On the other hand, Mapolisa and Tshabalala (2014) researched the
perceptions of teachers on the causes of low performances in ordinary-level examinations. The
study attributed poor performance to factors such as lack of adequate infrastructure, poor
remuneration, and lack of appropriate support from the learners’ parents.
Machingura&Zinhuku (2019) explored challenges that contribute to the non-teaching of music
in three selected primary schools in Masvingo Province in Zimbabwe to ascertain why, despite
being a compulsory subject for primary schools, music is not taught in the three selected
schools. The findings of the research revealed that the challenges were related to curriculum-
related issues, non-specialised teachers educating music learners, absence of music textbooks,
and lack of physical resources such as space for teaching of music, among many other factors.
The above-mentioned studies focused on the various education issues affecting Zimbabwean
secondary schools. A lacuna still exists as information is lacking on particular challenges
affecting the teaching and learning of the theory of music specifically, as a subject area under
the study of music. Mastering the theory of music is fundamental for the effective teaching and
learning of music as a subject, as this provides a firm base for all other music aspects to be
taught and learned. Hence, without a proper foundation in the theory of Music, half-baked
students are likely to emerge thereby greatly affecting the teaching and learning of music in
the future. Therefore, this study will also suggest possible remedies for the challenges affecting
the teaching and learning of the theory of music.
Methodology
Methods
The qualitative approach was employed to critically analyse challenges affecting the teaching
and learning of music theory in selected secondary schools in Masvingo District, Zimbabwe.
The approach was appropriate for exploring meanings and insights of music experts regarding
the teaching and learning of theory of music in high schools (Mohajan, 2018). The qualitative
research occurs in a natural setting thus enabling the researcher to get involved in the actual
experiences (Creswell, 2009).
Design
A research design refers to how a researcher plans to answer a set of questions (McCombes,
2019). It comprises the methods, techniques to collect, analyse, and interpret data (Bouchrika,
2020). In this context, we also describe a research design as a structure that clearly guides how
the researcher intends to achieve set aim(s) and objectives of the study. This study adopted a
descriptive design. According to MacCombes (2019) a descriptive research accurately and
systematically delineates a population, state of affairs or occurrence. Rillo and Alieto (2018)
also defined descriptive research as a purposive process of assembling, analysing, categorising,
and arranging data about the phenomenon understudy, and then adequately interpreting the
data with or without the aid of statistical methods.
158

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Sampling
The strategy involved identifying major sources of information involved in the administration,
learning and teaching of theory of music. The purposive sampling technique which was
adopted in this study targets specific informants who are reliable sources of information. The
sample includes music experts and renowned music administrators and advocates of music
education in Zimbabwe. Four schools which provide music education in Masvingo were
purposively selected as key informants to address the main research question, which sought to
identify and examine the challenges affecting the teaching and learning of theory of music in
secondary schools. The sample also consisted of selected teachers, music experts, education
experts and students in order to get information from all perspectives.
Data collection
Interviews were first conducted with experts in Masvingo district to discuss the challenges
affecting the teaching and learning of theory of music in secondary schools. Interviews were
also conducted with music practitioners to get an insider’s view. Through face-to-face
interviews, music experts, teachers and music students provided elucidations on the teaching
and learning of theory of music. All responses were tape recorded for further transcription. The
study also engaged participant observation method as a technique for data collection. Through
adopting an emic approach, the researcher was involved in first hand teaching and learning of
theory of music in secondary schools. Furthermore, data was collected through documentary
analysis, where past information on the status of teaching and learning of music theory in
secondary schools was collected for future analysis. A video recorder and camera were utilized
to record interviews with all selected participants as well as taking photographs of music
lessons for future analysis.
Data analysis
The study utilised thick descriptions in order to analyse the assembled data. Stone (2008, p.
225) describes qualitative research of this nature as a detailed ethnographic description.
Themes were used to code, analyse and present results through thick descriptions.

Repositioning the teaching and learning of music theory in secondary schools
The main purpose of this section is to present and analyse the various factors affecting the
effective teaching of theory of music assembled from research findings. The results are grouped
under educational, technological, physical and social factors (Figure 1).
159

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Social Factors: Technological factors:
Educational Factors:
Lack confidence in teaching Lack of the necessary
Lack of sufficient knowledge
the subject due to lack of knowledge and competence to
about music theory as a
adequate training and cope with new technologies in
subject
educational factors teaching
Physical factors: Negative Students and

Lack of music textbooks, Teacher’s Perceptions on the
common and physical Teaching and Learning of
amenities for teaching music Music Theory
Figure 1.1 diagram showing challenges affecting the teaching and learning of music theory in
secondary schools.
The diagram commences by elaborating educational factors that hinder the effective teaching
and learning of music in secondary schools. Educational factors are mainly concerned with the
qualifications of music teachers. The main question to ask is if music teachers have the
necessary skills and qualifications to teach music theory in secondary schools. The study
reveals that though most of the music teachers have the relevant qualifications, however, music
teachers have a challenge in delivering music theory lessons due to insufficient knowledge they
receive at their respective music learning institutions.
Technological challenges affecting the teaching and learning of music comprise a lack of
technical music gadgets as well as a lack of expertise to operate the gadgets used to learn the
theory of music. The most notable challenge in the teaching and learning of the theory of music
in secondary schools is the lack of physical amenities to enable the smooth operation of music
lessons. Music theory learning requires music stationery, music laboratories, music
instruments, and classes that are dedicated to the subject. The final challenge affecting the
teaching and learning of music theory falls under the social category. Most of the teachers lack
confidence in teaching the subject and face an immense lack of support from administrators.
Leaders in secondary schools have a low appreciation for music as a subject and lack the
knowledge of how to successfully administer the teaching and learning of this delicate and
complex subject.
160

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Educational factors
The lack of sufficient knowledge about music theory as a subject is one of the challenges
affecting the teaching of music theory in the secondary schools under study. In the same vein,
one teacher (participant 5) revealed in an interview that,
“We do not have sufficient experience and in-depth knowledge concerning the theory
of music, as the subject is not introduced from the elementary level. Therefore, the
education we received is not comprehensive as it was conducted in a rushed manner
and it lacked the concept of marrying theory into practice which is very crucial in
gaining adequate musical knowledge”. (Participant, 5).
In support, respondent 6 had this to say:
“Teachers lack explanations in what they teach as a result we do not clearly

understand the taught concepts”.
Similarly, previous researches conducted by various scholars concur that the majority of
teachers may lack adequate teacher training hence they lack sufficient in-depth knowledge and
expertise in explaining technical challenges encountered in teaching and learning music (Welch
and Henley, 2014, Fry et al 2003, Roulston,1997 and Russell-Bowie,2009). In confirmation
of the results found in this study, Sianagowa (2013 p. 4) emphasises the existence of
insufficient teacher training. He asserts that “All over the world just like any other curriculum
area there is a dire need for teachers who have been specifically trained to meet the unique
challenges of teaching this very delicate subject”.
Participant 4 also further articulated that ‘‘as children, we do not have enough time to practice
theory and most of the time the students will be specialising on musical instruments’’
In addition, respondent E said ‘there is not enough time for students to learn how to understand
the theory of music. Teachers lack one-on-one time for those who are too shy to participate in
class’.
In Nambia Roulston (1997) and Russell-Bowie (2009) revealed that the major challenge
affecting the teaching and learning of theory of music was allocation of insufficient time in the
teaching day. Theory of music was allocated short periods as a result most learners suffered
due to lack of enough time to grasp the concepts.
Technological Factors
The greatest problem of teachers towards ICT has been that of acquiring the necessary
knowledge and competence to cope with new technologies in teaching. Many teachers lack
training in the usage of new media and the means of processing information in music
performance (Barroso, 1997). Casper (2003) suggests that teacher preparation and professional
development programs should actively promote the development of technological skills for
161

ISSN 2518 - 4334
teachers. Rogers (1995) mentions that teacher’s attitudes toward technology and expertise is
often identified as key factors associated with their use of technology. Teachers must have
positive attitudes toward technology (Zhao &Cziko, 2001).
Waddell and Williamson (2019) posit that the growth of technology within society is redefining
the twenty-first century thereby revolutionizing how people work and learn. Technology has
become a necessity, in musical formation, production, expression, dissemination, promotion,
and consumption of music (Hugill, 2012). Music education is no exception considering
significant studies and growth in the discipline as well as the general trends of technology use
in the modern classroom (Purves, 2012; Sweeney et al., 2017). However, Waddell
&Williamson (2019) laments that the attention given to understanding how and where
technology is being incorporated in music classroom settings has not been applied in teaching
environments.
Physical Factors
From observations in this research, the lack of music textbooks is a common challenge found
in most secondary schools. As articulated by one teacher, (participant 4), said ‘there is a lack
of textbooks’’. As illumined by Mwila (2015) shortage of textbooks was also rampant in
Zambian schools. Some South African and Namibian schools have extreme limitations on the
amount of resources for teaching any of the subjects in the curriculum. Some schools are
without electricity, running water, books, toilets, chairs, desks or windows (Van Niekirk,
1997). This was an important observation of the problems that impeded the teaching of music
lessons.
Social Factors
Challenges in the teaching and learning of the theory of music in secondary schools may also
emanate from teachers’ lack of confidence in teaching the subject. One of the secondary school
teachers (participant 3) elucidated that “Sometimes I lack confidence in teaching the subject
due to lack of the adequate training, experience, and techniques I received.”
As articulated by one teacher, (participant 7),
“Theory of music is a very technical area which requires the teacher to be well versed with
skills and knowledge required for successful teaching and learning to occur.”
Moreover, lack of support is one of the challenges affecting the teaching and learning of the
theory of music in secondary schools. In terms of lack of support, Van Jansen Vauren (2012)
claimed that music teachers lacked several support systems such as the school administration,
fellow music teachers, and even parents for a successful delivery of musical skills. The
situation of very little support existed and it was only in 2012 that a slight improvement could
be realised in the teaching of arts in the Vryheid District in KwaZulu Natal, South Africa.
Students and Teacher’s Perceptions of the Teaching and Learning of Music Theory
162

ISSN 2518 - 4334
There are several perceptions teachers have concerning the teaching of the theory of music.
Participant 4 had this to say “As a teacher sometimes I think music is a complicated and difficult
subject to teach”. Generally, most of the teachers believe they are not competent in teaching
and learning music. Some music teachers think they are not yet confident enough to teach the
theory of music due to deficient training received in various academic institutions. These
findings entail that strong feelings of efficiency endow teachers with the confidence to teach
music and to take advantage of more innovative teaching strategies, which results in low
teacher anxiety levels (Reid, 2001).
Samkange (2016) observed that teachers as well as students perceive music as a very crucial
subject that is interdisciplinary. Music opens up pupils’ minds in many ways as they learn to
think creatively. This creativity is promoted through the composition of songs. In that regard,
music promotes imagination as pupils can solve problems quickly. Music also teaches pupils
to be empathetic and, at the same time enhances teamwork and discipline. Music is also fun by
its nature. Playing an instrument is fun and it brings self-confidence and satisfaction. In that
regard, music contributes to the development of self-esteem and self-actualisation. Music
therefore contributes to the development of the individual. It touches on the different tenets of
development which are social development, emotional development, cognitive development,
moral development, and intellectual development among others.
Addressing challenges faced in the Teaching and Learning of Music theory in Secondary
Schools
The teaching and learning of the theory of music in secondary schools is affected by several
challenges. However, several tactics can be implemented to combat the challenges in secondary
schools.
Participant 5 suggested that:

“Kuti tiwane ruzivo rwakakwana kudzidzisa theory of music zvizere, tinofanira
kugara tichiita maworkshops apo tinowana ruzivo kubva kunyanzvi
dzinodzidzisa theory of music. Izvi zvichabatsira kuti tivene hunyanzvi
hwekudzidzisa vana vedu muchikoro”.
Participant 5’s words imply:

“For us to adequately acquire knowledge to teach theory of music, we must
conduct always conduct workshops regularly where we will get knowledge from
skilled theory of music. This will help us to gain relevant skills for teaching our
children in school.
Workshops intended for music teachers are essential programs that maybe utilised as a strategy
to combat challenges affecting the teaching and learning of the theory of music in secondary
schools. Steiner (2017) defines a workshop as a common educational format for transmitting
information and promoting skill acquisition. Workshops create a thorough educational
experience in a short amount of time, are an appropriate way to impart hands-on skills and
163

ISSN 2518 - 4334
provide a way for individuals to pass on ideas and methods to colleagues (Orngreen and
Levinsen, 2017). Therefore, the study recommends that workshops may be organised to train
secondary music teachers. In similar studies carried out workshops were found useful in
enhancing skills. Mainwaring, Krasnow, and Donna (2010) recommended that workshops
enhance the mastery of skills and promote self-esteem, self-efﬁcacy, and positive self-image.
Participant 6, a music professional had this to say in English:

“If it was possible we could use the traineeship model in which cultural dance
students are taught indigenous dance in similarity to how industrial students are
trained”.
The music expert continued to say that

“….In the industry, trainees undergo rigorous preparation and are denied the
opportunity to venture into the field until they have fully grasped the concepts
of their trade. Similarly, theory of music teachers will undergo intense training
and will not be allowed to teach until they have grasped all important aspects
of the theory of music”.
The above participant advocated for the use of traineeship as a strategy for combating
challenges faced in the teaching and learning of the theory of music in secondary schools. The
traineeship program is described by the International Labour Organization (2017) as a means
for young people to acquire highly valued context-based experience. Therefore, the strategy
might also be applied in the theory of music training as music teachers will be taught in the
original setting of the music, which enhances understanding and knowledge about the theory
of music. In addition, the features of a traineeship program include careful recruitment and
selection of trainees, opportunities for practicing skills, and availability of guidance materials
(National Centre for Vocational Education Research, 2009). In this way, our study concurs
with recommending traineeship for skill acquisition and performance agrees. However, the use
of traineeship for the theory of music teaching and learning in Zimbabwe is lacking.
The use of media in teaching any subject is crucial to achieving set educational goals.
Shumbayaonda (2000) refers to non-projected media as two-dimensional aids which either
convey their implications pictorially or with words. Examples of these are text books, flip
charts, posters, maps, and pictures. Dekeer (1994) concurs that the absence of quality of
resources used in educational processes has a direct impact on the level of quality of pupil
achievement. Lack of teaching-learning equipment affects both the speed and quality of work
produced. Teaching and learning become more effective as media enhance concept
development. Wario (1989) says that instructional media makes the learning process more
effective in the classroom by stimulating pupils’ interest. Kemp and Dayton stress the point
that “media is not supplementary to, or in support of instruction but are the instructional input
itself”.
Mapping the Way Forward: Recommendations

164

ISSN 2518 - 4334
The study will suggest possible solutions based on ideas propounded by various scholars such
as Mupa&Chinooneka 2015; Machingura&Zinhuku; and Gutierrez, 2019. The Ministry of
Primary and Secondary Education has a critical mandate to perform effective and successful
music theory education in Zimbabwe. The study endorses suggestions by Mupa& Chinooneka
(2015) who recommended that headmasters and the ministry should supervise school practices.
The supervision will enable children to align with the demands of twenty-first-century
education. Additionally, supervision of music teachers is also critical to ascertain and
encourage teachers to practice proper teaching, scheming, and planning. Private and public
funding should be encouraged to provide necessary resources like textbooks and adequate
physical amenities that are in dire shortage (Mupa&Chinooneka, 2015).
Gutierrez (2019) raises two critical issues that need to be considered for effective learning of
music theory. Gutierrez encourages music theory teaching by clarifying the obstacles
underlying conventional theory curricula. Secondly, he pushes for the introduction of an
affordance-rich curricular tool that promotes embodied and enactive sense-making in a music
theory classroom environment. According to Gutierrez music theory students may be
encouraged to play three roles which are individual performer, ensemble member, and
conductor. This process will enable listening skills, structural knowledge, analytical
proficiency, and performance technique which are all enacted in the three roles students play
to be ingrained in the students (Gutierrez, 2019).
Machingura & Zinhuku (2019) bring an important dimension to the array of solutions that can
be realised in the teaching and learning of music theory. The authors advocate for the
employment of an educative program for staff to counteract the lack of music knowledge. Thus,
training of teachers in the Visual and Performing Arts may be prioritised and more support and
resources such as textbooks, music rooms and auditoriums for the teaching of music in schools
should be availed.
Conclusion
The study concludes that there are a number of challenges affecting the teaching and learning
of music theory in secondary schools. Some of the challenges includedlack of physical music
facilities, lack of funding, lack of music specialist teachers, lack of support for music teachers.
Therefore, this study assisted in solving some of the challenges affecting the teaching and
learning of music. It reconnoitred beyond current horizons ways and means to provide quality
music education to secondary school learners in Zimbabwe. The study suggested emphasising
the importance of music to understand the value this subject offers to students. Music has the
potential to produce a range of positive outcomes, such as teaching students’ confidence,
creativity, self-reliance, and resilience. In addition, among other suggestion the study
recommended that emphasizing music’s inclusive nature and using the media in showcasing
performances and cultural opportunities may assist music educators’ efforts to invite interest
and regain the funding they need.
References
165

ISSN 2518 - 4334
1. Bouchrika, I. (2020). Types of research design: Perspective and methodological
approaches. Available at: https://research.com/research/types-of-research-design,
2. Ballantyne, J., and Packer, J. (2004). Effectiveness of pre-service music teacher
education programs: Perceptions of early-career music teachers. Music Education
Research, 6 (3), 299-312. IGN: DEFINIT
3. Bresler, L. (1991). Custom and cherishing, IL: National Arts Education Research
Cent.
4. Butler, A. (2001). Preservice music teachers' conceptions of teaching effectiveness,
5. microteaching experiences, and teaching performance. Journal of Research in
Music Education, 49 (3), 258-272.
6. Coolican, H. (2004). Research methods & statistics in psychology (ed 4th). In
Cooper, C. “Lady Saw Cuts Loose: Female Fertility Rituals in the Dancehall.” In
Sound Clash: Jamaican Dancehall Culture at Large, 99-123. New York: Palgrave
Macmillan.
7. Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed
method approaches (3rd Ed.). Los Angeles: SAGE Publications,
a. Creech, A. Hallam, S. Parent-teacher-pupil interactions in instrumental music
tuition: A literature review. British Journal of Music Education, 20 (1), 29-44,
2003.
8. Crow, N. A. (1987). Preservice teachers' biography: A study. Paper presented at the
annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Washington,
DC.
9. Fiske, E. ed . (1999). Champions of change: The impact of the arts on learning.
10. Washington, DC: The Arts Education Partnership.
11. Ganyata, O. (2015). Pedagogical challenges experienced by teachers of music
literacy in Zimbabwe: a case study of five Gweru primary schools. Dissertation
(Master of Musicology), University of South Africa.
12. Gutierrez, J. (2019). An enactive approach to learning music theory? Obstacles and
13. openings. Front. Educ, 4, 133, doi: 10.3389/feduc.2019.00133.
14. Grant, J. Drafall, L. (1991). Teacher effectiveness research: a review and
comparison.
15. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 108, 31-48.
16. Hamann, D. et al. (1998). Teaching effectiveness and social skill development.
Journal of Research in Music' Education, 46 (1), 87-101.
17. Hendel, C. (1995). Behavioural characteristics and instructions patterns of selected
music teachers. Journal of Research in Music Education, 43 (3), 182-203.
18. Hallam, S. (2010). The power of music: its impact of the intellectual, personal and
social development of children and young people. International Journal of Music
Education.
19. Hallam, S.; Creech, A. (Eds) (2010). Music education in the 21st century in the
United Kingdom: achievements, analysis and aspirations. London.
166

ISSN 2518 - 4334
20. Holroyd, C, and Harlen, W. (1996). Primary teacher's confidence about teaching
science and technology. Research Papers in Education: Policy and Practice, 11 (3),
323-335.
21. Hugill, A. The digital musician, 2nd Ed. New York, NY: Routledge. doi:
10.4324/9780203111796. (2012).
22. Jeanneret, N. (1997). Model for developing preservice primary teachers’ confidence
to teach music. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 133, p.37–
44.
23. Jansen Van Vuuren. (2012). Subject Music in rural South Africa: challenges and
solutions within a comparative context University of Pretoria.
https://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream
24. Kai-Wen Cheng, E., and Durrant, C. (2007). An investigation into effective string
teaching in a variety of learning contexts: A single case study. British Journal of
Music Education, 24 (2), 191-205.
25. Kornhaber, M., and Krechevsky, M. (2018). Expanding definitions of learning and
teaching: Notes. In: Sternberg RJ, ed. The Nature of Human Intelligence.
Cambridge University
26. Press; 2018:116-129Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and
Techniques: Second Revised Edition. New Delhi: New Age International Pvt Ltd.
27. Kumar, R. (2011). Research Methodology: A Step by Step Guide for Beginners,
3rdEdition, London: SAGE Publication ltd,
28. Machingura, C; Zinhuku, P. (2019). Challenges contributing to non-teaching of
music in primary schools: a case of three selected schools in Masvingo, Zimbabwe.
29. semanticscholar.org/paper/Challenges-Contributing-to-Non-Teaching-of-Music-
in-McCombess. (2019). Descriptive research | definition, types, methods &
examples. https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/descriptive-research/,
30. Mapolisa, T. and Tshabalala, T. (2014). Perceptions of teachers on causes of poor
31. performances at ordinary level examinations in Zmbabwean rural secondary
schools: A case study of Nkayi district. International Journal of innovation and
applied studies, 158-167.
32. Mupa, P. Chinooneka, T. I. (2015). Factors contributing to ineffective teaching
and learning in primary schools: Why are schools in decadence? Journal of
Education and
33. Practice, 6, (19) p.125-134, Available at: www.iiste.org ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper)
34. Mwila, M. (2015). Factors causing the non-teaching of music in Zambia: A Case of
Primary Schools in Chongwe District, Lusaka, Zambia. Dissertation, (Master’s
Degree of Primary Education), University of Zambia.
35. Paul Hamlyn Foundation. (2019). Inspiring Music for All: Next steps in innovation,
36. improvement and integration. Inspiring Music for All.
https://www.phf.org.uk/reader/inspiring-music/key-issues-challenges/
37. Purves, R., (2012). “Technology and the educator,” in The Oxford Handbook of
Music Education, 2, eds G.E. McPherson and G. F. Welch (Oxford: Oxford
University Press), 457–475. doi: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199928019.013.0030
167

ISSN 2518 - 4334
38. National Association for Music Education. (2019). 20 Important benefits of music
in our schools.https://nafme.org/20-important-benefits-of-music-in-our-schools/
39. Okongo, B.C. O. (2009). Promoting child development through music: A
comparison of preschool teachers’ perspectives in Kenya and United States.
Dissertation (Master of education Thesis), Kenyatta University.
40. Reid, A. (2001). Variations in the ways that instrumental and vocal students
experience learning music. Music Education Research, 3 (1), 25-40.
41. Rillo, R.M.; Alieto E. O. (2018). Indirectness Markers in Korean and Persian
English Essays: Implications for Teaching Writing to EFL Learners. Journal of
English as International Language, 13 (2.2), 165-184.
42. Serdyukov, P. (2017). Innovation in education: what works, what doesn’t, and what
to do about it? Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning, (2017).
43. Sianagowa, J. L. (2013). Status of Music Teacher Education in Zambia: Challenges
and Directions. Dissertation (Master’s Thesis), University of Sillimani. Society for
Music Education (ASME).
44. Saunders, M., et al. (2009). Research Methods for Business Students. (5th ed.)
London, UK: Pearson Education.
45. Saunders, J. and Welch, G. (2012). Youth music ‘impacts and outcomes report
2009 – 2010’; communities of music education: a pilot study.
46. Sweeney, T., West, D., Groessler, A., Haynie, A., Higgs, B. M., and Macaulay, J.,
et al. (2017). Where's the transformation? Unlocking the potential of technology-
enhanced assessment. TLI, 5, 1–13. doi: 10.20343/5.1.5
47. Ulvik, M. (2020). Promoting aesthetical values to education. Front. Educ. 5 34. doi:
10.3389/feduc.2020.00034.
48. Van Niekirk, C. (1997). Recent curriculum developments in South Africa. In Music
in schools and teacher education: A global perspective, Edited by: LEONG, S. p.
267–269. Perth, Australia: ISME/CIRCME.
49. Welch, G. F.; Henley, J. (2014). Addressing the challenges of teaching music by
generalist primary school teachers. Londrina, 22 (32), 12-38.
168

ISSN 2518 - 4334
A study of the impact of sound checking in Sungura live performances in Harare
Chimbudzi Weston and Muranda Richard
Music Business, Musicology and Technology Department, Faculty of Social Science, Midlands
State University
Corresponding author: Muranda Richard
Abstract
Adequate sound reinforcement equipment and expertise to operate the system are vital. This
paper looked at preparations by musicians and sound engineers before and during performance
events. Live events require ample time to set up equipment and to do sound check to ensure
efficiency. Costs for equipment hire force organisers to put little attention to sound check.
Sound check enables performers to work and interact with sound engineers. Without sound
check sound engineers are unable to effectively deal with problems during performances. The
research was qualitative with 40 participants. Four Sungura band managers were randomly
sampled. A total of 11 sound engineers were purposively selected and 18 Sungura musicians
were chosen with due regards to age (young and old) and experience. Seven patrons were
randomly sampled to find their opinions on levels of loudness of sound at performance shows.
The study followed the conceptual framework of balanced sound mixes as an industry standard
requirement for live performance sound systems. The study shows that; sound check is
trivialised yet it makes or breaks live performances. We noted that some Sungura performers
and sound engineers were strangers with communication breakdowns on stage. Some
musicians performed under the influence of alcohol and that took away their performance.
Myriad problems were associated with alcohol and coming late on stage, demanding for high
volumes of sound unnecessarily and ending shows abruptly. Certain Sungura musicians openly
blamed sound engineers for lack of sound check. Some sound engineers felt that Sungura
musicians took all credit although it was a collective effort. Sound checking should be given
adequate attention to allow performers and sound engineers to produce balanced sound.
Performing musicians and sound engineers should work together in sound checking.
Key words: audio processing, levels, live performance, musicians, sound engineer, sound
check, sound reinforcement, Sungura
Introduction and background

In this article, we examine the crux of live sound reinforcement with the intent to discuss the
importance of sound check by identifying various factors that are incidental thereto (Ballou,
Ciaudelli and Schmitt, 2008). We explore the reality of the experience by engineers and
Sungura musicians in the process of live sound reinforcement including sound checks, and the
circumstances that make and or break live performances in the given preparations and sound
169

ISSN 2518 - 4334
checking (Pack, 2017). The study holds that as a matter of principle, sound check is meant to
make the sound system output suit a given genre (Thomann, 2017). In this paper, our focus is
on Sungura since it has unique features that are reflective, made up of tenets that are of
meticulous Zimbabwean musical beats and styles. It is through sound check that the amount of
space allocated to musicians and the setting, in terms of positioning of individual equipment
units, can be determined.
According to Lashua & Cohen (2010) and Bennett (2017) sound checking comes as a requisite
requirement for live performances to ensure that all anticipated problems are dealt with before
the main performance takes place. Further, sound check gives the musicians and the sound
engineers a common operational ground where they can make a collective effort to make the
sound balanced (Light 2016; McIntyre and Thompson 2021; Wang, Huang, and Tseng 2017).
The sound engineers take time to make sure the musicians are satisfied with the projection of
sound through their monitors and the front of house sound systems.
Sound checking, is undertaken to make sure that the sound output from the instruments is
balanced. Izhaki (2017), Gibson (2020) and Jillings (2023) inform that balancing of sound is
done through use of the equaliser (EQ) to allow different musical instruments to blend with
coherence in both soft and loud instruments. Each instrument should fit into the context of the
mix without dominating or being undermined. Jillings (2023) and Kenwright (2020)
consolidate the importance of a balanced sound output as a core requirement for live
performances. In this study, sound checking and creating a balanced mix of sound are critical
to the success of a live performance. Kenwright (2020) posits that balancing sound is more
than what meets the ear. In that view, there are special listening skills required to place each
instrument in the context of the mix and that creates a balance. The sound engineer will apply
some special tools for the levels of each instrument and positions in the stereo field to make
sure there is clarity in the whole mix.
Having been immersed in live performances for a period spanning more than twenty-four years
as performers ourselves, we have observed with some enthusiasm, factors that determine the
success of live performance shows. Stein (2018) mentions that each live performance is
predisposed to unique challenges even though certain advantages could be connected with each
venue or environmental factors relating to the setting of equipment. Sound checking is
therefore a necessity. We have observed live performance situations characterised by lack of
sound check by musicians due to various reasons, some of them genuine and others petty. In
some occasions, sound check is taken for granted as musicians appear on stage just at the time
of their performance slot. Our shared experience observed that there have been some
circumstances where musicians get engrossed with too many engagements and they end up
reserving only sufficient time to fulfil each booking, at the expense of ample sound checks.
The above-referred situations are at times further exacerbated when equipment hire is based on
the number of hours the equipment is taken away. Given the above factors, organisers often
cut costs by setting up the equipment just early enough for performance and downplay sound
170

ISSN 2518 - 4334
check since longer periods with hired equipment would attract huge costs. Consequently, sound
check is then only done within a performance thereby compromising the quality of such a
performance. In such cases, the engineers sacrifice some of the groups of performers, as they
spend time tweaking the sound system settings. Sound engineers end up with no time to give
their best to sound check hence they also struggle to keep the revellers entertained.
Under normal conditions, sound engineers need ample time to set up their equipment with
minimal interference (Burton, 2012). This allows them enough room to set all their processing
tools based on the venue’s acoustics requirements and to ring microphones for feedback. Most
importantly, it enables engineers to exclusively come up with appropriate settings for each band
of musicians. The above considerations become critical to catering for the unique genre-
specific special performance styles and requirements. Each musical genre such as Sungura
requires specific sets of instruments and settings to meet the musical performance needs at the
venue (Stein, 2018). Sungura performances require guitar clarity because they are
predominantly melodic in nature.
In Zimbabwe, the highest number of performing and recording musicians belong to the
Sungura fraternity. At Sungura dominated performances sound checking should therefore give
some precedence to Sungura sound requirements. Basing the overall sound check on a different
genre where the performances are dominantly Sungura, poses a glaringly negative effect on the
Sungura music. Sound check is meant to, apart from create a conducive performing setting,
ensure optimum sound output and tune-up that does not place speakers and the entire sound
system at risk of overdriving or succumbing to unnecessary feedback (Burton, 2012; Pack,
2017; Thomann, 2017 and Stein, 2018). Sound engineers ought to do sound check to lay a
smooth foundation for a flowing performance. That also ensures that all the different musical
inputs fit well into the contexts of the overall mix.
Focus of the study

This paper examines the practical experiences of doing live performances including sound
checking by sound engineers and performing musicians in the Sungura music genre. We
analyse the role of sound checking prior to the show. The study also examines how the quality
of sound relates to the process of sound checking. As researchers we also brought the factors
that affect the execution of sound check or lack of it under the spotlight. The study makes
recommendations to come up with proposals to effectively deal with problems associated with
live performances especially by Sungura musicians. The paper draws standpoints from the
participants’ approaches and practices coupled with industry requisite standards in doing live
performances in general.
Conceptual principles
The study takes a conceptual basis of creating balanced sound mixes as propounded by Izhaki
(2017) and Gibson (2020). Balancing the mix involves a knowledgeable person adjusting
appropriate frequencies of musical instruments with an aim of combining them in a coherent
way. The knowledgeable person is a sound engineer who sits on a mixing desk and listens to
171

ISSN 2518 - 4334
the sound to determine levels of each instrument in relation to the overall mix. Kenwright
(2020) goes further to say that the sound engineer will also deal with problems that may arise
before and during the live performance. Through critical listening, the sound engineer will
provide solutions to the musicians and also provide a healthy listening environment for the
patrons. In view of the above, this entails creating a balanced mix within the levels of loudness
that do not cause any threats to the health of the listeners.
According to Evans (2011) it is vital to make sure that a sound engineer understands the nature
of the venue, the adequacy of power supply, and people to consult prior to the onset of the
event. The study takes a contextual basis on the concept of preparation for live sound
reinforcement in live performances, as creating a balanced mix is the core business of the sound
engineer. Co-operation between performing musicians and sound engineers is a critical
component to have the effective sound output in live sound reinforcement. Boyce (2014) posits
that sound check assures full functioning of the equipment in relation to the performers and the
sound engineer. Primarily the sound engineer is the person in charge of the sound check to
ensure a trusted operation of the sound system. The engineer verifies the microphones, power
cables and all the audio equipment to be used and guarantees efficient running (Gary & Jones
1989; Bartlett & Bartlett 1999). The above requirements need ample time to put in place.
Effective communication between the engineer, the technical team and the performers warrants
a balanced sound output hence it cannot be substituted with other ways of doing things. The
study also upholds the need for balanced mixes to enable the performers to fit into the ideal
context of the live performances in any given venue. Gibson (2008) mentions that each style
of music has its own traditions as to how it is to be mixed, hence mixing requires an art that
suits the style of play. In dealing with Sungura music the engineer needs to follow a mixing
approach that gives the guitars, drums and vocals a balance. Sound check becomes a basic
necessity to troubleshoot all obstacles relating to the sound system before the actual
performance takes place (Huber & Runstein, 2018). The same scholars observe that engineers
and Sungura musicians should uphold strict adherence to all the steps and requirements of the
conceptual principles for live performances which are; setting up, placement of microphones,
positions of monitors and front of house equipment, regardless of the nature of venue. Sound
checking is the pinnacle of live performances.
Methodology
Guided by Bhattacherjee (2012) this study is positivist as it seeks to interpret a situation of live
performances and, in particular, sound check in the field of the study. We intent to establish
certain stand points relating to the conceptual framework for live sound reinforcement for live
Sungura music performances. We based our collection of data on a qualitative research
paradigm (Schutt, 2018). As researchers we involved ourselves as part of the performing
musicians’ fraternity to conduct interviews and make observations that informed the research
(Lune and Berg, 2017). A total of 40 participants were included in this study. The participants
were as thus; four band managers, 11 engineers, 7 patrons and 18 Sungura musicians. The band
managers were randomly sampled, while the engineers were purposively selected from those
with experience of working with Sungura bands. The patrons were purposively picked on the
172

ISSN 2518 - 4334
basis of their capacity to give an objective view of the levels of loudness of sound at the
performance shows. All Sungura musicians were selected based on stratified random sampling
to enable age, years of experience and popularity to be factored in the study.
Some data were also gathered through observations and critical listening to the live
performances that we attended. As researchers we also employed snowball sampling and
interviewed musicians and patrons who attended Sungura live shows, to solicit for views
concerning the live music performances selected for the study (Creswell, 2014). Live
performances were selected at random, to allow for both upcoming and prominent Sungura
musicians to be involved as part of the sample. The research investigated the involvement of
sound engineers, Sungura musicians and patrons to study human behaviour in connection to
sound checks in the study (Kothari, 2004). It is important to mention that for ethical reasons
the data gathered through observations, interviews and our involvement is confidential hence
anonymity on the part of informants is upheld. In this study, we concealed the identities of the
participants to avoid the likelihood of causing harm hence there is no reference to names in the
presentation and analysis, this is as advocated by Israel and Hay (2006). The information is
presented through using qualitative descriptive analysis of the details in concurrence with
Mack, Woodsong, MacGueen, West, and Namey (2005).
Presentation and analysis

The gathered information reveals that there are varied views on the role of sound checking with
regards to Sungura music live performance shows. Most of the Sungura musicians plying their
trade in Zimbabwe, especially those based in Harare, have personal engineers to attend to their
live sound performances. Just 20% of the total population of musicians involved in the study
engaged some occasional sound engineers. The majority of the young and upcoming Sungura
musicians struggled to make ends meet financially. Most of them regarded engaging permanent
engineers to do their sound as an unnecessary strain on their financial wellbeing. Regardless of
that, the majority of the Sungura musicians were grateful for the work that the sound engineers
were doing in their live shows. The space below articulates the views by musicians, their band
leaders, sound engineers and observations that we made during live Sungura performance
shows.
The musicians’ views

A sizable number of 15 Sungura musicians concurred that it was quite important to engage
permanent sound engineers to do both sound check and the live performance shows. In that
view, the majority of them including young and upcoming musicians held that proper planning
was indeed a valuable point in management of Sungura live performances. Regardless of the
fact that some of the musicians had permanent sound engineers, we noted that not all live
performance shows were preceded by sound checking. We also observed that every show for
all the Sungura musicians presented unique characteristics as each of them bore some notable
merits and demerits. Most of the bands that usually travelled together as one team had a
common routine of ample sound check before undertaking their live performances. However,
some cases relating to the above scenario include involvement in car accidents. Some of the
173

ISSN 2518 - 4334
bands encountered problems of delayed arrivals at their performance venues. In some places,
shows started off badly and ended badly due to lack of sufficient time for setting up and sound
checking.
Some musicians held the view that the success of live performance shows was a combination
of luck and thoughtful planning ahead of every show. Furthermore, they also upheld the
importance of advertising of every live performance that needed to be well timed. The above
view has merit as most of the shows were targeted strategically to coincide with month end or
just around end of the month. The above view was underscored by one prominent Sungura
musician saying, “no matter how well rehearsed a band is, it cannot play to an empty venue
hence the need to be timeous and advertise rigorously to enable many people to attend.” He
argued together with other musicians saying that it was more important to advertise than to do
sound check to as a way to ensure that the show is resoundingly attended by patrons before the
band goes on stage.
Some Sungura musicians in the study mentioned that at times, some of their members only
gathered courage to go on stage through drinking beer and other performance enhancing
narcotics. However, in most cases, some of the band members’ behaviour was a cause for
concern as they delayed coming to the venue and avoided sound checks. It was noted that the
some of the said band members, including their leaders, did not see anything wrong with
drinking before and during the live performance shows. Some of the band leaders expressed
zero tolerance to late arrival, mediocre performance and taking narcotics or alcohol. One band
leader was quick to mention that, “Kana tiri pabasa tinoita zvebasa tozoita zvemafaro tapedza''
literally he meant that, “When we are at work we do work and we can have fun after” he went
on to say that, “Tose tine mabasa akasiyana siyana kana ndiri pangu pabasa ndinopakoshesa
nokuti ndopanobva mari yangu”, by these words he meant that, “We all have different jobs and
when I am at my job I value it because that is where I get my salary”. The musician implied
the importance of valuing one’s profession and to treat one’s work with sincerity. This also
includes taking all the processes of live performances. A prominent Sungura artist said that he
was very strict on how his band prepared for performances; punctuality was considered a high
priority including an assurance to balanced sound through sufficient preparation and sound
checking. This means he did not leave anything to chance.
A total of 16 musicians mentioned that, when they perform with their members under their own
sound engineer, they find their performances very successful. They claimed that they faced
challenges with other non-resident sound engineers particularly those that had never done any
performances with them. This problem was confirmed by a band leader who said, “Vazhinji
vacho vanenge vasingazivi zvemagitare vanongoita zvedancehall chete saka vanopedzisira
vakonewa kuita sound yedu zvakanaka”. His sentiments are that, “Most of them do not know
how to mix guitars, they only know dancehall music and they end up failing to produce good
sound”. The knowledge to create a balanced mix is however based on a number of factors such
as one’s knowledge and specialisation in the type of music. Indeed, mixing differs according
to tenets of each musical genre. The above sentiments by musicians are based on the knowledge
174

ISSN 2518 - 4334
of sound they expect to hear hence their views should not be trivialised. Most of the Sungura
musicians know what kind of sound they expect when a sound engineer who is not well versed
in the Sungura genre is on the desk, hence they complain. The above problem is also
compounded by musicians who come to the stage very late when the performance is supposed
to take off as soon as the band gets onto the stage. Hence, there may never be ample time to do
sound check. A problem of this magnitude is quite common when organisers of performance
events do not provide space for band sound engineer to work with the resident engineer to help
in shaping the character of the sound for the bands.
Coming onto the issue of sound check, the band managers mentioned that it is imperative to
have ample time to undertake sound check prior to each live performance. They also held that
each venue presented potential challenges that should be troubleshot by band members in
consultation with their sound engineer before the arrival of patrons. As a matter of importance,
the band should take time to set and have a feel of the venue before the crowd gathers. The
majority of 14 musicians presented the view that hiring a venue for any given performance was
costly and at times the amount spent may not be redeemed by the band after. Loss is therefore
imminent. In many instances, the time for sound check was sacrificed so as to reduce costs of
hiring the venue. A few bands faced challenges as they did not own musical instruments hence
they paid to hire the instruments. They also deliberately avoided paying a lot to hire a venue
which may not give them any profitable returns at the end. One of them submitted that, “in
many cases, we would rather avoid sound check so that we maximise on time to perform to the
audience.” From the above views it is important for bands to plan and adequately prepare for
live performances. Regardless of circumstances faced by some of the bands, sound checking
remains a critical component of the Sungura live performances.
Sound engineers’ perspectives

Our interaction with the sound engineers shows that there is a lot of work that goes on in a
Sungura live performance show. The engineers we interviewed and observed mentioned that
most of the shows they preside over are appreciated by their clients. However, the issue of
planning has been a bone of contention with some musicians always attacking the sound
engineers especially when things do not work out. The sound engineers who worked with bands
on a permanent arrangement expressed the importance of rapport in order to get the best out of
the mixing process of the live sound. One sound engineer said, “I know what the artist wants
and I always try to make sure that he gets that.” He went on to say that,
“Sometimes it is difficult when we get to a venue late and there is little time to set up for the
show. The musicians may end up not happy with the way I do my sound and they fail to
understand that the band would have arrived late for the show. In that case I feel the musicians
should understand our plight.”
The above sentiments reveal that there is a need for the sound engineer and the musicians need
to relate well in the performances. The lack of working rapport creates breakdowns in
175

ISSN 2518 - 4334
communication between the sound engineers and musicians as expressed by the above sound
engineer.
In some shows that we attended, we noted that the musicians kept on asking the engineer to
increase volume on their microphones from the first song right to the end. Although giving
cues and asking the sound engineer to undertake certain tasks is acceptable, incessant loud calls
on the engineer throughout may depict low levels of communication between the engineer and
the artist. There could have been a different way of interaction if the engineer and artist
understood each other’s expectations. The interviewed engineers indicated to us that some
musicians did not appreciate them when sound is done well. One sound engineer submitted
that,
“musicians give more credit to their bands when sound is perfect and when
things go bad, they level the blame on sound engineers instead of making it a
collective responsibility of both sound engineers and musicians.”
The implication of the above is that some of the alluded problems may be eliminated in live
performances if bands and their engineers all undertake sound checking together. We also
noted that this problem was rampant in situations where musicians took to the stage under the
influence of liquor and were also late for the sound check. The sound engineers also concurred
that at times they are asked to do a service at a performance at short notice in a venue that
presents exceptional challenges. In such circumstances, regardless of the effort to make an
acceptable sound output, they remarked that they are not appreciated.
Another sound engineer who uses a digital mixing desk, mentioned that he prioritises taking
measurements of the room response before he deals with sound equipment and that helps him
to adjust the production of sound in any given venue. He held that his approach can only work
best in situations where there is ample time. At one big event that we attended that was graced
by prominent Sungura musicians, we noted that the event was nearly a flop because all the
prominent musicians did not come with their sound engineers. Furthermore, they did undertake
a properly constituted sound check and revellers were up in arms with the performers until, one
of the sound engineers rescued the situation. A general sentiment held by many sound engineers
was that a problem with fellow sound engineers was their failure to accept advice from other
sound engineers. Specifically, at big live performance events most of the sound engineers do
not accept advice to make the sound better. One engineer said, “If a sound engineer fails to
solve a problem, they cannot humbly accept views from others fearing sabotage, that is a very
sad thing in our industry”. The above view suggests that the sound engineering field is polarised
as some members cannot accept advice from their fellow practitioners. Usually, sound
engineers accept advice from their own friends whom they trust and rely upon to get the job
done. One can even make a quick phone call to ask for help to avoid suicidal experiments.
A view that was shared by a majority of sound engineers was that some Sungura musicians
could not appreciate that sound systems need to be upgraded as their fans increase with time.
176

ISSN 2518 - 4334
They allege that when the system is small sometimes the musicians will still expect the sound
engineer to push the system beyond its output limits. However, this does not work because that
destroys the system. Another sound engineer said that, “I hope one day we will be understood
by our clients so that we work together as a team”. By implication the sound engineers’ views
suggest that some of the Sungura bands continue to use old equipment while expecting good
results which actually fails them. It also suggests that there is less mutual understanding
between sound engineers and Sungura musicians. On the same note, one wonders why Sungura
musicians cannot invest in buying equipment and yet they earn revenue through their shows.
Despite of the economic difficulties in Zimbabwe, Sungura musicians should invest in
purchasing new equipment for their music business since they earn revenue from their music
performances.
The sound engineers held that it was important to maintain a professional practice in dealing
with sound. However, at times they are forced to do things hurriedly because some musicians
come to the stage drunk and confuse them. Another prominent sound engineer mentioned that
he did not like working with musicians who take alcohol on stage and he went on to say he
prefers working with principled Sungura musicians who can respect themselves and others and
avoid taking alcohol on stage. He further explained that, he had been disappointed by some
Sungura musicians who are not organised hence he decided to avoid such business deals. We
probed them further and we were informed that most of musicians who drink alcohol fail to
come on time for the performances. They keep nagging the sound engineer with endless
demands which stifles their efforts to come up with acceptable sound. One sound engineer had
this to say, “Imagine that the venue is full and the band has not arrived and the system is set
and sound checking has not been done. What should a sound engineer do in that case?” The
sound engineer mentioned he would not mind if it happens once but it would be a cause for
concern if it became a routine. This challenge was indeed a serious matter which worked
against the progress of many musicians.
Perceptions of Sungura patrons

Although the study examined the technical issues in live sound performances of Sungura
music, we found it necessary to check on the patrons’ opinions of loudness levels. A view that
all the sampled participants shared was that the Sungura musicians were doing a good job to
entertain them. All the sampled revellers mentioned that some bands pushed their sound levels
very high and that is too hush for human hearing. Even though they complained paradoxically
some of the patrons enjoyed excessive loudness. Largely this view on loudness was made by
people attending family shows that are held in places where the patrons do not drink alcohol.
As for the venues that included drinking spots, our participants enjoyed everything. This could
be due to states of a drunken stupor that the attendees could not complain about sound. It also
became apparent that most day time shows had successful live performances with balanced
sound.
The majority of the fans that attend Sungura shows at nightclubs and bars tend to be of little
sobriety and their view of the goings on in the live performance shows tends to be less
177

ISSN 2518 - 4334
objective. Regardless of this observation, there are some fans who told us some objective views
about the Sungura shows. One of them said, “I know I am drunk but the sound coming from
the system is good and the sound engineer is doing a good job, the sound is just like a CD
playing, very clearly”. He went on to say, “We know what we like and the music is just as we
want it to sound and that is very good”. In spite of the drinking public within the Sungura shows
some revellers were still objective of what they expected to hear from their favourite genre. It
was also interesting that some of the patrons could shout loudly when some microphones or
guitars disappeared from the mix. A notable comment we observed was, “Wedzera mawatts
pagitare relead iro”. With these words the reveller meant, “raise the volume for that lead
guitar”. The revellers know when things are well and not well and they shout. Such a scenario
was very common when the band did not have a sound engineer but they had one of them
doubling as performer and sound engineer. Due to his position behind the sound he failed to
give an objective view of the front of house sound which a dedicated sound engineer would
easily handle and keep the revellers happy. Some of the groups we observed did not have sound
engineers and their sound checking was defeated by the fact that the output of sound did not
have checks and balances from the crowd’s view.
Findings
While it is generally acknowledged that sound check is fundamental to a good live
performance, our research has found out that the process does not receive the necessary
attention in reality. The magnitude of the anticipated audience determines the size of the sound
system to be used. In turn, the size of the preferred sound system also determines the amount
of set up time required and the amount of time to be dedicated to fine tuning the system, with
a band in action. Prominent Sungura musicians and combined shows usually sell out and attract
significant numbers of people to attend. Such scenarios call for timeous logistical work, to
ensure glitch free performances.
The most prevalent predicament at live shows is the punctuality of musicians. Most musicians
only aim to be at the venue just minutes before they are supposed to perform. “You know what,
because of pomp and undue pride some musicians feel as if they are downgraded and used if
they are asked to do sound check,” said one sound engineer. “Yet when they play, they want
the best sound and they keep shouting…,” he added. Every musician looks forward to
performing with the best sound. It is unfortunate that the interaction between sound engineers
and some performers only becomes a priority when something is not well with the sound.
Another sound engineer said that for most of the bands he does sound for, some instrument
players who get to experience gear for the first time, tend to get carried away by sound effects
and it ends up being more of a rehearsal than a sound check. In such a scenario, salient issues
like monitoring volume may be easily overlooked even though they are important.
“Boys rinoita sound nemaCD ka iri rinotadza kushanda nemazvo, saka kana tave kurova live
system inenge yaakukosora waona”, said one bassist. In this he meant that the boys (sound
engineers) who use CD tracks to test their sound system fail to balance the sound and when we
play live instruments we experience problems. The crude signal from a live instrument needs
178

ISSN 2518 - 4334
a lot of attention in order to fine tune it and attain the best sonic character of sound for each
particular instrument. With a pre-recorded track one may quickly establish whether a signal is
passing efficiently through the various components of the system, and also set the general EQ
of the gear based on their knowledge of the track used.
“It is sad we had to shift gear last moment to accommodate excess musicians on stage, and we
ended up experiencing feedback and system hiccups,” remarked one sound engineer after a
Sungura music performance. Often musicians just storm onto the stage on invitation by the
host, at times with a large troupe of performers. No formal preparatory communication is done
between musician and system provider or sound engineer. This leads to a misinformed layout
that musicians tend to override as they leap onto the stage, thereby compromising placement
of various pieces of equipment to avoid feedback and even, worse still, phase cancellation and
mixing of cables too.
A well-known musician said he had problems when he participated in combined shows. In such
circumstances, it is often a case that a general template of sound is used across all performers
regardless of the specific special needs of musicians according to musicians’ taste of individual
instrument sounds and the overall sound mix as well. It is often a headache to deal with
musician preferences while a show is running. Another maze of a situation is when gear is to
be hired for an occasion. When the condition is such that a system is hired based on time, it
becomes economic to have the kit at prime time and do away with ‘less weighted’ stages such
as sound check.
Conclusions
The study shows that the Sungura genre has grown immensely in wooing a large fan base
among Zimbabweans across different ages. The organisation of live Sungura performance
shows has been marked with careful planning by the majority of the musicians. However, some
of them exhibited some traces of unprofessional practice marked by lack of serious concerns
on sound check. In their bid to reduce expenses many Sungura bands sacrificed the vital role
of sound checking. This trait was observed among prominent and upcoming Sungura musicians
in Zimbabwe.
Sound engineers and Sungura musicians faced communication challenges which manifested
during shows where the musicians could keep shouting at the sound engineer. This
characteristic revealed that there was a problem especially where performers dealt with non-
resident sound engineers in a live show. The sound engineers face difficulties managing sound,
especially when working with bands that come late and drunk on stage.
Indeed, sound checking is critical for live performances, it was noted a great number of Sungura
musicians did not value sound checking and some of them do not do proper sound checking
and leave everything to chance and experience. Such a trait downplayed the credibility of even
prominent musicians. The main reason for forgoing adequate preparations was to cut costs.
179

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Such measures were deemed to be counterproductive hence this could place a negative impact
on their business.
Recommendations
Effective sound check involves total complimenting between the sound engineer and the
performing artist. As such, this research highly recommends cooperation between these two in
order for both to be fully satisfied. The sound engineer needs the musician to play in order to
ensure that signal lines are in order, apart from balancing the mix. The musician, in turn, has
specific volume and effect preferences that the sound engineer has to fulfil. Therefore, a
friendly environment has to prevail between the two, resulting in excellent work from both
sides.
Sound engineers often use pre-recorded tracks on sound checks. While this gives them
confidence over the performance of speakers, it does not guarantee the functioning of other
lines as this would be occupied by various live sound inputs, and how they relate in terms of
volume and EQ. As such we recommend that every instrument used on a particular channel
should be tested on that particular channel and most deserving, by the very player who uses
that particular instrument.
Timeous arrival at the venue is highly recommended. This enables the sound engineer to locate
power points, ascertain voltage and current compliance to system requirements, as well as map
out appropriate set up or lay out. This helps to prevent feedback as well as avoid unnecessary
last-minute adjustments as haphazardly laid cables. A smart layout allows performance to flow
without fear of cables being trampled upon or performers tripping on cables.
We note with concern the loss of character in terms of sound tenets suffered by many musicians
during combined shows. In a bid to cut on costs, and probably lack thereof, most musicians do
not bring along their personal sound engineers when they perform at a sponsored platform
where everything is literally provided. However, this research notes that it is the personal sound
engineer for each musician who knows better the sound preferences of that particular
musician’s band. This includes the instruments which require special effects or prominence, as
well as the depth of the overall mix.
A significant state of sobriety also makes a performance easy because there will be easier
coordination as well as rational judgement of the situation's requirements. Sungura music uses
a number of guitars, without sound check, such guitars may crowd the mix to an extent that
some lines would go without even being heard. Moreover, sound check ascertains proper tuning
and assignment of effects to allow each of the guitars appropriate space in the stereo spectrum.
References
1. Ballou, G., Ciaudelli, J. and Schmitt, V. 2008. Microphones. In Handbook for sound
engineers. Edited by Glen Ballou. Pages 489-594. Elsevier: Amsterdam.
180

ISSN 2518 - 4334
2. Bartlett, B. and Bartlett, J. 1999. On Location Recording Techniques. Focal Press:
Boston.
3. Bennett, H.S., 2017. On becoming a rock musician. Columbia University Press.
4. Bhattacherjee, A. 2012. Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices.

2nd Edition. Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-ShareAlike: Tampa.
5. Boyce, T. 2014. Introduction to Live Sound Reinforcement: The Science, The Art and
The Practice. Freisen Press: Victoria.
6. Burton, J. 2012. Effective sound checking tips and techniques. Available online at:
https://www.soundonsound.com/techniques/effective-soundchecking [Accessed on
12/03/2019]
7. Creswell, J.W. 2014. Research design: Qualitative, quantitative and Mixed methods
approaches. 4th Edition. Sage Publications: Los Angeles.
8. Evans, B. 2011. Live sound fundamentals. Course Technology: Sidney.
9. Gary, D. and Jones, R. 1989. Yamaha: Sound Reinforcement Handbook. 2nd Edition.
Hal Leonard Publishing: New York.
10. Gibson, B. 2020. The Ultimate Live Sound Operator's Handbook. Rowman &
Littlefield Publishers: London.
11. Gibson, D. 2008. The Art of Mixing: A Visual Guide to Recording Engineering and
Production 2nd Edition. Course Technology: Boston.
12. Huber, D. M. and Runstein, R.E. 2018. Modern Recording Techniques. Focal Press:
New York.
13. Israel, M. and Hay, I. 2006. Research ethics for social scientists: Between ethical
conduct and regulatory compliance. Sage Publication: London.
14. Izhaki, R. 2017. Mixing audio: concepts, practices, and tools. Routledge: New York.
15. Jillings, N. 2023. Automating the Production of the Balance Mix in Music Production
(Doctoral dissertation, Birmingham City University).
16. Kenwright, B. 2020. There's more to sound than meets the ear: Sound in interactive
environments. IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, 40(4), pp.62-70.
181

ISSN 2518 - 4334
17. Kothari, C.R. 2004. Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. 2nd Revised
Edition. New Age International Publishers: New Delhi.
18. Lashua, B. and Cohen, S., 2010. Liverpool musicscapes: Music performance,
movement and the built urban environment. In Mobile methodologies (pp. 71-84).
London: Palgrave Macmillan UK.
19. Light, S. 2016. Definition of the Situation in Live Bluegrass Music Concert
Performance: Sound Engineers and Musicians.
20. Lune, H. and Berg, B. L. 2017. Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences.
9th Edition. Global Edition. Pearson: New York.
21. Mack, N., Woodsong, C., MacGueen, K. M., West, G. and Namey, E. 2005. Qualitative
Research methods: A data collector’s field guide. Family health International: North
Carolina.
22. McIntyre, P. and Thompson, P. 2021. Paul McCartney as a Performing Musician. In

Paul McCartney and His Creative Practice: The Beatles and Beyond (pp. 45-72). Cham:
Springer International Publishing.
23. Pack, B. 2017. How to sound check a band for a live show. Available online at:
https://theproaudiofiles.com/sound check/ [Accessed on 13/02/2019]
24. Schutt, R. K. 2018. Investigating the social world: the process and practice of research.
9th Edition. Sage Publications: New York.
25. Stein, T. 2018. How to conduct a professional sound check. Available online at:
https://www.careersinmusic.com/sound-check-music/ [Accessed on 23/04/2019]
26. Swallow, D. 2011. Live audio: The art of mixing a show. Elsevier: London.
27. Thomann, G. 2017. Ten tips for a good sound check. Available online at:
https://www.thomann.de/blog/en/10-tips-sound check/ [Accessed on 27/04/2019]
28. Wang, H.Y., Huang, J.H. and Tseng, Y.C., 2017. January. A new method for objective
measurement of perceived audio quality. In 43rd International Computer Music
Conference, ICMC 2017 and the 6th International Electronic Music Week, EMW 2017
(pp. 427-431). Shanghai Conservatory of Music.
182

ISSN 2518 - 4334
EDITORIAL POLICY
Dzimbahwe Journal of Multidisciplinary Research

Research and Postgraduate Studies
P Bag 1235
Masvingo
Tel: 0392 2666841/0392 2666884
Email: researchpostgrad@gzu.ac.zw
DJMR is a scholarly, peer-reviewed accredited online journal that seeks the submission of
unpublished articles on current multidisciplinary issues. It encourages debate, both theoretical
and practical, on a wide range of topics that represent a variety of interdisciplinary, cross-
disciplinary and trans-disciplinary interests. DJMR is interested in attracting submissions
which exhibit innovative diverse research paradigms, methods and approaches. The Journal
seeks to arouse reader’ interests and stimulate debate on a range of heritage based Education
5.0 aspects, and to be accessible to the readership of the society. What is of particular interest
to the Journal are manuscripts that seek to contribute to the challenges facing the University,
industry and local community on the African continent as well as in broader international and
global contexts.
The Journal is cognizant of the need for capacity building in the area of scholarly writing and
publication among budding writers. It is also committed to the acceleration and development
of capacity among marginalized groups, including those from developing countries, with
particular emphasis on Africa.
SUBMISSION OF ARTICLES
DJMR invites submissions in the following categories:
183

ISSN 2518 - 4334
• Research Articles: of between 5 000 to 8 000 words on contemporary scientific
researches.
• Reviews and review articles: critical, evaluate reviews of professional books, texts and
other primary resources of a maximum of 3 pages.
• Conversations about research practice: dialogue on critical issues in the research
process
• Brief reports and summaries: short reports on any aspect of theory and practice in
academia.
• Research Posters: Information summarized attractively for publicizing.
PEER REVIEW OF MANUSCRIPTS SUBMITTED TO DJMR

All articles published in the journal are subject to rigorous blind-reviewed process. A reviewer
is given a maximum of two months to review an article. Authors will be informed of the
editor’s decision on receipt of all the peer review reports.
SUBMISSION REQUIREMENTS
Authors should submit their articles with a letter confirming that their article is original work,
does not violate any contractual agreement and has not been published or is not under
consideration for publication elsewhere. A copyright must also be signed and returned to the
journal editor.
Papers are considered for publication provided that:
• The work is original
• The copyright of the work is transferred to DJMR (on acceptance for publication)
• The work has not been previously published and is not under consideration for
publication elsewhere (in selected cases, this condition may be waived)
• The manuscripts conform to the APA publication manual for referencing
• The author has secured the permission of all named co-authors, and have agreed on the
order of the names for publication
• The author has secured all permissions for the reproduction of original or derived
material from a copyright source
• The language and content of papers is non-sexist, non-racist and is not offensive to
other cultural groups
• The paper has been edited by a professional language editor
• The paper has been subjected to turn-it-in
184

ISSN 2518 - 4334
The editor reserves the right to make editorial changes in any manuscript accepted for
publication to enhance clarity or conformity with journal style.
NB. Not more than two articles per volume may be published from one author/co-author.
PRESENTATION
Authors should submit their articles to the address researchpostgrad@gzu.ac.zw. The full title
of the article should be supplied on the title page. The article should be typed in Times New
Roman, 12 font size, in 1.5 spacing (including all notes and references), on one side of the
paper only, and be between 5 000 and 8 000 words in length (including references, and notes).
All photographs or figures must be clearly printed originals –no fill or grey shading may be
used. All notes should be kept to a minimum and appear at the end of the article before the list
of references.
A structured Abstract of 250 words in length, covering the main factual points and statement
of objective or problem, method, results and conclusion, should accompany an article plus a
list of about five to six keywords for abstracting and indexing services.
Abstracts are an important part of scholarly publications for a number of reasons, two of which
are critical. First, they provide an opportunity for readers to get a sense of what the paper is
about whether or not it is worth their while to continue reading the paper. They therefore
provide an opportunity to make the best impression to the reader.
Second, abstracts are often indexed separately from the main articles to provide summaries of
the latest findings and methodological approaches in research. The more well written they are,
the better your research may be profiled among the significant contributions to knowledge.
Good abstracts should therefore include, but not necessarily indicating the following as
subheadings:
• A brief background, for example:
• A strong statement why authors need research in this area.
• A statement or the objectives of the paper.
• A statement depicting the theoretical perspective.
• A statement on the methodological approach should then be included.
• A statement of findings.
• A statement of key implications for practice, policy and further research, highlighting
the significant contribution of the study.
185

ISSN 2518 - 4334
• The abstract must not exceed the word limit and must end with a carefully selected set
of key terms.
• For conceptual research, key elements are generally similar but with emphasis placed
on the core argument you are making, how you will develop the core argument and the
theoretical tools you will use, the conclusion you arrive at and the implications of your
argument to policy, practice and further research.
• The final version should be supplied with short biographical details of each author on
the first title page, as well as the name, mailing address, telephone, e-mail address, and
affiliation and country of each author. Type only the title and remove other obvious
indications of author identity on the second title page.
REFERENCING STYLE
DJMR accepts manuscripts that use APA Referencing Style
Referencing Citations in the Text

Single author: Use the author’s last name and year.
(Barker, 2006) or Baker (2006) showed that….
Two authors: Use both authors’ last names, separated by ampersand if in parentheses.
One view is that …….. (Nkomo & Baker, 2006) OR In their study, Nkomo and Baker (2006)
observes that….
Three to five authors: Use all authors’ names and year, the first time the reference occurs, in
subsequent citations, include only the first author by “et al.” and the year.
First citation: One view that ….. (Ceaser, Nkomo, & Peterson, 2010) OR Ceaser, Nkomo, and
Peterson (2020) are of the view that ….
186

ISSN 2518 - 4334
Subsequent citations: One view is that ……………(Ceaser et al, 2002) OR Ceaser et al (2002)
are of the view that….
Six or more authors: Use only the first followed by et al. and the year as illustrated above.
Direct quotes are to be used very sparingly. For quotes of fewer than 40 words, write them in
the text and place quotation marks around the quoted statement. For quotes of 40 or more
words, block the quoted text indented 1.3 spaces from both margins, without quotation marks.
Give specific page numbers when directly quoting:
“quote” (Nielle, 1993,p.276) OR Miele (1993) found that “quote” (p.176).
List of References
Order of entries: List all references in alphabetical order. Each reference is listed only once.
Authors: List the author’s last name, followed by a comma and initial separated by period
Journal article, personal author(s): Nkomo, A., & Barker, V.D. (2012). Teaching in the context
of mixed race classroom settings. Dzimbahwe Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 11 (2),
137-153
Book, persona author(s): Borrowe, R.T., & Sikosana, J. (2013). Leadership skills in education.
(2nd ed.). Cape Town: Oxford South Africa
Book, editor(s); chapter has own author: Farber, T.J., (2005). Education and change. In Langa,
H.B., and Brown, S. (Eds.), The education management handbbok (pp.465-78). Cape Town:
Oxford South Africa
Newspaper article: Gundani, D. (2015, February 26). Schools in presidential success club come
together to meet the presidency. The Daily Times
Electronic journal article: Mufumadi, S., Hamony, P.W., & Swadna, V.P. (2013). Gender factor
on success in mathematics: A case of urban schools. Journal of Mathematics Education, 14(3),
152-169. Retrieved on July 14, 2014, from: www.Mathematics.Articles.Database.
187

ISSN 2518 - 4334

Revitalising Indigenous Names in Balancing Environmental Science A Case of Ignored Names of Places in Rusitu Valley

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Revitalising Indigenous Names in Balancing Environmental Science A Case of Ignored Names of Places in Rusitu Valley

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DZIMBAHWE JOURNAL OF

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

Editor-in-Chief Prof V. Z. Nyawo (Management)

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

Great Zimbabwe University

Telephone: +263 392 266841

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

We welcome Dzimbahwe Journal of Multi-Disciplinary Research Volume 4 Issue 1 of 2023.

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

Mutimukuru-Maravanyika Tendai and Chimwai Ledwin in ‘Goat marketing challenges for

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

Corresponding author: Musebenzi Douglas

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

International Instruments Regulating Mental Health

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

International Covenant of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD)

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

The Mental Health Act

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

Disabled Persons Act (DPA)

Children with mental health problems

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

Challenges of Mental Health in Zimbabwe

There is a serious shortage of mental health professionals in Zimbabwe.110 There is a lack of

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

Funding of mental health services

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

Stigma and associated discrimination

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

Attempts to address mental health and rehabilitation issues

Community Integration and Participation

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

Underscoring mental health in policy and budgeting

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

A World in Flux: Options for Africa

Department, School, Great Zimbabwe University. P O Box 1235, Masvingo, Zimbabwe.

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

The rise of the WLWO

Africa in the WLWO

The Cultural Impact of the WLWO on Africa

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

The Political Impact of the WLWO on Africa

The Economic Impact of the WLWO on Africa

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

Where does Africa Stand Now in the RBO

© Great Zimbabwe University 2023

Figure 1 US and Chinese Trade in Goods with Africa (CRS, 2023)