SUMMARY OF VECTORS

TOPIC EXAMPLE

1. POSITION VECTOR : ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑂𝐴 Find the vector from point 𝐴(8,7) to point 𝐵(9, −1)
Solution:
𝑂 is origin, < 0,0 > Position vectors:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 = 〈8,7〉
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 = 〈9, −1〉

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴
= 〈9, −1〉 − 〈8,7〉
= 〈9 − 8, −1 − 7〉
= 〈1, −8〉

2. MAGNITUDE OF A VECTOR Determine the magnitude of 𝑣⃑ = ⟨−1,5⟩.

(LENGTH OF A VECTOR / NORM) Solution:

𝑢⃗ = 〈𝑢1 , 𝑢2 〉 ||𝑣⃑|| = √(−1)2 + 52

= √1 + 25
‖𝑢⃗ ‖ = √𝑢12 + 𝑢22 = √26

3. UNIT VECTOR Given 𝑢⃗⃑ = < −3,1 >. Find

- SAME DIRECTION/PARALLEL a) the vector in the direction of 𝑢⃗⃑ and has
𝑢⃗ 1
𝑢̂ = magnitude 2 unit
‖𝑢 ‖ b) the vector in the opposite direction of 𝑢⃗⃑ and
has magnitude 10 units
Solution:
- OPPOSITE DIRECTION Unit vector 𝑢⃗⃑ = 𝑢̂
𝑢⃗ 𝑢⃗
−𝑢̂ = − 𝑢̂ =
‖𝑢 ‖ ‖𝑢‖
| | 2
| 𝑢⃗⃑| = √(−3) + 1 2

= √9 + 1
= √10

1
𝑢̂ = < −3,1 >
√10
−3 1
=〈 , 〉
√10 √10

a) the vector in the direction of 𝑢⃗⃑ and has

1 1 −3 1 −3 1
magnitude 2 unit = 2 〈 10 , 10 〉 = 〈2 10 , 2 10 〉
√ √ √ √

b) the vector in the opposite direction of 𝑢⃗⃑ and has

−3 1 30 −10
magnitude 10 units = −10 〈 10 , 10 〉 = 〈 10 , 10 〉
√ √ √ √

MAT406 : VECTORS YUZAIMI YUNUS

4. BASIC OPERATIONS OF VECTORS Given 𝒖 = 〈4, −2〉 and 𝒗 = 〈5, 0〉 . Find −4𝒖 + 3𝒗.
- ADDITION Solution:
- SUBTRACTION
- SCALAR MULTIPLICATION −4𝒖 = −4〈4, −2〉
= 〈−16, 8〉
Addition or subtraction vector
components: 3𝒗 = 3〈5, 0〉
= 〈15, 0〉
𝑢⃗ =< 𝑐, 𝑑 >
𝑣 =< 𝑎, 𝑏 > −4𝒖 + 3𝒗 = 〈−16, 8〉 + 〈15, 0〉
= 〈−1, 8〉
𝑢⃗ − 𝑣 = < 𝑐, 𝑑 > − < 𝑎, 𝑏 >
= < 𝑐 − 𝑎, 𝑑 − 𝑏 >

𝑢⃗ + 𝑣 = < 𝑐, 𝑑 > + < 𝑎, 𝑏 >

= < 𝑐 + 𝑎, 𝑑 + 𝑏 >

Example :

𝑢⃗ − 𝑣 = < 3, 2 > − < 4, 1 >

= < 3 − 4, 2 − 1 >
=< 1, 1 >

5. BASIC OPERATIONS OF VECTORS a) Find the dot product between 𝒖 and 𝒗.

- DOT PRODUCT (SCALAR) 𝒖 = 〈1, −1〉, 𝒗 = 〈−2, 5〉
Solution:
𝑢⃗ = 〈𝑢1 , 𝑢2 〉 , 𝑣 = 〈𝑣1 , 𝑣2 〉 𝒖 . 𝒗 = 〈1, −1〉. 〈−2, 5〉
= 1(−2) + (−1)(5)
= −2 − 5
𝑢⃗ . 𝑣 = 𝑢1 𝑣1 + 𝑢2 𝑣2 = −7
= ‖𝑢⃗ ‖‖𝑣 ‖ cos 𝜃 b) Find the angle between 𝒖 and 𝒗.

Solution:
Orthogonal 𝑢⃗ . 𝑣 = ‖𝑢
⃗ ‖‖𝑣‖ cos 𝜃
𝑢⃗ . 𝑣 = 0
𝑢⃗ . 𝑣 = 7
‖𝒖‖ = √12 + (−1)2

= √1 + 1
= √2

‖𝒗‖ = √(−2)2 + 52

= √4 + 25
= √29

𝑢⃗ . 𝑣
cos 𝜃 =
‖𝑢⃗ ‖‖𝑣 ‖

MAT406 : VECTORS YUZAIMI YUNUS

 −7
=
√2√29
−7
𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1
√2√29
= 156.800 (obtuse angle)

Source of figure : www.doubleroot.in

MAT406 : VECTORS YUZAIMI YUNUS

 TOPIC 8 : VECTORS

8.1 INTRODUCTION TO VECTORS

Definition of Vectors

• The field of engineering and science often involve the measurement of

physical quantities.
• Physical quantities can be classified into two main groups namely scalar
quantities and vector quantities.
• A scalar quantity is characterized by its size or magnitude alone.
Example: length, mass, areas etc.
• A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction.
Example: force, velocity etc.
• Example: A speed of 50km/h is a scalar quantity whereas a velocity of 50km/h
due North is a vector quantity.

Vector Representation

• A vector in a plane is a directed line segment which can be represented by a

line drawn to a known scale.
• The line carries an arrow indicating the direction in which the vector acts and
the length of the line indicates the magnitude of the vector.
• There are many ways to denote a vector.
• The vector quantity represented by the line from the initial point A to the
terminal point B is denoted by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 as shown below.

1|Page
Vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and the same direction.

Examples of vector notations

a Boldfaced letter

𝑎 or 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ Letter with arrow over it

𝑎 Line underneath it

Vector Components
Any vector can be expressed as a sum of two or more non-parallel vectors.

For example: in figure below, 𝑎 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2

𝑎 and 𝑎2 are known as the component of vector 𝑎.

Vector in component form 𝑣⃑ = < 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 >.

VECTORS AND THE COORDINATE PLANE

• A vector with its initial point at the origin is called a position vector.

• A position vector 𝑢
⃗⃑ with its endpoint at the point (𝑎, 𝑏) is written ⟨𝑎, 𝑏⟩.

⃗⃑ = ⟨𝑎, 𝑏⟩
𝑢

• The numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏 are horizontal and vertical components of vector 𝑢

⃗⃑.

• The positive angle between the 𝑥-axis and a position vector is the direction
angle for the vector.

2|Page
Standard Basis Representation

• An alternative way of representing a vector is in terms of vectors that are

parallel to coordinates axes and have length 1.
• These vectors are called base vectors (basis vectors).

Standard Base Vectors in Two Dimensional (ℝ2 ) Standard Base Vectors in Three Dimensional (ℝ3 )
𝑖 =< 1,0 > 𝑖 =< 1,0,0 >

𝑗 =< 0,1 > 𝑗 =< 0,1,0 >

𝑘⃗ =< 0,0,1 >

Notation Notation
⃗⃑ = ⟨𝑎, 𝑏⟩
𝑢 ⃗⃑ = ⟨𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐⟩
𝑢

Or Or
𝑎 𝑎
⃗⃑ = ( )
𝑢
𝑏 ⃗⃑ = (𝑏 )
𝑢
𝑐
Or
Or
𝑢
⃗⃑ = 𝑎𝑖 + 𝑏𝑗
⃗⃑ = 𝑎𝑖 + 𝑏𝑗 + 𝑐𝑘⃗
𝑢
3
For example: 𝑠 =< 3, −2 > = ( ) can
−2
written as 𝑠 = 3𝑖 − 2𝑗.

POSITION VECTORS

• For a vector 𝑣⃑ with initial point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and terminal point (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ), the unique
position vector 𝑣⃑ is

𝑣⃑ = ⟨𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ⟩

• This is an equivalent vector with initial point (0,0) and terminal point

(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ).

𝑣⃑ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃑
𝐴𝐵

= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃑
𝐴𝑂 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃑
𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃑ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃑
= −𝑂𝐴 𝑂𝐵

= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃑
𝑂𝐵 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃑
𝑂𝐴

3|Page
Example 1

Find the vector from point 𝐴(8,7) to point 𝐵(9, −1).

Solution:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃑
𝑂𝐴 = 〈8,7〉, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃑
𝑂𝐵 = 〈9, −1〉
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃑
𝐴𝐵 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃑
𝑂𝐵 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃑
𝑂𝐴
= 〈9, −1〉 − 〈8,7〉
= 〈1, −8〉

Example 2

Given 𝑃(−1,4,3) and 𝑄(7,1, 3). Find ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑃𝑄 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑄𝑃.

Solution:

TRY IT!

If 𝑅(−3,2) and 𝑆(6, −5), find 𝑆𝑅

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .

Solution:

4|Page
MAGNITUDE OF A VECTOR

The magnitude of a vector is the distance between the initial and terminal points.

⃗⃑ = ⟨𝑎, 𝑏⟩ is given by
𝑢

⃗⃑|| = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
||𝑢

𝑣⃑ = ⟨𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐⟩ is given by

||𝑣⃑|| = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2

Example 3

a) Determine the magnitude of 𝑢

⃗⃑ = ⟨3,4⟩.

b) Determine the magnitude of 𝑣⃑ = ⟨−1,5, −3⟩

Solution:

a) ⃗⃑|| = √32 + 42
||𝑢

= √9 + 16

= √25 = 5

5|Page
UNIT VECTOR

A unit vector is a vector with magnitude 1.

Given a non-zero vector 𝑢

⃗⃑. A unit vector in the same direction as 𝑢
⃗⃑ is
1
̂=
𝒖 𝒖
‖𝒖‖

Example 4

Given 𝑢
⃗⃑ = < 13, 5 >. Find

a) unit vector in the direction of 𝑢

⃗⃑

b) unit vector in the opposite direction of 𝑢

⃗⃑

c) the vector in the opposite direction of 𝑢

⃗⃑ and has magnitude 10 units.
Solution:

⃗⃑‖ = √132 + 52
‖𝑢

= √169 + 25

= √194

a) unit vector in the direction of 𝑢

⃗⃑
1
𝑢̂ = 𝑢
⃗⃑
‖𝑢
⃗⃑‖
1
= 〈13, 5〉
√194
13 5
=〈 , 〉
√194 √194

6|Page
8.2 BASIC OPERATIONS ON VECTORS IN A PLANE

i. Vector addition

⃗𝑢⃑+ 𝑣⃑= ⟨𝑢1, 𝑢2⟩ + ⟨𝑣1, 𝑣2⟩ = ⟨𝑢1 + 𝑣1, 𝑢2 + 𝑣2⟩

ii. Scalar multiplication

𝑘⃗𝑢⃑= 𝑘⟨𝑢1, 𝑢2⟩ = ⟨𝑘𝑢1, 𝑘𝑢2 ⟩

Example 5

Given 𝑎 =< 8,5 >, 𝑏⃗ =< −3,6 >. Find

a) 7𝑏⃗ − 2𝑎

b) ‖10 𝑎 + 3 𝑏⃗‖

Solution:

7|Page
DOT PRODUCT (SCALAR PRODUCT)
Definition:

If 𝑢
⃗ = 〈𝑢1 , 𝑢2 〉 and 𝑣 = 〈𝑣1 , 𝑣2 〉 are vectors, then their dot product , denoted by

⃗ . 𝑣 is defined by
𝑢

𝑢
⃗ . 𝑣 = 𝑢1 𝑣1 + 𝑢2 𝑣2

If 𝜃 is the angle between two nonzero vectors 𝑢

⃗ and 𝑣, then

⃗ . 𝑣 = ‖𝑢
𝑢 ⃗ ‖‖𝑣‖ cos 𝜃

The dot product is NOT a VECTOR; it is a real number, or scalar.

Note:
𝑎 ∙ 𝑏⃗ is positive when the angle 𝜃 between the vectors is acute and negative when
the is obtuse.

>
2

< >
2 2

8|Page
Properties of dot product:

1. 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏⃗ = 𝑏⃗ ∙ 𝑎 (commutative law)

2. 𝑎 ∙ (𝑏⃗ + 𝑐 ) = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏⃗ + 𝑎 ∙ 𝑐 (distributive law)

3. (𝑘𝑎) ∙ 𝑏⃗ = 𝑘 (𝑎 ∙ 𝑏⃗) = 𝑎 ∙ (𝑘 𝑏⃗)

4. ⃗0 ∙ 𝑎 = 0

5. 𝑎 ∙ 𝑎 = |𝑎|2

Example 6

Find the angle between the following pairs of vectors:

i. u = <3,4> v = <-1,-5>

ii. u = <2,-1,1> v = <1,1,2>

Solution:

i. u = <3,4> v = <-1,-5>
𝑢
⃗⃑ ⋅ 𝑣⃑
cos 𝜃 =
‖𝑢
⃗⃑‖‖𝑣⃑‖

⃗⃑ ⋅ 𝑣⃑ = 〈3,4〉 ⋅ 〈−1, −5〉

𝑢
= 3(−1) + 4(−5)
= −3 − 20 = −23

⃗⃑‖ = √32 + 42
‖𝑢

= √9 + 16

= √25 = 5

‖𝑣⃑‖ = √(−1)2 + (−5)2

= √1 + 25

= √26
𝑢
⃗⃑ ⋅ 𝑣⃑
cos 𝜃 =
‖𝑢
⃗⃑‖‖𝑣⃑‖
−23
=
5√26
−23
𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1
5√26
= 154.440

9|Page
ii. u = <2,-1,1> v = <1,1,2>

10 | P a g e
Example 7

Given the vectors 𝒖 =〈2𝑐, −4〉, 𝒗 = 〈𝑐, 3〉 and 𝒘 = 〈−1, 2〉

i. Find the value(s) of the constant c such that 𝒖 and 𝒗 are orthogonal.

ii. If 𝑐 > 0, find the angle between (𝒖 + 𝒗) and 𝒘.

Solution:

11 | P a g e
TUTORIAL 7 – VECTOR

TUTORIAL VECTORS

1. ABCDEF in the diagram is a hexagon.

i. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐶

C
A

D
F

ii. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝐶𝐷
𝐴𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

C
A

D
F

E
iii. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐶 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷𝐶 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝐷

C
A

D
F

iv. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐵𝐶
𝐴𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

C
A

D
F

2. If 𝒖 = 〈1, −2〉 is a vector that ends at the point B(2, −1) and begins at a point
𝐴(𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ), what are the coordinates of A?

Ans : (1,1)
3. Given the following coordinates. Find ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐴.

c) 𝐴(5,2) and 𝐵(6,8)

Ans : 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 〈1,6〉, 𝐵𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 〈−1, −6〉

4. If 𝒖 = 〈−4, 3〉, find all scalars 𝑐 such that ‖𝑐𝒖‖ = 3.

3
Ans : 𝑐 = ±
5

6. Given the vector 𝒖 = 〈−4, 3〉. Determine whether this is a unit vector. If it is
not, find a unit vector in the same direction as u.
4 3
Ans : 𝒖
̂ = 〈− , 〉
5 5

7. Find the angle between the two vectors given below:

a) 𝒖 = 〈1, −1 〉, 𝒗 = 〈−2, 5〉.

b) 𝒖 = 〈1, −1 〉, 𝒗 = 〈−2, 5〉.

Ans : 156.80

8. Find the dot product of the following vectors:

a) (−4𝑖̂ + 5𝑗̂ ). (−3𝑖̂ − 3𝑗̂)

b) < 3, −3 >. < 2,1 >

Ans: 𝑎) − 3 𝑏) 3

9. Given that 𝑢
⃗ = 10𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ and 𝑣 = 4𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂, find 𝑢
⃗ . 𝑣.

Ans: 46

10. Let P(2, -5), Q(k, 1) and R(2, 4), where k>0 be points in the plane. Find

a) the value of k such that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑃𝑄 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑄𝑅 = −31

b) the unit vector in the opposite direction of 2𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 3𝑄𝑅

11. Given that 𝑢

⃗ =< 𝑘, −1 > and 𝑣 =< −3, 9 >.

a) Find a unit vector in the opposite direction to 𝑣.

b) Find the value of k so that

i) ⃗ is orthogonal to 𝑣.
𝑢
𝜋
ii) the angle between 𝑢
⃗ and 𝑣 is .
3