Orogenic

Vein
Formation

Ash Ball
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 Orogenic vein systems

Orogenic vein systems are formed in the brittle-

ductile to brittle upper crust under lithostatic
stress. Mount Charlotte type veins.

Epithermal style mineralisation forms higher in

the crust in the brittle near surface environment
under lithostatic-hydrostatic stress. Fimiston style
veins.

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 Veins – how do they form?

Two ways to create a vein:

• High differential stress
• High fluid pressure
Darlot

minimum stress

σ1 = principal stress

σ2 = intermediate stress

σ3 = minimum stress principal stress

Intermediate stress

Differential stress = the difference between σ1 and σ3

Hidden Secret
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 Veins – how do they form?
Two ways to create a vein: σ1 = principal stress

• High differential stress: shear veins σ2 = intermediate stress

σ3 = minimum stress
• High fluid pressure

Pogo

Laminated shear vein: repeated fault rupture with

repeated fluid access forming laminations

σ1
Differential stress increases (increasing σ1) to where the rock mass hits the failure envelope. When the rock
mass fails faults or fractures form or existing structures fail and are reactivated. Seismicity.

When faults rupture they dilate, creating permeability. If fluids are present they will be drawn into the low
pressure open space of the fault, precipitating quartz (± gold!) and forming veins. Repeated fault rupture
Darlot
allows for fluid to repeatedly access the structure and precipitate quartz, generating laminated veins. 4
 Shear veins
The amount of fault dilation and rupture as well as amount of
available fluid will dictate what a shear vein looks like:

Fault rupture and low available fluid = fault with minimal veining

Repeated fault rupture with available fluid = laminated veins

• Dark material defining the laminations are slivers of wall rock
• High grade often occurs along laminations or at the heavily
laminated margins of shear veins. Every time a fault ruptures and
fluids enter there is an opportunity for dissolved Au and metals to
precipitate
Shear vein with sulfides concentrated in strongly
Fault with minor veining (Little Wonder) laminated hangingwall (Pogo)
Large fault rupture with available fluid = massive to brecciated shear
veins
• Chaotic fault rupture event allows for large rapid influx of fluid
generating massive quartz veins to hydrothermal breccias

Because shear veins are fault-hosted they occur along structures

(structures are often consumed by the vein and no longer apparent).

Rupture and dilation will vary along structures meaning shear veins
have variable widths and continuities. Areas of high permeability (ie
fault intersections, fault bends forming dilational zones) allow for
more fluid ingress often generating ore shoots. Brecciated shear vein: chaotic rupture event
allowed large ingress of fluid generating
Laminated shear vein (Hidden Secret) hydrothermal brecciation (Darlot) 5
 Shear veins
Failure and rupture can occur along any structural plane of weakness:
A A’
• Faults and shear zones
• Foliation planes (particularly where foliation is enhanced, ie zones of strongly
developed axial planar foliation)
• Bedding planes Fairplay
Hidden
• Rheological contrasts (stratigraphic contacts, intrusive contacts) Secret

Failure and rupture is enhanced in areas of stress localisation:

• Fault intersections
• Fault bends/jogs that enhance dilation
• Rheological contrasts (stratigraphic contacts, intrusive contacts) Towns
Fault
Acre
Fault
Devon Consols Fairplay
Hidden
Basalt
Secret

Plan view of the Hidden Secret Devon Consols

Golden Pike
and Fairplay orebodies. Fairplay Basalt
A A’ Fault
shear veins are localised along
shear planes that are ~parallel to
the axial plane of folding as well
as localised along a stratigraphic
contact. Hannans Lake Williamstown Paringa
Serpentinite Dolerite Basalt
Hidden Secret shear veins are
localised along a fault coincident
Williamstown Paringa
Towns with a stratigraphic contact.
Dolerite Basalt
Fault They blow out into a wide zone
where the fault and stratigraphic North looking section of the Hidden Secret and Fairplay orebodies showing shear vein
contact bends to the south. localisation along west dipping shear planes, parallel to fold axial planes and 6
stratigraphic contacts
 Veins – how do they form?
Two ways to create a vein:
• High differential stress: shear veins
• High fluid pressure: extensional veins

Pf Orogenic systems – higher Magmatic (ie porphyry)

differential stress forms
shear veins with fluid over
pressurisation around shear
veins generating localised
Fluid pressure (Pf) will move a rock mass towards the failure envelope. If fluids are introduced,
extensional veins
even under low differential stress, the rock can fail. This produces extensional veins (also called
tensional veins). Veins hydro-fracture the rock and don’t need existing fractures to form.
systems – low differential
stress with large fluid
influxes and fluid over
pressurization generating
large stockworks
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 Shear veins + extensional veins
Orogenic systems often get a combination of shear veins with surrounding extensional veins.

• High differential stress environment with available fluid = fault rupture and shear vein formation with influx
of fluid into structure resulting in local fluid over pressurisation and localised extensional vein formation
• Less extensional veins = less fluid influx into structure

Fluid often builds up at the terminations of structures forming horsetails or complex vein areas such as bends
forming large extensional vein arrays.

Pogo

Darlot Pogo Darlot

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 Shear veins + extensional veins
Most orebodies will have a combination of shear veins and extensional veins depending on local stress fields and differential fluid supply and
fluid influx – orebodies are complex!

Pogo Pogo Pogo

Planar shear vein: repeated fault Slightly irregular shear vein: more Irregular shear vein with low fluid
rupture resulting in laminated fluid over-pressurisation resulting connectivity resulting in more fluid
vein. Planar vein and good fluid in localised extensional vein accumulation, fluid over-pressurisation
connectivity. formation. and more extensional veins 9
 Shear veins + breccias
High differential stress can result in significant fault rupture.

This allows a rapid influx of fluids that can generate significant fluid over pressurisation and hydrothermal
breccias.

Breccias are characterised by angular fragmented wall rock (low transport) cemented with vein infill material.

Darlot
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 Extensional vein kinematics σ1

Extensional veins (also referred to as tensional veins) generally form

~parallel to σ1 (within ~30o).
σ3 σ3
• Under compression (horizontal σ1) ~shallow dipping veins will form

• Under extension (vertical σ1) ~steeply dipping veins will form

• Useful kinematic indicators! σ1

• For shear veins + extensional veins use the “arrowhead” rule: draw an arrowhead between the
acute angle formed between the shear vein and extensional veins and it will point to the
approximate fault movement during vein formation
• Be aware interpreting veins that have utilised pre-existing planes of weakness, ie foliation
planes/fabrics etc σ1
σ3 σ1

σ3
σ1 σ1 σ3 σ3

σ3 σ3

σ1 σ1

σ1
σ3 σ3 σ1 11
 Extensional Veins – stockworks and vein arrays σ1

Under high fluid pressure conditions extensional vein stockworks or vein arrays will occur.
σ3 σ3
Where there is a dominant σ1 there will be a dominant vein orientation producing sheeted
vein arrays ~parallel to σ1.

σ1

σ1

Pogo
Darlot
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Extensional Veins – stockworks and vein arrays
Under low differential stress (when σ3 - σ1 are ~equal) σ3 - σ1 will oscillate. This results in
extensional vein sets forming perpendicular to one another forming stockwork veining.

There will often still be a dominant σ1 resulting with one dominant vein orientation. This σ1 may
be the same as the regional stress field or may be influenced by local faults.

Darlot

σ 1 & σ3
(oscillating) σ 1 & σ3
(oscillating)

σ 1 & σ3
(oscillating)
σ 1 & σ3 σ1
σ1
(oscillating) dominant
dominant

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 Mount Charlotte stockworks
Various ideas on formation and orientations…

• Riedel fracturing formed between the reverse-dextral steeply NW dipping D4 Faults (Charlotte, Reward
and Maritana Faults) with fractures then exploited by fluids forming a stockwork?

• Shallow veins dominate around W dipping D3 thrust faults (Flanigan, Shea Faults) and steeper veins
dominate around D4 Faults. These patterns fit with local stress fields that would be generated around
the faults during reverse and reverse-strike slip “shuffling” under an overall regional compressional
stress regime

Every structural geologist will find a (often complex!) way to explain vein patterns. The important thing is to
recognise and document the patterns so that you can optimally drill, model and mine them. Mt Charlotte

σ 1 & σ3
(oscillating) σ2

σ1
dominant σ 1 & σ3
(oscillating)

σ 1 & σ3 (oscillating)
σ2 looking into page looking into page 14
Stockworks and vein arrays – host rheology
Brittle rocks are rheologically more likely to fracture under high fluid pressure.

Stockworks and vein arrays often only form in brittle host rocks including intrusive rocks (ie
the Red Hill porphyry) and quartz or feldspar rich rocks such as Unit 8 of the Golden Mile
dolerite.

Rheology is a very important control on vein formation!

Unit 8

MOB Mt
Charlotte
Mtmineralisation
Charlotte
dolerite

Quartz-
magnetite
porphyry diorite +
dyke porphyry
lamprophyre

Preferential veining of porphyry dyke Veining post-dates lamprophyre dykes but struggles to propagate 15
North looking section through Mt Charlotte showing mineralisation
through softer rock localised within the brittle Unit 8 of the Golden Mile Dolerite
 Stockworks and vein arrays – host rheology
Brittle rocks are rheologically more likely to fracture under high fluid pressure.

Stockworks and vein arrays often only form in brittle host rocks including intrusive rocks (ie the Red Hill porphyry) and quartz
or feldspar rich rocks such as Unit 8 of the Golden Mile dolerite.

Rheology is a very important control on vein formation!

ultramafics

intrusion

Veining formed along intrusion-ultramafics contact, with Mineralised Red Hill porphyritic intrusion: veining is preferentially formed in the brittle intrusion. Fluids 16
veining preferentially occurring in the brittle intrusion introduced by structures to the south and zones of strongly developed foliation
 Permeability is king!
Permeability is crucial in allowing fluids to move into the host rock!

• Obvious permeability includes faults and shear planes that rupture and allow fluids to ingress
• Subtle permeability includes foliation, bedding planes or textural features such as pillow basalt margins that also allow fluids to ingress
• Stockworks and vein arrays need permeability to allow fluids access to the host rock (ie pillow basalt margins in the Little Wonder orebody, or the
D3 and D4 faults in the Mt Charlotte orebody)

Unit 8
D4 faults
stockwork
mineralisation

D4 faults

Golden
Mile Fault

Unit 8

shear vein Golden Mile stockwork

lodes Golden Mile Fault mineralisation
Fault

North looking view (left) and north looking section view (right) of the Golden ~Northeast looking view (left) and plan view (right) of the Mt Charlotte stockwork deposit
Mile Fimiston lodes – the Golden Mile Fault is a major fluid conduit, early F2 – the D3 and D4 faults were permeable conduits that allowed fluid to interact with the 17
axial planar fabric is a subtle but important permeability feature favourable Unit 8 of the Golden Mile Dolerite
 Summary
• The amount of differential stress and fluid pressure affecting the system will dictate the
type of veining generated (shear veins versus extensional vein, vein textures)

• High differential stress results in fault rupture allowing fluids to travel via fault networks
forming fault hosted shear veins (ie Fimiston)
• Shear veins will manifest differently depending on the degree/repetitiveness of
fault rupture as well as fluid supply (laminated versus brecciated shear veins, versus
dry faults)
Pogo Hidden Secret
• High fluid pressure overpressurises the rock forming extensional veins
• Accumulated fluid around shear veins generates localised extensional veins around
shear veins
• High volumes of fluid can generate large vein arrays or stockworks, (ie Mt
Charlotte). Fluids can originate from emplaced intrusions (porphyry systems) or be
introduced along structures (Mt Charlotte style stockworks)
• Rheology is a very important control to localising vein arrays and stockworks

It can be difficult to know what type of veining you are looking at from drill core data alone –
in the early stages be diligent in documenting vein character and texture (laminated, massive
etc) as well as orientation (structural measurements!) to help to build up the picture.

Fairplay
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Kinematics

A. Ball
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 Interpreting brittle veins
Brittle veins, faults and stylolites

Can interpret the

relationship of extensional
(tensional) veins to
faults/shear veins – useful
for underground!

Patrice Rey, 2016

(website)
 Shear vein – extensional vein relationships
Use the geometrical relationships between tensional veins and shear veins to approximate σ1.

*strike slip produces extensional veins at an

oblique angle to shear veins – use backs
mapping to help determine vein orientation

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Common kinematic indicators

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 Fault drag
Drag of features either side of a structure indicating movement direction.

Features that are dragged along a structure can be bedding, foliation, veins…

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 Fault drag
Drag of features either side of a structure indicating movement direction.

Drag features can be bedding, foliation, veins…

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 Ladder veins
Extensional veins formed between shear veins.

Use tensional – shear vein relationships for ladder veins to determine

kinematics.

Tensional veins will often have drag associated with further movement on
shear planes after their formation.

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 Sigmoidal veins
En-echelon veins that have progressively undergone shear and rotation.

Can form as isolated vein arrays or along shear structures.

Considerable shear rotation 26

Minimal shear rotation Considerable shear rotation
 Shear fabrics
C-S shear fabrics in faults can preserve a kinematic sense.

Caution must be taken interpreting these as faults are often reactivated generating repeated, often
overprinting fabrics.

A lineation is needed to truly tie in the movement direction (C-S fabrics will approximate the sense of
movement but won’t determine any oblique movement, ie reverse with a component of strike slip).
Sketch and document what you see. Observe multiple locations before drawing conclusions.

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 Shear fabrics
C-S shear fabrics in faults can preserve a kinematic sense.

Caution must be taken interpreting these as faults are often reactivated generating repeated, often
overprinting fabrics.

A lineation is needed to truly tie in the movement direction (C-S fabrics will approximate the sense of
movement but won’t determine any oblique movement, ie reverse with a component of strike slip).
Sketch and document what you see. Observe multiple locations before drawing conclusions.

C
S

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 Shear fabrics
C-S shear fabrics in faults can preserve a kinematic sense.

As C-S fabrics continue to develop, C’ planes may form (in the same plane as brittle R’ fractures).
These will have the same geometrical pattern as the C-S fabrics.

Sketch and document what you see. Observe multiple locations before drawing conclusions.

C’

C’

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 Slickenlines and slickenfibres
Form in fault planes and approximate the sense of fault movement.

Slickenlines and slickenfibres commonly exhibit the last sense of movement not necessarily the
sense of movement during mineralisation. Use extreme caution when interpreting these!

Can be useful for post mineral fault offsets. More difficult for mineralisation, unless material
forming slickenline/slickenfibre is associated with mineralisation (ie sulfide slickenlines).

Slickenlines (lineations) show the orientation of movement (ie up/down, strike slip) but not the
specific transport direction (ie hangingwall up vs hangingwall down).

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Slickenlines: overlying surface to the bottom or top Slickenlines: overlying surface to the left or right
 Slickenlines and slickenfibres
Form in fault planes and approximate the sense of fault movement.

Slickenlines and slickenfibres commonly exhibit the last sense of movement not necessarily the
sense of movement during mineralisation. Use extreme caution when interpreting these!

Can be useful for post mineral fault offsets. More difficult for mineralisation, unless material
forming slickenline/slickenfibre is associated with mineralisation (ie sulfides forming slickenlines).

Slickenfibres show the specific transport direction (are stepped down in the direction of transport).
Run your hands over slickenfibres: if smooth and stepping down your hand is approximating the
transport direction of the overlying block. Caution using quartz as it is often the last mineral to
crystallise.

Slickenfibres: hangingwall to the left 31

Slickenfibres: overlying surface to the bottom
 Slickenlines and slickenfibres
Caution: you might get multiple slickenline/slickenfibre directions
along one structure (where faults flex, bend and shuffle) - Take
lots of measurements to get a representation across a structure

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Slickenlines in the Celebration Fault, HBJ, showing multiple directions
 Takeaways
Always draw and sketch what you see!
• Things become clearer when you sketch the key features of an outcrop: creates a permanent reference that may
be important later
• Keep diagrams in your notebook to refer to
• Record your confidence in what you are measuring: record of how reliable the data is

Collect lots of kinematic evidence before drawing conclusions

• Don’t draw conclusions from one or two kinematic observations
• Gather a lot of kinematic data of different types where possible
• Kinematic data should all reflect the same story: if they don’t something more complex is at play and needs
investigating!
• Integrate the timing of kinematic data: are the features you are measuring pre, during or post mineralisation?

Try and resolve questions in the field/at the outcrop – not later in the office!
• Much easier to work it out while you’re there, don’t rely on it making sense later
• Sometimes an outcrop will not make sense: record as much quality data as you can. Sometimes you need to step
away to another outcrop or outside of the complex zone for it to make sense

Observations are key

• Even if you don’t know what it is/what it means, record good observations and describe the rock as best you can
 Interpreting brittle veins
Brittle veins, faults and stylolites

Can interpret the

relationship of extensional
(tensional) veins to
faults/shear veins – useful
for underground!

Patrice Rey, 2016

(website)
Common kinematic indicators fault drag
Drag of features (foliation, veins,
dykes etc) along fault planes giving
a shear sense

sigmoidal veins
Rotation and buckling of veins
giving shear sense

slickenlines &
slickenfibres
shear fabrics
Drag of features (foliation, veins,
Drag of features (foliation, veins, dykes
dykes etc) along fault planes giving
etc) along fault planes giving a shear sense
a shear sense

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