Fluid Selection for Completions

Completion Fluids

Completion fluids are used when completing a well,

when working over a well, or when a solids-free
fluid is required (UBD)

Completion fluids provide overbalance protection

when the reservoir is open to the wellbore
(perforations, screens, etc.)
What are Completion Fluids?

They are typically clear fluids without solids.

They are used when completing a well, when working over

a well, or when a solids-free fluid is required.

They provide overbalance protection when the reservoir is

open to the wellbore.
Brine Overview
Main Functions of Completion Fluids:

• Control bottom hole formation pressures

• Allow completion operations to be performed safely
Brine Overview
Characteristics of Completion Fluids:

• Typically solids-free fluids - brines

• Non-damaging to the reservoir
• Treated to minimize corrosion
Brine Overview
Types of Completion Fluids:

• Halide Brines - NaCl, CaCl2, NaBr, CaBr2, ZnBr2

• Formate Brines - KCOOH, NaCOOH, CsCOOH
• Others - acetates, nitrates, etc.
• Oil or Synthetic Fluids
Completion and Workover Operations

Producing Well
 Completion Fluids in the Well
Packer Fluid

Once the well is cased it is Packer and Tubing

displaced to the completion
fluid. This brine can be in
contact with the reservoir Completion Brine
as well as the inside of
the casing and production
tubing
Perforations
Workover Considerations

Brine is used to kill the well

allowing the ‘broken’ well to
be repaired or “worked over”.
Workover Considerations
BP lost 15% production after Workovers – Why?

• Loss of brine into formation

• Brine incompatible with formation fluids
• Solids carried into formation
• Poorly dispersed polymers - fisheyes
Completion Operations

After a well is drilled and cased, the next phase is the

completion:
The well is displaced from mud to completion fluid
Completion Operations

Inadequate hydrostatic pressure can

cause a blowout; completion fluid
density is very important in controlling a
well.

Hydrostatic
Pressure
Formation
Pressure
 CASING
Completion Operations

Cased and perforated completions

TUBING
are simple and common.

Once the well is dead, a string of

PACKER
production tubing is run into the well
and secured at the bottom with a
production packer.

PERFORATIONS
 Well Completion Miscellany

Swell packers perform differently than traditional

packers. They lack slips and do not effect an
immediate wellbore seal.

Up to 75 Packers can be used on a single completion.

 Well Completion Miscellany

Oil swelling packers

• Hydrocarbons cause swelling
• Stable in gas and water if pre-swollen in liquid oil

Over 40,000 Halliburton Swell Packers in the Ground

Workover Operations

The clear fluids are often filtered to maintain cleanliness.

Suspended dirt in the brine can cause formation damage.

BAROID Filter Press

Loss of fluid into the formation can be a bad thing
EFFECTof MILLING at PERFS on FLUID LOSS, Z-18 1991 RWO

350
MILL ON PACKER 13147ft

88% loss
88% LOSS inONPI
IN PI during W/O
WORKOVER
300
MILL ON FISH 13888 ft

250
DAILY LOSS (bbls)

200

150

PERFS 13845 - 13928 ft

100

50

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

DAY
Workover Best Practices
• Do not accept continuous brine losses

• Kill well prior to w/o to protect formation

• Design FL pill like a drill-in fluid

• Polymers must be fully dispersed

• All W/O brine should be filtered

• Ensure work string is clean/free from debris

Completion Fluid Selection

Baroid provides fluids which:

• Help control the formation pressure

• Allow safe tripping in and out of the well
• Remove solids from the well
Completion Fluid Selection

Completion and workover fluids can be

catagorized as:
• Clear brine systems
• Oil-based systems
• Solids-enhanced systems
• Drill-in fluid systems
Brine Selection
Completion Fluid Selection
General classification of brines

Monovalent Salts
Sodium Chloride NaCl
Sodium Bromide NaBr
Sodium Formate NaCOOH
Potassium Chloride KCl
Potassium Formate KCOOH
Cesium Formate CsCOOH

Cation Anion
Na = sodium Cl = chloride
K = potassium Br = bromide
Cs = cesium COOH = formate
Completion Fluid Selection
General classification of brines

Divalent Salts
Calcium Chloride CaCl2
Calcium Bromide CaBr2
Zinc Bromide ZnBr2

Cation Anion
Ca = calcium Br = bromide
Zn = zinc Cl = chloride
Brine Overview
Sources of Brines:

• Naturally occurring NaCl, NaBr

• By-product of commercial processes CaCl2
• Created from natural minerals CsCOOH
Completion Fluid Selection
• Density
• Salt type

• Crystallization Temperature
• Thermodynamic Crystallization Temp (TCT)

• Formation Damage
• Compatibility with Reservoir Rock and Fluids

• Corrosion
• HSE
• Cost
Brine Overview
• Brines are supplied as liquids or solids
• High density brines are typically supplied as liquids
• Lower density brines may be built from sack materials
 Brine Overview

Brines must pass QA/QC standards. Not all “salt” is the same.
Salt Tables

Sodium Chloride - Mixed From Dry

Fresh 100%
Specific ppm ppm mg/l mg/l % by
Density Water, NaCl, TCT
Gravity NaCl Cl NaCl Cl Weight
bbl lbs
8.4 1.008 0.998 4.0 31 11,338 6,878 11,413 6,924 1.1%
8.5 1.020 0.993 9.0 29 25,210 15,293 25,680 15,579 2.5%
8.6 1.032 0.986 16.0 27 44,297 26,872 45,654 27,695 4.4%
8.7 1.044 0.981 22.0 26 60,208 36,525 62,774 38,081 6.0%
8.8 1.056 0.976 28.0 24 75,758 45,958 79,894 48,467 7.6%
8.9 1.068 0.969 35.0 22 93,633 56,801 99,868 60,584 9.4%
9.0 1.080 0.962 41.0 19 108,466 65,800 116,988 70,970 10.8%
9.1 1.092 0.955 47.0 17 122,972 74,600 134,108 81,355 12.3%
9.2 1.104 0.948 54.0 14 139,752 84,779 154,082 93,472 14.0%
9.3 1.116 0.940 61.0 11 156,170 94,739 174,055 105,589 15.6%
9.4 1.128 0.933 68.0 9 172,239 104,487 194,029 117,706 17.2%
9.5 1.140 0.926 74.0 6 185,464 112,510 211,149 128,092 18.5%
9.6 1.152 0.919 81.0 3 200,893 121,870 231,123 140,208 20.1%
9.7 1.164 0.910 88.0 -1 216,004 131,037 251,096 152,325 21.6%
9.8 1.176 0.902 95.0 -5 230,807 140,017 271,070 164,442 23.1%
9.9 1.188 0.895 102.0 5 245,310 148,815 291,044 176,559 24.5%
10.0 1.200 0.888 109.0 25 259,524 157,438 311,017 188,675 26.0%
Deepwater Subsea Wells
Wellhead and subsea tree at mud line
Large volume marine riser
– from rig floor to BOP on sea floor
– large volumes of completion brine
• 1,800 bbls in water depth of 5,000’
Subsea Test Tree & HP production riser
Deepwater Subsea Wells

Colder temperatures
– 38oF to 40oF at sea floor
– brine crystallization
Higher pressures at coldest point
– brine crystallization under pressure
– hydrate formation
High flow capacity reservoirs
– potential for large volume losses
Deepwater Subsea Wells
Semi-sub rig spread $1,000,000 per day
– problems and surprises can be expensive
– $41,000 per hour!!

8 to 12-hour trip - shorebase to rig

– tool failures without backup or misplaced contingency
supplies can mean $100,000s in rig time
What Drives the Choice of Brine?

Density Corrosion
Crystallization Environmental Impact
Hydrate Inhibition Availability/Logistics
Compatibility Cost / Benefit / Risks
– Formation
– Reservoir Fluids
– Completion Fluids
– Subsea Systems
– Elastomers
Selection of Completion Fluids

Typical flow of testing

• Determine potential fluids
• Formation sensitivity testing (CST/LSM)
• Determine fluid properties (TCT/hydrates)
• Compatibility tests
• Retrun perm on final formulation
• Other tests (LCM/corrosion/etc.)
 20.5
FORMATE
BRINES DIVALENT
Density
20.0 BRINES
19.5
19.0
Density requirements

ZnBr/CaBr/CaCl
18.5
18.0
17.5
may limit fluid choices.
Cs Formate
17.0
16.5
16.0
Density, lb/gal

15.5
15.0
14.5
11.1 ppg has 3 primary
CaCl/CaBr
14.0
13.5
MONOVALENT
BRINES
fluid choices;
13.0
• sodium bromide
K Formate

12.5
12.0 • potassium formate
NaBr/NaCl

11.5
11.0
• calcium chloride
Na Formate

10.5
CaCl

10.0
NaCl

9.5
KCl

9.0
8.5
Fluid Types
Crystallization
Crystallization
The actual crystallisation temperature of brine (TCT) is the
temperature at which a solid will begin to form if given
sufficient time and proper conditions.

The solid may be either salt or ice.

Crystallization

Single salt brines have a TCT value that cannot be

altered.
Multi-salt brines can be blended in a variety of salt
concentrations to meet the required TCT and PCT
values.
Crystallization

Variable Pressure
Crystalometer:

25,000 psi

-5⁰F to +120⁰F
Crystallization
Precipitation of salt crystals in brine at or below the TCT
can lead to a number of problems.
• The density of the brine pumped downhole may be
insufficient to control formation pressures.

• As crystals form the brine viscosity can increase. This

causes line plugging, brine solidifying in tanks, and pump
seizures.
Crystallization

Brine solutions have TCTs that have been well

documented for atmospheric pressures.

However, pressure can significantly influence the

temperature at which brine crystallizes.
Crystallization

The brine may crystallize during high pressure

operations in the field, such as pressure testing
of BOPs in deepwater, causing extreme
difficulties and safety hazards.
Crystallization

Brines with salt content lower than the eutectic mixture

will crystallize under pressure at a temperature lower
than the TCT, forming ice.

Brines with salt content higher than the eutectic mixture

will form salt crystals in the brine at a temperature higher
than the TCT when exposed to high pressures.
Effect of Density on Crystallization (TCT)

Increasing pressure
lowers the TCT

Increasing pressure
raises the TCT
 Typical Brine PCT Behavior

9.5 lb/gal CaCl2 Brine TCT vs Pressure

15

10

5
TCT (F)

-5

-10

-15

-20
0 5000 10,000 15,000 20,000

Pressure (psi)
 Typical Brine PCT Behavior

12.01 CaBr2/CaCl2 TCT vs Pressure

90

80

70

60
TCT (F)

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000

Pressure (psi)
Crystallization

The resulting TCT at a specified pressure is termed

pressure crystallization temperature (PCT).

PCT is stated as X° at Y pressure.

For example, a PCT of 30 °F at 10 000 psi indicates

that the brine fluid will crystallize at 10 000 psi when
the fluid temperature is lowered to 30 °F.
Crystallization
FCTA, TCT & LCTD PLOT
Consequences of Ignoring PCT

Reservoir Sensitivity Study
Reservoir Fluid
Water analysis & fluids compatibility
Emulsion tendencies
Scaling tendencies
Compatibility
Reservoir Rock
Mineral analysis & clay fraction
Grain & pore size distribution
Porosity & permeability

Smectite Illite
Pre-Job Planning is Crucial

• Detailed Rig Procedures

• Logistics and Supply Management
• Displacement Details & Debris Management
• Fluid Loss Control Plans
clean-up contingencies

• Quality Assurance – 3rd party inspection

• Density Maintenance & Adjustment
understand changes in PCT and hydrate inhibition
Well Logging
Formation Evaluation

Why run logs?

• Does the wellbore penetrate
formations that produce?
• Are hydrocarbons present?
• Are there commercial
quantities present?
• Will the hydrocarbons flow to
the wellbore?
Formation Evaluation
Gamma Ray Logs measure natural radioactivity.

GR

Shale Formation Effects

Shaly Sand
Oil
Clean Sand

Limestone

Dolomite
Fresh Water
Hydrocarbon
Salt Water
Fluid Effects
Shale
Formation Evaluation
Resistivity logs measure the resistance to the flow of
electrical current..

Saltwater = low resistivity

Hydrocarbons = high resistivity

Formation Evaluation
Sampling logs run in open hole - RDT. Reservoir Description Tool

Sampling pad is pushed against the

wellbore wall and pulls fluid into a
storage reservoir in the tool.

PAD
Formation Evaluation
Sidewall Cores

Sampling core barrel pushed

into wellbore wall to take rock
samples.
GENERAL CORROSION
 GENERAL CORROSION
General Corrosion or “rust” can be an issue in
brines, especially in the presence of dissolved
oxygen or acid gasses like CO2. It is controlled
through additions of:

• Oxygen scavengers to remove dissolved O2

– OXYGON™
– BARASCAV™

• Coating Amines
– BARACOR® 100
– BARACOR® 450

• pH Control
– Caustic Soda or Potash
– BARABUF®
 GENERAL CORROSION

• Monitored with corrosion rings in tubing

• Tested in the lab minimum of 28 days

 GENERAL CORROSION

• Ring showing 11 lb/yr metal loss

• Ring showing 0.28 lb/yr metal loss

 GENERAL CORROSION

Why was there a difference?

• Removed dissolved oxygen

C
• Coated pipe with filming amine
GENERAL CORROSION
STRESS CORROSION CRACKING
STRESS CORROSION CRACKING

Molecules migrate through the metal surface

where the metal has been exposed to
mechanical stress. This migration leaves
voids in the metal lattice. These voids can
coalesce and result in cracks.

Hydrogen Embrittlement and Sulfide SSC are

types of SSC
STRESS CORROSION CRACKING

Hydrogen embrittlement in a Formate brine

STRESS CORROSION CRACKING

Damage caused by Thiocyanate* in a CaCl2 brine

* BARACOR 450
 STRESS CORROSION CRACKING

Tests exist for

susceptibility to
SCC using
actual pipe held
under stress in
the subject brine
HIGH TEMPERATURES
Up to 300 ºF (150 ºC) –
 BARACOR 100 in all halide brines.
 BARACOR 450 is preferred for ZnBr2.
 Formates are only buffered and pH treated.

300 ºF to 360 ºF (150 ºC to 180 ºC) –

 BARACOR 100 in NaCl, KCl, NaBr, and pure CaBr2. Poor in CaCl2 brines
 BARACOR 450 in ZnBr2 is effective.
 Buffered formates are still effective.

Greater than 360 ºF (180 ºC) –

 Excellent data on elevated pH in NaBr up to 430 ºF (220 ºC).
 BARACOR 450 sometimes in ZnBr2.
 Buffered formates up to 425 ºF (218 ºC).
 Fresh water and diesel have been used above 400 ºF (204 ºC)
BRINE EFFECTS

General Corrosion

NaBr NaCl CaBr CaCl CaBr/Cl ZnBr

BETTER WORSE

Stress Corrosion Cracking

NaBr CaBr NaCl CaBr/Cl ZnBr CaCl

BETTER WORSE
CORROSION MITIGATION
Fluid pH

1.0 5.0 7.0 9.0 10.5 12.0

WORSE BETTER

Fluid Temperature

200 250 300 360 400 450

CaCl2
BARACOR 100
BARACOR 450
FORMATES
pH

• Low pH will accelerate general corrosion and increase the

risk of SCC. Increasing pH reduces both the corrosion rate and
the risk of SCC.

• CaBr2/CaCl2 – Increase pH only up to 9 pH with lime, not NaOH!

CaCO3 precipitants form with pH>9. NaOH precipitates Ca.

• NaBr/NaCl/KCl – These monovalent brines can be treated up to a

pH of 10 and make excellent corrosion inhibitive packer fluids at
elevated pH.

• Formates – Critical to buffer with carbonate and bicarbonate and

treat pH to at least 10.5 pH.
Brine Mixing and Blending
BRINE Mixing and Blending

Monovalent salts are usually mixed from sacks.

Divalent salts are usually diluted from spike fluids.

Spike fluids are near-saturated single salt brines.

BRINE Mixing and Blending

Relative costs of various brines

NaCl 10.0 lb/gal $ 65
KCl 9.6 15
CaCl2 11.6 29
NaBr2 12.2 255
CaBr2 14.2 340
ZnBr2 19.2 875
BRINE Mixing and Blending

When using spike fluids to build lighter weight brines, do

not use water with divalent brines other than CaCl2.

WHY NOT?
BRINE Mixing and Blending

Comparison between Spike Liquid and Water

13.7 lb/gal CaBr2

Product Units Cost/Unit Total Cost
14.2 ppg CaBr2 0.9146 bbl $336.80 $308.04
Water 0.0854 bbl $0.00 $0.00
Total Cost $308.04
13.7 lb/gal 30 ºF TCT CaBr2/CaCl2
Product Amount Cost/Unit Total Cost
14.2 ppg CaBr2 0.7059 bbl $336.80 $237.75
11.6 ppg CaCl2 0.2656 bbl $29.00 $7.70
Sack CaCl2 25 lb $0.16 $4.50
Total Cost $249.95
BRINE Mixing and Blending

When mixing brines it is often better to blend spike fluids

rather than to use sack material.

WHY?
BRINE Mixing and Blending

Comparison between Spike Liquid and Sacks

Product Amount Cost/Unit Total Cost

Sack CaCl2 192 lb $0.16 $30.72
11.6 ppg CaCl2 1 bbl. $29.00 $29.00
1 Barrel of 14.2 ppg CaBr2 - Liquid vs. Mixed From Sack
Product Amount Cost/Unit Total Cost
Sack CaBr2 354 lbs $1.20 $424.80
14.2 ppg CaBr2 1 bbl. $336.80 $336.80
1 Barrel of 12.5 ppg NaBr - Liquid vs. Mixed From Sack
Product Amount Cost/Unit Total Cost
Sack NaBr 240.7 lbs $ 1.15 $276.81
12.5 ppg NaBr 1 bbl. $255.00 $255.00
BRINE Mixing and Blending

Buying Back Brines

Baroid usually prefers to buy back brines it sells to
operators rather than selling them the brine to keep.

This requires a Liquid Brine Plant configured to handle

brines only.

A Liquid Mud Plant is not appropriate for this type of work

due to the risk of contamination, and the lack of the
expertise required.
BRINE Mixing and Blending

How we make money buying back brines

Cost of 12.0 lb/bbl NaBr2 = $300/bbl
Sell for $450/bbl 1st time, profit = $150/bbl
Buy Back at $200/bbl, loss = $100/bbl
Sell for $450 2nd time, profit = $250/bbl
Buy Back for $200/bbl, loss = $0.
Sell for $450 3rd time, profit $250.

One-time sale = $100 profit = $450 for 3 sales of new brine

Sell/Buy Back 3 times = $550 profit = $100/bbl more profit!
BRINE Mixing and Blending

How we make money buying back brines

Buy Back brines often require conditioning to return
them to sellable condition.

Minimizing the cost of treatment can mean the

difference between making money or taking a loss on
the brine.
Brine Testing
BRINE pH

Field measurement of brine pH and adjustments to the

pH are fundamental to fluid control. Solubility of various
components and contaminants and effectiveness of
additives can be dependent on pH, as is the control of
acidic and sulfide corrosion processes.
BRINE pH

pH is a thermodynamic value equal to the negative

logarithm of hydrogen ion activity in aqueous solutions.

pH = -log [H+]
BRINE pH

The Importance of Accurate pH Measurement

In a saturated NaCl brine the true

pH can be up to one unit higher
than the measured pH.

Only a few pH testers can be stored

dry without affecting the sensor’s life
span or accuracy.
Most need to use a storage solution.
BRINE pH

The recommended equipment for pH measurement is a

dual probe glass electrode pH meter.

Rugged pH instruments are available that automatically

compensate for temperature and are preferred over
manually adjusted instruments.
BRINE pH

Color matching pH paper and sticks are not

recommended. Accurate pH readings will not be possible
in brines with densities above 10 lb/gal
BRINE pH

The pH of a completion fluids is critical for

• Buffering against or removing iron contamination and
other precipitant reactions
• Corrosion control
• Polymer performance

BARABUF can be used for all brines except NaBr. NaBr

requires Caustic Soda (NaOH)

Lime (CaOH) is useful in calcium brines (CaCl2, CaBr2), why

add sodium?
BRINE pH

• ZnBr2 is inherently acidic and must stay below ~ 5.6 pH

to avoid precipitating zinc.
• ZnBr2 fluid is strongly buffered and difficult to raise pH

• The most effective method is sack CaBr2 or CaCl2

• These salts in dry form contain alkaline salts

BRINE Density

The density of a brine is determined by its salt type and

concentration.
• brine density decreases as the temperature increases

• brine density increases as the brine pressure increases

• brine density taken at ambient atmospheric conditions is

not a reliable indicator of brine density downhole

BRINE Density

The reference material is water with a Specific Gravity of

1.0 and a density of 8.345 lb/gal.
The reference temperature used to report density of heavy
brines is 21 °C (70 °F).
The brine density at ambient temperature
is used to calculate hydrostatic pressure.
BRINE Density

The hydrometer is a weighted bulb with a

graduated stem.
The depth to which the hydrometer sinks in
a fluid is determined by the density of the
fluid and temperature.
Any oil present in the sample will interfere
with the measurement, and the use of
freshly filtered brine is recommended.
BRINE Density

The measurement of the density of brines is affected by

entrapped gasses. If gas entrainment is a problem, it is
recommended that a pressurized fluid density balance
and/or de-aerator be used.
BRINE Density

The atmospheric and pressurized mud balances are

useful for determining density trends (increases or
decreases) in the field, but are not sufficiently accurate
for absolute determination of brine density.
For purposes of absolute density determination, a set of
calibrated hydrometers shall be used instead of a mud
balance.
BRINE Clarity

Solids contamination in a brine can greatly affect the

productivity of a well. Accumulation of insoluble particles
can cause significant formation damage.

Quantifying total suspended solids in brine is critical. Clarity

is a relative expression referring to the turbidity of brine due to
the presence of suspended insoluble or immiscible matter.
BRINE Clarity

Measurements of solids content in brine with traditional tools

such as particle counters and gravimetric analysis, are
difficult and not reliable.
The volume and size of particles in suspension is very
small, and visual inspection of the fluid does not provide a
Reliable method of determining suitability.
BRINE Clarity

NTU* measurement of brine solids content provides a relative

value that can be used to determine suitability of the brine.
NTU values do not reflect a specific mg/l of ppm solids level
in suspension.
In general, the higher the total number of particles in
suspension, the higher the NTU value. Nephelometric
measurement does not indicate the size or milligrams per litre
of solids in suspension.

*Nephelometric Turbidity Units

BRINE Miscellaneous Tests

Other field tests can be performed on brines to quantify

Contaminates, including sulfate and carbonate tests.

One of the most common is for iron contamination. Soluble

iron in a brine can cause formation damage and/or the

unwanted crosslinking of polymers.

HSE
Brine Safety
Some brines can cause irritation or burns on
the skin, and blindness with eye contact.
Proper PPE is required to protect plant and
rig personnel working with brines.
Brine Safety
The US Department of Transportation classifies
any brine containing greater than 10% by weight
zinc bromide as both a hazardous material and
a marine pollutant.
Brine Safety
Special awareness should be emphasized when working with
all clear brines. Quick response to eye contact is particularly
critical. Safety equipment is required by all personnel in
contact with the brine.
QUESTIONS?