Abstract 7:

Interlayer bonding strength and pore characteristics of 3D printed engineered

cementitious composites (ECC)
Abstract: Engineered cementitious composites (ECC) have emerged as promising materials for
3D printed concrete. This study delves into the vertical interlayer bonding properties of layer-by-
layer 3D printed ECC. Techniques such as X-ray computed tomography (X-CT) and scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) were employed to examine the pore characteristics and
micromorphology. Furthermore, the influences of various printing and material parameters,
including single-layer printing height, recycled fine aggregate replacement ratio, and fiber
volume fraction, were analyzed. The findings indicate that as the fiber volume fraction and
single-layer printing height increased, the bonding strength of vertical interlayer interfaces first
rose and then declined. Differently, the bonding strength of these interfaces was inversely related
to the replacement ratio of recycled fine aggregate. Moreover, the matrix and interfacial pores in
3D printed ECC have the shape of flattened ellipsoids, and an increase in printing height
contributed to a notable improvement in sphericity. The thickness of the interlayer interface
reflects the development of interlayer bonding strength to some extent. A thinner interface region
reduced interlayer interface porosity and was beneficial for the adhesive properties of interlayer
hydration products. The study evidences that the characteristics of interlayer pores, influenced by
different printing and material parameters, play a pivotal role in interlayer bonding capability,
which is important for quality control in 3D printed concrete.
Re-written Abstract: Engineered cementitious composites (ECC) have become promising
candidates for 3D-printed concrete applications. This research investigates the vertical interlayer
bonding properties of layer-by-layer 3D-printed ECC. Techniques like X-ray computed
tomography (X-CT) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were employed to study the pore
characteristics and micromorphology. Furthermore, the research analyzed the impact of various
printing and material parameters, such as single-layer printing height, recycled fine aggregate
replacement ratio, and fiber volume fraction. The results indicate that as the fiber volume
fraction and single-layer printing height increased, the bonding strength of vertical interlayer
interfaces initially rose and then declined. In contrast, the bonding strength of these interfaces
was inversely proportional to the replacement ratio of recycled fine aggregate. Furthermore, the
matrix and interfacial pores in 3D-printed ECC were found to be flattened ellipsoids, and an
increase in printing height significantly improved their sphericity. The thickness of the interlayer
interface was indicative of the development of interlayer bonding strength to some extent. A
thinner interface region reduced interlayer interface porosity and enhanced the adhesive
properties of interlayer hydration products. The study demonstrates that the characteristics of
interlayer pores, influenced by different printing and material parameters, play a crucial role in
interlayer bonding capability, which is essential for quality control in 3D-printed concrete.
Abstract 8:

3D printed concrete with sewage sludge ash: Fresh and hardened properties

Abstract: In this study, the possibility of application of sewage sludge ash (SSA) in 3D printed
concrete (3DCP) technology was explored. The replacement of partial cement with SSA in the
concrete mix design was investigated, followed by a comprehensive analysis of its impact on the
workability, printability, and mechanical properties of the 3DCP. The findings indicated that the
incorporation of SSA accelerated the loss of workability of 3DCP, such as fluidity and
consistency. However, it significantly improved the green strength and buildability. Further
investigation revealed that the addition of SSA hampered the hydration process of cement,
resulting in a reduction in the mechanical properties of the hardened material. CT scanning
indicated that the addition of SSA increased the interlayer porosity, leading to further
degradation of the mechanical properties. The toxicity characteristic leaching procedure
demonstrated that the maximum leaching concentration of 3DCP incorporating SSA was 0.14
mg/L. This result confirmed the effective immobilization of heavy metals, fulfilling the
prerequisites for the application of 3DCP incorporating SSA.

Re-written Abstract: In this study, the potential use of sewage sludge ash (SSA) in 3D-printed
concrete (3DCP) technology was extensively investigated. The research focused on substituting a
portion of cement with SSA in the concrete mix design, followed by a comprehensive analysis of
its impact on various properties of 3DCP, including workability, printability, and mechanical
performance. The results indicated that incorporating SSA into the 3DCP mix accelerated the
loss of workability, adversely affecting properties such as fluidity and consistency. This
reduction in workability occurred more rapidly compared to mixes without SSA. However, the
addition of SSA significantly enhanced the green strength, which is the initial strength of the
material before it fully hardens, and buildability, which is the capability of the material to be
printed layer by layer without collapsing. These improvements are crucial for maintaining the
stability and structural integrity of 3D-printed structures during the printing process. Further
investigation revealed that SSA inclusion interfered with the cement hydration process. This
interference resulted in a noticeable reduction in the mechanical properties of the hardened
3DCP. The hardened material showed lower compressive and tensile strength compared to
control samples without SSA. CT scanning provided additional insights, indicating that SSA
inclusion increased interlayer porosity. This increased porosity further contributed to the
degradation of mechanical properties, as the larger and more numerous voids weakened the
material. Additionally, the study included a toxicity characteristic leaching procedure to assess
the environmental safety of 3DCP incorporating SSA. The results demonstrated that the
maximum leaching concentration of heavy metals from the 3DCP was 0.14 mg/L, which is
within acceptable limits. This outcome confirmed the effective immobilization of heavy metals
within the 3DCP matrix, meeting the necessary criteria for the safe application of 3DCP
incorporating SSA in various construction projects. Overall, this study provided a detailed
understanding of the benefits and limitations of using SSA in 3DCP technology. It highlighted
the potential improvements in green strength and buildability, as well as the challenges related to
workability and long-term mechanical performance.
Abstract 9:

Workability and hardened properties of 3D printed engineered cementitious

composites incorporating recycled sand and PE fibers

Abstract: 3D concrete printing technology has seen rapid development due to its high
digitalization and automation. Using recycled sand from solid waste construction resources to
replace natural sand has great environmental and economic benefits. The objective of this study
was to investigate the workability and anisotropic hardened properties of 3D printed engineered
cementitious composites (3DP-ECC) incorporating recycled sand. Effects of recycled sand
replacement ratio, fiber content, and printing direction on workability and hardened mechanical
properties of 3DP-ECC were investigated. The test results show that the addition of recycled
sand reduced fluidity, while strengthened buildability of 3DP-ECC. Compressive strength of the
casted concrete dropped 2.1% and 7.2% when the replacement ratio of RS was set at 50% and
100%, respectively. The highest compressive strength in X axis of the 3D-printed specimens was
observed. At 100% replacement ratio of recycled sand, the tensile strain capacity of both casted
and 3D printed specimens increased by 57% and 55% respectively, compared with the reference
group with natural sand. It is demonstrated that the ductility of the proposed 3DP-ECC could be
significantly improved. The proposed 3DP-ECC incorporating recycled sand provides a potential
solution for utilization of sustainable 3DP concrete in large-scale 3D concrete printing
construction.

Re-written Abstract: The rapid advancement of 3D concrete printing technology can be

attributed to its high degree of digitalization and automation. Replacing natural sand with
recycled sand from construction waste offers substantial environmental and economic
advantages. This study aimed to examine the workability and anisotropic hardened properties of
3D printed engineered cementitious composites (3DP-ECC) that incorporate recycled sand. The
research investigated the effects of various recycled sand replacement ratios, fiber content, and
printing directions on the workability and hardened mechanical properties of 3DP-ECC. Results
showed that incorporating recycled sand decreased fluidity but improved the buildability of 3DP-
ECC. Compressive strength of cast concrete decreased by 2.1% and 7.2% at replacement ratios
of 50% and 100%, respectively. The highest compressive strength was observed in the X axis of
the 3D-printed specimens. At a 100% replacement ratio of recycled sand, the tensile strain
capacity of both cast and 3D printed specimens increased by 57% and 55%, respectively,
compared to the reference group using natural sand. This demonstrates a significant
improvement in the ductility of the proposed 3DP-ECC. Thus, 3DP-ECC with recycled sand
offers a sustainable solution for large-scale 3D concrete printing construction.
Abstract 10:

Hardened properties of layered 3D printed concrete with recycled sand

Abstract: 3D concrete printing has received worldwide attention while the development on new
cementitious material compositions for 3D printing is inadequate. This study employed the
recycled sand instead of natural sand to achieve 3D concrete printing and investigated the
hardened properties of this extrusion-based material. The effect of replacement ratio of recycled
sand, curing age, nozzle height and anisotropic behavior were evaluated based on the
compressive tests, tensile splitting tests and flexural tests. Moreover, the digital image correlation
(DIC) technique was adopted to capture the strain behavior and failure pattern of this layered and
printed concrete. Owing to the high un-hydrated cement paste attached to the recycled sand and
the internal curing mechanism, the compressive and flexural strengths of the 3D printed concrete
with recycled sand were a little lower than those specimens without recycled sand. The
compressive, tensile splitting and flexural strength of 3D printed concrete with recycled sand had
obvious anisotropy. The replacement of recycled sand had limited effect on the anisotropy of
compressive and flexural strength, but had certain effect on the tensile splitting strength. Since
recycled sand is one of those major products derived from the construction and demolition waste,
it is believed that the employment of recycled sand to the mix of 3D printed concrete will
significantly improve the sustainability of 3D printed concrete structures.
Re-written Abstract: 3D concrete printing has garnered global attention, yet advancements in
new cementitious material compositions for 3D printing remain insufficient. This study utilized
recycled sand instead of natural sand for 3D concrete printing and investigated the hardened
properties of this extrusion-based material. The effects of recycled sand replacement ratio, curing
age, nozzle height, and anisotropic behavior were evaluated through compressive tests, tensile
splitting tests, and flexural tests. Additionally, the digital image correlation (DIC) technique was
employed to capture the strain behavior and failure patterns of this layered and printed concrete.
Due to the high un-hydrated cement paste attached to the recycled sand and the internal curing
mechanism, the compressive and flexural strengths of the 3D printed concrete with recycled sand
were slightly lower than those of specimens without recycled sand. The compressive, tensile
splitting, and flexural strengths of 3D printed concrete with recycled sand exhibited significant
anisotropy. While the replacement of recycled sand had a limited impact on the anisotropy of
compressive and flexural strengths, it did notably affect the tensile splitting strength. Considering
that recycled sand is a major byproduct of construction and demolition waste, its use in 3D
printed concrete is expected to significantly improve the sustainability of 3D printed concrete
structures.