Chapter 1

DEFINITION AND COMPOSITION OF SOIL

Introduction

The Philippines has a total land area of approximately 30 million hectares, with around
14 million hectares utilized for agricultural purposes (Philippine Statistics Authority,
2021). Numerous studies have highlighted the essential ecosystem services provided by
soil. Ecosystem services can be broadly classified into four categories: provisioning,
regulating, supportive, and cultural (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005).
Provisioning services include the provision of water, food crops, medicines, lumber, and
other essential goods. Regulating services encompass processes such as water
purification, waste decomposition, pest control, and modification of atmospheric gases.
Supportive services involve nutrient cycling, seed dispersal, and primary biomass
production. Cultural services encompass the spiritual uplift, scenic views, and outdoor
recreation opportunities that soil can provide.

Soil functions as a medium for plant growth, offering physical support, air, and water. It
also plays a role in temperature moderation, protecting plants from extreme weather
conditions. Additionally, soil acts as a recycling system for nutrient and organic wastes,
facilitating the decomposition and release of essential nutrients back into the ecosystem.
Soil serves as a system for water supply and purification, acting as a reservoir and a filter
for water. It also plays a role in modifying the atmosphere through processes like carbon
sequestration. Furthermore, soil provides a habitat for a diverse range of soil
microorganisms, which are essential for nutrient cycling and other soil processes. Lastly,
soil is often used as an engineering medium, providing stability for structures (FAO, 2020;
Lal, 2021).

This chapter serves as an introduction to soil, exploring its definition and composition.

Definition

a) Soil- a dynamic natural body formed from the weathering of rocks and minerals,
living because a handful of fertile soils contain millions of microorganisms,
composed of organic matter, mineral matter, soil air and soil water, and possess
distinct properties which in turn influence plant growth.

Concepts of soil:

1. Soil is a natural body derived from the weathering of rocks and minerals (Brady
and Weil, 2016).

2. It is a porous mixture of organic and inorganic matter, allowing for the exchange
of gases and containing water and air in its pore spaces.

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 3. Soil serves as a medium for plant growth, providing a practical way to cultivate
crops.

4. It possesses distinct composition and properties that influence plant growth, as it

contains essential nutrients necessary for plant development (Brady and Weil,
2016).

5. Soil is a dynamic system that undergoes constant changes and transformations.

Approaches in the study of soil:

Different point of views was used in the study of soil. These are:

1. Pedological Approach: The pedological approach views soil as a natural body and
focuses primarily on its properties related to origin and classification in the
environment (Brady and Weil, 2016). It involves studying soil as it occurs in nature,
with a principal interest in characterizing and differentiating its properties.
Although practical use is given minor emphasis, the information gathered by
pedologists is valuable for highway engineers and building contractors, as it helps
assess the soil's capacity to support structures.

2. Edaphological Approach: The edaphological approach centers on the study of soil

in relation to higher plants. It aims to address the following questions:

a) What soil properties influence plant growth?

b) How does soil productivity vary?

c) How can we conserve and enhance productivity?

The edaphological approach places greater emphasis on the practical use of soils,
particularly in understanding the relationship between soil properties and plant growth
(Brady and Weil, 2016). This approach is primarily focused on the study of soil fertility
and explores ways to improve and sustain soil productivity for optimal plant growth.

Soil science- deals with the study of soil as natural resource on the surface of the earth
which includes soil formation, classification, and mapping, physical, chemical, biological
and fertility properties in relation to the management of the crop production.

The fields of study in Soil Science

1. Pedology: Pedology is the study of soil formation, classification, and mapping. It

focuses on understanding the processes and factors that contribute to the
development of soils, including climate, parent material, organisms, topography,
and time.

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2. Soil Chemistry: Soil chemistry investigates the chemical composition of soils and
the reactions that occur within them. It examines the distribution and availability of
elements and compounds in soils, including pH, nutrient content, mineral
composition, and the interactions between soil particles and various chemicals.

3. Soil Physics: Soil physics explores the physical properties and processes that occur
in soils. It studies soil structure, texture, porosity, water movement and retention,
heat transfer, and soil aeration. Soil physicists analyze the physical behavior of soils
and their interactions with water, air, and heat.

4. Soil Fertility and Nutrient Management: This field focuses on the understanding
and management of soil fertility to optimize plant growth and productivity. It
involves studying nutrient cycling, soil fertility assessment, nutrient availability,
and the application of fertilizers and amendments to maintain or enhance soil
fertility for sustainable agriculture.

5. Soil Microbiology: Soil microbiology investigates the microorganisms present in

soils and their functions. It examines the interactions between soil microorganisms,
plants, and the environment. Soil microbiologists study microbial communities,
their role in nutrient cycling, organic matter decomposition, symbiotic relationships
with plants, and their impact on soil health and ecosystem functioning.

6. Soil Erosion and Conservation: Soil erosion and conservation involve the study of
soil erosion processes, the factors influencing erosion, and the development of
strategies to prevent or mitigate erosion. It focuses on understanding how soil
erosion affects soil resources, agricultural productivity, and the environment, and
it seeks to promote sustainable land management practices to protect soil resources.

7. Soil Pollution and Remediation: Soil pollution and remediation focus on

understanding the sources, fate, and effects of pollutants in soils. It involves
studying soil contamination, the behavior and transport of pollutants in soils, the
impact of pollutants on soil quality, ecosystems, and human health. Remediation
techniques are also explored to mitigate soil pollution and restore contaminated
soils.

8. Soil Mineralogy: Soil mineralogy is the study of the types, properties, and
distribution of minerals in soils. It investigates the mineral composition of soils and
how minerals influence soil characteristics, such as texture, fertility, and chemical
reactions. Soil mineralogists analyze soil samples to identify and classify minerals
and understand their impact on soil behavior.

9. Soil Genesis and Classification: Soil genesis and classification involve studying the
processes and factors responsible for the formation and development of soils. It
examines the interactions between climate, parent material, organisms, topography,
and time in shaping soil properties. Soil genesis focuses on understanding soil

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 formation, while soil classification involves categorizing soils based on their
properties and characteristics.

10. Soil Hydrology: Soil hydrology is the study of water movement through soils. It
investigates the infiltration, percolation, storage, and redistribution of water in soils,
as well as the interactions between soil moisture and plants. Soil hydrologists
analyze the physical properties of soils and their impact on water dynamics,
including water availability, runoff, and groundwater recharge.

11. Soil Biochemistry: Soil biochemistry explores the chemical processes and
transformations that occur in soils involving organic matter, nutrients, and
microbial activities. It investigates the decomposition of organic materials, nutrient
cycling, enzymatic reactions, and biochemical interactions in soils. Soil
biochemists study the biochemical reactions that contribute to soil fertility, carbon
sequestration, and overall soil health.

12. Soil Ecology: Soil ecology focuses on the study of the relationships between
organisms in soil ecosystems and their environment. It examines the interactions
between soil organisms (such as bacteria, fungi, insects, and earthworms), plants,
and the physical and chemical properties of soils. Soil ecologists investigate the
role of soil organisms in nutrient cycling, organic matter decomposition, soil
structure formation, and overall ecosystem functioning.

13. Soil Biophysics: Soil biophysics combines principles from biology and physics to
study the physical properties and processes involving living organisms in soils. It
investigates the effects of soil physical factors (such as temperature, moisture, and
aeration) on plant growth, microbial activity, and soil-plant interactions. Soil
biophysicists analyze the physical behavior of soil organisms and their interactions
with soil environments.

14. Soil Geomorphology: Soil geomorphology is the study of soil patterns and
landforms in relation to topography, climate, and geology. It examines the
formation and distribution of soil types across landscapes, including the processes
that shape soil profiles, soil horizons, and soil properties. Soil geomorphologists
analyze the relationship between soil characteristics and landforms to understand
landscape evolution.

15. Soil Remote Sensing: Soil remote sensing involves using remote sensing
technologies, such as satellite or airborne sensors, to gather information about soil
properties and processes. It focuses on using spectral, spatial, and temporal data to
map and monitor soil conditions, including soil moisture, nutrient content, erosion,
and land use changes. Remote sensing techniques aid in assessing large areas
efficiently and provide valuable data for soil management.

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16. Soil Landscapes and Landscape Analysis: Soil landscapes and landscape analysis
examine the spatial arrangement and distribution of soils within a particular area. It
involves the characterization and mapping of soil patterns, the study of soil-
landscape relationships, and the interpretation of soil properties in the context of
broader landscape features. Landscape analysis helps understand how soil
properties vary across different landforms and can inform land use planning and
management decisions.

17. Soil Health and Quality Assessment: Soil health and quality assessment involve
evaluating the overall condition and functionality of soils. It encompasses the
measurement of various soil indicators, such as nutrient levels, organic matter
content, microbial activity, soil structure, and other physical, chemical, and
biological parameters. Assessing soil health and quality helps determine the
fertility, resilience, and sustainability of soils for different land uses.

18. Soil Organic Matter Dynamics: Soil organic matter dynamics study the processes
involved in the decomposition, accumulation, and turnover of organic materials in
soils. It investigates the factors influencing the stability and nutrient cycling of
organic matter, including plant residues, root exudates, and microbial activity.
Understanding organic matter dynamics is crucial for managing soil fertility,
carbon sequestration, and soil ecosystem functioning.

19. Soil and Water Management: Soil and water management focuses on optimizing
the use and conservation of soil and water resources in agricultural and
environmental contexts. It involves studying irrigation practices, water retention,
drainage systems, erosion control measures, and land management strategies to
enhance soil productivity, water efficiency, and environmental sustainability.

20. Soil and Plant Interactions: Soil and plant interactions examine the relationships
between soils and plants, including the influence of soil properties on plant growth,
development, and nutrient uptake. It investigates the role of root-soil interactions,
rhizosphere processes, and mycorrhizal associations in plant nutrition, water
relations, and overall plant performance. Understanding soil-plant interactions is
crucial for optimizing crop production and ecosystem functioning.

21. Soil Amendments and Soil Conditioners: Soil amendments and soil conditioners
involve the use of materials to improve soil properties, structure, and fertility. It
includes the application of organic materials (e.g., compost, manure) and inorganic
substances (e.g., lime, gypsum) to enhance soil characteristics, such as nutrient
availability, pH balance, water-holding capacity, and soil structure.

22. Soil Monitoring and Assessment: Soil monitoring and assessment involve the
systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of soil data to evaluate soil
conditions and changes over time. It includes the design and implementation of
monitoring programs to track soil properties, erosion rates, nutrient levels, and

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 other indicators. Soil monitoring helps assess the effectiveness of soil management
practices and supports decision-making for sustainable land use.

23. Soil-Plant-Water Relations: Soil-plant-water relations examine the interactions

between soils, plants, and water in terms of water uptake, transport, and use by
plants. It investigates how soil properties, such as texture, structure, and moisture
availability, influence plant water relations, including transpiration, water stress,
and plant adaptation strategies. Understanding these interactions is crucial for
efficient water use in agriculture and ecosystem functioning.

24. Soil Biotechnology: Soil biotechnology involves the application of

biotechnological tools and techniques to enhance soil processes, microbial activity,
and plant-microbe interactions. It explores the use of beneficial microorganisms,
genetic engineering, microbial inoculants, and bio-based products to improve soil
fertility, nutrient cycling, disease suppression, and overall soil health.

25. Soil Conservation Agriculture: Soil conservation agriculture promotes sustainable

agricultural practices that aim to conserve soil resources and minimize negative
environmental impacts. It includes practices such as minimum tillage, cover
cropping, crop rotation, and contour farming to reduce soil erosion, enhance soil
organic matter, and improve water infiltration and soil structure.

26. Soil and Climate Change: Soil and climate change investigate the interactions
between soils and climate processes, including the impact of climate change on soil
properties and functions, and the role of soils in carbon sequestration and
greenhouse gas emissions. It examines the effects of changing climate patterns on
soil fertility, erosion, nutrient cycling, and the resilience of soil ecosystems.

27. Soil Nutrient Cycling: Soil nutrient cycling studies the processes involved in the
uptake, transformation, release, and recycling of nutrients in soils. It examines the
cycling of essential elements (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) through
various forms, including organic matter decomposition, mineralization,
immobilization, and plant uptake. Understanding nutrient cycling is crucial for
sustainable nutrient management and maintaining soil fertility.

28. Soil Aggregation and Structure: Soil aggregation and structure refer to the
arrangement and stability of soil particles and aggregates, which affect soil
porosity, water movement, aeration, and root penetration. It investigates the
processes involved in soil aggregation, such as organic matter binding, microbial
activity, and physical forces, and their impact on soil structure, erosion resistance,
and overall soil quality.

29. Soil and Environmental Microbiology: Soil and environmental microbiology

examine the diversity, composition, and activities of microorganisms in soils and
their interactions with the environment. It includes studying microbial

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 communities, microbial functions in nutrient cycling and organic matter
decomposition, and the role of soil microorganisms in bioremediation and
ecosystem processes.

30. Soil Ecosystem Services: Soil ecosystem services refer to the benefits that soils
provide to human well-being and ecosystem functioning. It involves assessing and
quantifying the contributions of soils to processes such as carbon sequestration,
water filtration, nutrient cycling, food production, and habitat provision.
Understanding soil ecosystem services helps inform land management decisions
and promote the sustainable use of soil resources.

Soil components:

The composition of soil consists of four major components: mineral matter, organic
matter, soil air, and soil water. The proportion of these components greatly influences the
behavior and productivity of the soil (Brady and Weil, 2016).

Mineral matter, which makes up approximately 45% of the total soil volume, is derived
from the weathering of rocks and minerals. It can vary in size:

 Sand particles range from 0.02 to 2 mm, feeling gritty and not sticky.

 Silt particles range from 0.002 to 0.02 mm, feeling smooth but not sticky when wet.

 Clay particles are smaller than 0.002 mm, forming a sticky mass when wet and hard
clods when dry.

Organic matter constitutes around 5% of the soil and is derived from the decomposition
of plant and animal residues. It gradually decomposes over time, releasing CO2 through
microbial respiration. Continuous addition of plant and/or animal residues is necessary to
maintain organic matter in the soil.

The organic matter can be classified into two general groups:

 Partially decomposed original tissue, such as peat, which can be further classified
based on the degree of decomposition sapric/muck (highly decomposed), hemic
(1/2 decomposed, and fibric (1/3 decomposed).

 Humus, the most resistant product of decomposition, synthesized by

microorganisms.

Organic matter plays important roles in soil:

a) It promotes granulation of mineral particles, contributing to the loose and easily

managed conditions of productive soils.

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 b) It influences soil properties, which in turn affect plant growth.

c) It increases water holding capacity, ensuring a greater proportion of water is

available for plants.

d) It contains essential nutrients, serving as a primary source of nitrogen for many

plants.

e) It serves as a food source for soil microorganisms.

f) It enhances nutrient holding capacity.

Soil water, comprising 20-30% of the soil, acts as a solvent carrying dissolved ions and
nutrients to the roots for absorption. It replenishes and dilutes nutrient solutions,
facilitating plant uptake. Soil water also functions as a nutrient carrier and stabilizes
soil temperature.

Soil air occupies the pore spaces not occupied by water, comprising 20-30% of the soil
volume. Soil air differs from atmospheric air:

a) Composition varies from place to place.

b) Higher moisture content compared to atmospheric air.

c) Higher content of CO2 compared to atmospheric air.

Overall, soil is composed of solid material (organic and mineral matter) occupying about
half of the volume, while the other half is occupied by pore spaces filled with air or water.
Mineral matter is derived from rock and mineral weathering, accounting for 45% of the
solid material, while organic matter from plant and animal residues constitutes 5% (Brady
and Weil, 2016).

Terminologies:

 Mineral soil: Contains less than 20% organic matter and consists of minerals like
gibbsite (Al2O3) and silicates.

 Organic soil: Contains more than or equal 20% organic matter and consists of
minerals like boehmite (Al2FO3.3H2O) and goethite (Al2O3.H2O).

 Silicates: Found in soils with more than 20% organic matter and include minerals
like hematite (Fe2O3).

 Aluminosilicates: Contains 6 oxygen atoms for every 1 silicon atom and includes
minerals like limonite (Fe2O3. 3H2O).

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  Crystalline: Exhibits a definite crystal structure.

 Non-crystalline or amorphous: Lacks a specific crystal structure.

Elemental Composition of Earth Crusts

The earth's crust, which extends approximately 16 km (or 10 miles) deep, serves as the
primary source of inorganic material and is considered the origin of soil parent material
(Clark & Washington, 1924).

Clark and Washington (1924) provided an estimate of the composition of the earth's crust,
indicating that it consists of various components. According to their research, the
composition is as follows: 1) igneous rock- 95%; 2) shale- 4%; 3) sandstone- 0.75%, and
4) limestone- 0.25%. The most abundant minerals within the crust are alumino-silicates
and their oxides, primarily composed of elements such as Fe, Al, and Si, with a significant
presence of Al, O, and Si (Clark & Washington, 1924).

Table 1. The average composition of elements in the earth’s crust (Clark and
Washington, 1924)

Elements %(by weight) Oxides (%)

O 46.60
Si 27.72 SiO2 59.07
Al 8.13 Al2O3 15.22
Fe 5.00 Fe2O3 3.10
Ca 3.63 CaO 5.10
Na 2.83 Na2O 3.71
K 2.59 K2O 3.11
Mg 2.09 MgO 3.45
Ti 0.60 TiO 1.03
P 0.10 P 2O 5 0.30
Mn 0.09 MnO 0.11

Components Optimal Soil Clayey Soil Sandy Soil

Mineral matter apprx 45% apprx 45% apprx 45%
Organic matter apprx 5% apprx 5% apprx 5%
Soil water apprx 25% > 25% < 25%
Soil air apprx 25% < 25% > 25%

Fig 1. Volume composition of the mineral soil.

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Study Questions

1. What is pedology and how does it relate to the study of soil?

2. How is soil defined in the field of geology?

3. What are the main components that contribute to the composition of soil?

4. How does the composition of soil differ from the composition of the Earth's crust?

5. What are some of the primary elements found in the composition of soil?

6. How do organic matter and humus contribute to the composition of soil?

7. What minerals are commonly present in soil, and how do they impact its
composition?

8. How does the composition of soil vary across different regions or climates?

9. What role does soil texture play in its overall composition?

10. How does the composition of soil affect its fertility and ability to support plant
growth?

References

Brady, N. C., & Weil, R. R. (2016). The nature and properties of soils (15th ed.). Pearson.

Clark, F. W., & Washington, H. S. (1924). The Chemical Composition of the Earth's Crust.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 10(11), 383–387.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.10.11.383

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). (2020). Soil and Water.
Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/soils-portal/soil-and-water/en/

Lal, R. (2021). Soil and Human Security in the 21st Century. CRC Press.

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-being:

Synthesis. Island Press.

Philippine Statistics Authority. (2021). Agricultural Indicators System. Retrieved from

https://psa.gov.ph/agricultural-indicators-system

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