Fracture Analysis

Part IV

Instructor:
Assoc. Prof. Ts. Dr. Mohd Afendi Rojan, CEng MIMechE
0134003531
afendirojan@unimap.edu.my
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 Fracture Toughness
• Cracks and flaws cause stress concentration.

𝐾𝑐 = 𝑌𝜎𝑐 𝜋𝑎

Kc = stress intensity factor KIc = mode I stress intensity factor

σc = critical stress = Fracture toughness
a = edge crack length
Y = geometric constant.
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 Measuring Fracture Toughness
• A notch is machined in a specimen of sufficient thickness B.
• B >> a plain strain condition.
• B = 2.5(KIc/Yield strength)2
• Specimen is tensile tested.
• Higher the KIc value, more
ductile the metal is.
• Used in design to find
allowable flaw size.

Example:
Al 2024 T851 26.2MPam1/2
4340 alloy steel 60.4MPam1/2
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 Fatigue
• Fatigue = failure under applied cyclic stress.
specimen compression on top Adapted from Fig. 8.18,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
motor (Fig. 8.18 is from Materials
bearing bearing counter
Science in Engineering, 4/E
by Carl. A. Keyser, Pearson
flex coupling Education, Inc., Upper
tension on bottom Saddle River, NJ.)

• Stress varies with time. s

smax
-- key parameters are S, sm, and
sm S
cycling frequency
smin time

• Key points: Fatigue...

--can cause part failure, even though smax < sy.
--responsible for ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.
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 S-N Curve

S = stress amplitude
• Fatigue limit, Sfat: case for
--no fatigue if S < Sfat unsafe steel (typ.)
Sfat

safe Adapted from Fig.

8.19(a), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure

S = stress amplitude
• For some materials, case for
there is no fatigue unsafe Al (typ.)
limit!
safe Adapted from Fig.
8.19(b), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure
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 Improving Fatigue Life

S = stress amplitude
1. Impose compressive Adapted from
surface stresses Fig. 8.24, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
(to suppress surface near zero or compressive sm
cracks from growing) moderate tensile sm
Larger tensile sm

N = Cycles to failure

--Method 1: shot peening --Method 2: carburizing

shot
C-rich gas
put
surface
into
compression

2. Remove stress bad better

concentrators. Adapted from
Fig. 8.25, Callister &
bad better Rethwisch 8e.

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 Creep
Creep – deformation under elevated temperature and exposed static mechanical
stresses
s
s,e

0 t

Primary Creep: slope (creep rate)

decreases with time.
Secondary Creep: steady-state
i.e., constant slope (De/Dt).
Adapted from
Fig. 8.28, Callister &
Tertiary Creep: slope (creep rate) Rethwisch 8e.

increases with time, i.e. acceleration of rate. 7

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 Creep: Temperature Dependence
• Occurs at elevated temperature, T > 0.4 Tm (in K)

tertiary

primary
secondary

elastic

Adapted from Fig. 8.29,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

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 es = K 2s n
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 Secondary Creep
• Strain rate is constant at a given T, s es = K 2s n
-- strain hardening is balanced by recovery
stress exponent (material parameter)
 Qc 
e s = K 2s exp − 
n
activation energy for creep
strain rate  RT  (material parameter)
material const. applied stress
Adapted from
• Strain rate 200 Fig. 8.31, Callister 7e.
Stress (MPa)

427ºC (Fig. 8.31 is from Metals

increases 100 Handbook: Properties
538ºC and Selection:
with increasing 40 Stainless Steels, Tool
Materials, and Special
T, s 20
Purpose Metals, Vol. 3,
9th ed., D. Benjamin
649ºC (Senior Ed.), American
10 Society for Metals,
1980, p. 131.)
10 -2 10 -1 1
Steady state creep rate es (%/1000hr)
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 Creep Failure
• Failure: along grain boundaries.

g.b. cavities

applied
stress

From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of

Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: Pergamon
Press, Inc.)

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 SUMMARY
• Engineering materials not as strong as predicted by theory
• Flaws act as stress concentrators that cause failure at
stresses lower than theoretical values.
• Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.
• Failure type depends on T and s :
-For simple fracture (noncyclic s and T < 0.4Tm), failure stress
decreases with:
- increased maximum flaw size,
- decreased T,
- increased rate of loading.
- For fatigue (cyclic s):
- cycles to fail decreases as Ds increases.
- For creep (T > 0.4Tm):
- time to rupture decreases as s or T increases. 13
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