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Irshalwadi landslide in Western Ghats of India: Observations from precursory slope

movement, rainfall and soil moisture

Nirmala Jain, Priyom Roy, Punit Jalan, Tapas R. Martha, Iswar C. Das

PII: S2666-5921(24)00004-0
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nhres.2024.01.004
Reference: NHRES 180

To appear in: Natural Hazard Research

Received Date: 13 November 2023

Revised Date: 4 January 2024
Accepted Date: 5 January 2024

Please cite this article as: Jain, N., Roy, P., Jalan, P., Martha, T.R., Das, I.C., Irshalwadi landslide in
Western Ghats of India: Observations from precursory slope movement, rainfall and soil moisture,
Natural Hazard Research (2024), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nhres.2024.01.004.

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 1 Irshalwadi landslide in Western Ghats of India: Observations
2 from precursory slope movement, rainfall and soil moisture
3 Nirmala Jain, Priyom Roy, Punit Jalan, Tapas R. Martha. Iswar C. Das

4 National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO),
5 Hyderabad - 500 037, India
6 Abstract
7 The Western Ghats of India, a UNESCO world heritage site, is gradually becoming a hotspot for
8 catastrophic landslides. On 19 July 2023, the entire Irshalwadi village in the Raigad district of
9 Maharashtra, India, was obliterated due to a single catastrophic landslide. Of the 228 residents of the

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10 village, the landslide killed 27 people and 57 are still reported to be missing. The landslide occurred
11 on a slope which exhibited no visual precedence of disturbance or creep. However, analysis of

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12 potential precursory movements prior to slope failure using the Persistent Scatterer Interferometry
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(PSI) technique reveals active movement near the base of the slope (in order of ~ 12 mm/y). Sentinel-
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14 2 satellite imagery acquired post-event characterises the landslide as a bifurcated debris flow possibly
15 triggered by heavy rainfall in the region. Peak cumulative rainfall, estimated by the Indian
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16 Meteorological Department (IMD), was observed in this region on 17, 18 and 19 July 2023 (~ 500)
17 mm and was the highest recorded rainfall in the region during the given period. This caused
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18 significant water percolation into the porous basaltic soil, leading to increased soil moisture, as
19 supported by the Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) data. The resultant increase in pore
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20 pressure caused the slope material to fail and eventually trigger the landslide.
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21 Keywords: Rainfall Induced Landslide, Soil Moisture, Rainfall, Basaltic terrain

22

23 1. Introduction

24 Landslides are the most common natural hazards in mountain regions, causing a
25 severe threat to property and life in the Himalayas and the Western Ghats regions of India.
26 The Western Ghats is India's second most landslide-prone area after the Himalayas (Martha
27 et al. 2021; Jain et al. 2021; Kuriakose et al. 2009; Thampi et al. 1995). Soil cover and steep
28 slopes make the Western Ghats prone to landslide disasters s during the monsoon season
29 (Jain et al., 2023). The basalt-laterite contact, laterite exposed along plateau edges, growth of
30 roots along the opening of fractures and anthropogenic activities during the rainy season are
31 some of the significant causes of landslides in the region (Sajinkumar et al. 2011; Gajbhiye
32 and Kohli, 2017; Wadhawan et al. 2020).
33 Landslides during the monsoon season occur when water rapidly accumulates on the
34 ground surface, which results in a surge of pore water pressure in the soil. In addition to the
35 rainfall, soil moisture plays a vital role in the initiation of landslides (Wei et al., 2020; Song
36 and Wang, 2019; Bicocchi et al., 2019; Alimohammadlou et al., 2014). The increase in pore
37 water pressure caused by water infiltration during rain is essential in triggering landslides.
38 The study of daily soil moisture with rainfall data improves understanding of the cause of
39 landslide triggers.

40 Catastrophic landslide events have increased in the last decade due to incessant
41 rainfall in the Western Ghats. On 26 July 2005, several catastrophic landslides at Jui, Rohan,
42 Dasgaon and Kondvite killed nearly 190 people (Thigale et al. 2007). On 30 July 2014, 151

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43 people lost their lives in the Malin landslide in Ambegaon Taluk of Pune district (Kohli et
44 al., 2014; Thigale et al., 2007; Shah et al., 2019). A catastrophic landslide occurred on 22

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July 2021 due to incessant rainfall (Jain et al., 2023), destroying the village of Taliye in
Mahad taluk, Raigad district and resulting in the loss of 84 lives (www.indianexpress.com).
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47 On 19 July 2023, the entire Irshalwadi village in the Raigad district of Maharashtra,
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48 India, was obliterated due to a catastrophic landslide. Of the 228 residents of the village, the
49 landslide killed 27 people, and 57 were reported missing (frontline.thehindu.com). We have
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50 carried out a preliminary causal analysis of the landslide based on the identification of
51 precursory slope movement using Persistent Scatterer Interferometry (PSI), observations
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52 from grid-based rainfall data from the India Meteorological Department (IMD) and soil
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53 moisture datasets from Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) (both surface soil moisture and
54 surface moisture root zone datasets). This area has not recorded any previous instances of
55 landslide. The instance recorded here is unprecedented. Hence, causal analysis is necessary to
56 record, document, and take necessary actions to prevent such instances.

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58 2. Geology of the study area and the surrounding region

59 Irshalwadi village (Latitude 18° 55' 58.23" and Longitude 73° 14' 4.17") is located on
60 a hill at around 1200 m elevation above sea level near the Irshalgad Fort in Raigad district of
61 Maharashtra, India. The village is situated in the Sahyadri forest range of Western Ghats. The
62 village had 48 households with 228 inhabitants, of which only 142 residents survived the
63 landslide disaster (frontline.thehindu.com). The Irshalwadi landslide and its surrounding area
64 comprise Deccan Traps (basaltic lava flows) of the upper Cretaceous to lower Eocene age.
65 The compact basalts, vesicular amygdaloidal basalts and laterites occur in the study area
66 (GSDA, 2023). The area falls within the Evergreen/Semi-evergreen Dense/ Deciduous
67 Dense/Forest Plantation Land Use Land Cover (LULC) type (https://bhuvan-
68 app1.nrsc.gov.in/thematic).

69

70 3. Data and Method

71 The Irshalwadi landslide is studied using cloud-free high-resolution satellite data (Fig.
72 1 a and b). Although the landslide happened on 19 July 2023, given the persistent cloud cover
73 over the region, cloud-free data was not available. The first cloud-free scene where the

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74 landslide extent was clearly and fully visible was acquired on 26 October 2023 by Sentinel-2
75 satellite.

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It is generally seen that, prior to any major landsliding, there is some precursory slope
movement (Roy et al. 2022a; 2022b). To examine whether the same is seen in the case of
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78 Irshalwadi landslide, we deployed multi-temporal InSAR (MTI) technique, i.e. Persistent
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79 Scatterer InSAR (PSI) (Ferretti et al. 2001, Ferretti et al. 2004, Crosetto et al. 2006, Roy et al.
80 2022a, Roy et al. 2022b, Nefros et al. 2023) over the region using a time series stack of 42
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81 synthetic aperture radar images of Sentinel-1 satellite. The date range of observations was
82 from 11-01-2022 to 11-06-2023, in descending node (Path: 34). We used EZ-InSAR, a
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83 MATLAB-based toolbox that enables a complete open-source InSAR processing chain from
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84 automatically downloading Sentinel-1 SAR images for the user's area of interest to
85 generating high-quality maps and time series of ground displacement (Hrysiewicz, et al.
86 2023). Through this tool, we used the InSAR Scientific Computing Environment (ISCE)
87 (Rosen, et al. 2012) and Stanford Method for Persistent Scatterers (StaMPS) (Hooper, 2008)
88 codes to generate co-registered interferograms which are then corrected for other
89 contributions, such as topography and atmosphere to yield a measure of ground motion (with
90 respect to the satellite) that occurred between the image acquisition times. Given a stack of 42
91 SAR images acquired and processed over one and a half years in the present case, the slope
92 deformation in terms of velocity at millimetre per year scale has been mapped.

93 IMD grid-based rainfall and soil moisture datasets of SMAP (Soil Moisture Active
94 and Passive) datasets were studied from June 2023 to July 2023 to determine the relationship
95 between rainfall, soil moisture datasets and Irshalwadi landslide. The Level 4 data of SMAP,
96 which gives the surface soil moisture (0-5cm depth) and root-zone soil moisture (0-100 cm
 97 depth), were used in the present study (Entekhabi et al. 2010). The top-layer soil moisture and
98 root zone soil moisture are represented in the relative soil moisture index (0-1), where 0
99 represents the welting point (very dry) and 1 represents saturation (very wet) (Parker, 1982).
100 The root zone soil moisture data is better suited for landslide analysis as the shear plane of
101 the shallow and deep-seated landslides are much deeper than 5 cm (Brocca et al., 2016;
102 Thomas et al., 2019). We have hereby shown the results of both products. The data are
103 extracted using Google Earth Engine (Gorelick et al., 2017) (Earth Engine homepage,
104 https://earthengine.google.com) from the available data catalogue of SMAP Level-4 (L-4)
105 soil moisture product (https://developers.google.com/earth-
106 engine/datasets/catalog/NASA_SMAP_SPL4SMGP_007), with 3-hourly data converted to

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107 daily data using the reducer function for the landslide location (Noel et al., 2017; Kumar et

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108 al., 2018; Amani et al., 2020; Tamiminia et al. 2020). The datasets used are summarised in

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109 Table 1.

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Table 1. List of datasets used for the study.
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Satellite Sensor Resolution Date of Acquisition Source
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(m)
Satellite data
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Sentinel-2 MSI 10 29 May 2023 and 26 ESA

October 2023
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SAR data for precursory slope movement analysis

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Sentinel-1 IW TOPS 5m x 20m 11-01-2022 to 11-06-2023 ESA

(42 scenes)
Hydrological data for rainfall analysis
IMD rainfall - 25 km x 25 June to July 2023 NRSC Climate
daily data (GRID km Data Analysis
based) System (CDAS)
(http://192.168.100
.30:8080/CDAS/)
Soil Moisture data for soil saturation analysis
Surface soil -
moisture (Grid-
based)
Root zone soil
9 km x 9 June to July 2023 https://nsidc.org/da
moisture in the
top 1 m of the km ta/explore-data
soil column
(GRID-based)
111

112

113

114 3. Observations

115 The landslide on a hilltop in Irshalwadi village in Raigad district, Maharashtra, killed
116 around 84 people and buried several houses on 19 July 2023 due to three days of continuous
117 heavy rainfall. During 17-18–19 July 2023, heavy rainfall was recorded in and around the
118 study area, which triggered the Irshalwadi landslide and damaged an area of ~57500 sq. m.
119 (Fig. 1). The landslide flow is seen to bifurcate in two directions. The debris flowed around

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120 400 m at the southern flank of the landslide and 360 m at the northern flank of the landslide.

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121 The landslide crown is 135 m in width and is located around 85 m below the Irshalgad Fort,
122 where the massive basalt and vegetation contact is seen in the satellite imagery.

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Analysis of potential precursory movements prior to slope failure using PSI technique
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124 reveals interesting observations. Due to the generally scattered vegetation cover in the region,
125 there is significant noise in the slope deformation velocity map, which is seen as isolated
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126 high-velocity points (Fig. 1c). However, the cluster of houses of the Irshalwadi village act as
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127 stable reflectors and persistent scatterers. The entire cluster of houses and adjoining area is
128 seen to have significantly high velocities in the range of ~ 12 mm/y (± 2 mm/y). This clearly
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129 indicates that there has been considerable slope movement of the slope material in and around
130 the village leading up to the eventual failure (Fig. 1d).
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131
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133 Figure 1. Irshalwadi landslide, Raigad District, Maharashtra. a) Sentinel 2 data after the
134 landslide event. b) Inset: Sentinel 2 data before the landslide event. c) Slope deformation map
135 generated using PSI technique (black dotted box shows the area visualised in optical
136 imagery). d) Field photograph of the landslide region (https://pudhari.news)

137 Media reports said that 499 mm of rainfall in three days was recorded in the region, which
138 loosened the soil, and this abrupt spell of high rainfall triggered the Irshalwadi landslide
139 (https://www.hindustantimes.com). Our analysis of grid-based rainfall data from the IMD
140 shows that the 3 days antecedent rainfall (17, 18 and 19 July 2023) was 518 mm and was the
141 highest recorded rainfall in the region during the given period (Fig. 2a). As the rainfall
142 amount has increased, the soil moisture increased commensurately (Fig. 2 a and b). From 17

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143 July 2023, as the rainfall peaked, the soil moisture also increased till it became stable from 19
144 July 2023, as the rainfall receded Fig. 2a and b). The surface soil moisture for 17, 18 and 19

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146
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July were 0.384, 0.398, 0.406, respectively, and root surface zone, soil moisture for 17, 18
and 19 July were 0.385, 0.399, and 0.414, respectively (Fig. 2b). It is clear that the rainfall
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147 triggered the soil moisture to reach pore pressure limits, leading to slope material loss of
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148 cohesion and the consequent slope failure on 19 July 2023.

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149
150 Figure 2. a) Daily rainfall of Irshalwadi landslide from 1 June 2023 to 31 July 2023 extracted
151 from IMD. b) SMAP Daily soil moisture data of Irshalwadi landslide from 1 June 2023 to 31
152 July 2023.

153

154 4. Summary

155 We present a rapid causal analysis of the 19 July 2023 Irshalwadi landslide using an
156 indication from precursory slope movement and analysis of the rainfall and soil moisture
157 before the slope failure. The velocity map derived from PSI shows that the slope material
158 around Irshalwadi village was unstable, with significant creep movement over the last year.

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159 Subsequently, from 17 to 19 July 2023, anomalous heavy rainfall (over 500 mm) caused
160 significant water percolation into the porous basaltic soil, leading to increased soil moisture

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161 and pore pressure. This eventually triggered the landslide on 19 July 2023.

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This study will help understand and take preventive measures to reduce the risk of
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163 such landslides over villages in the Western Ghats in forthcoming monsoon seasons. The
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164 analysis of precursory slope movement complemented with rainfall and soil moisture data
165 was very important in determining the cause of the landslide trigger. It has to be considered
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166 that the present evaluation is preliminary, future field investigation of the landslide location
167 will help categorise the nature and strength of the basaltic soil types in the region, which can
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168 be used to demarcate the landslide susceptibility zone.

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169

170 Acknowledgements
171 We thank Dr. Prakash Chauhan, Director, NRSC and Dr. K Vinod Kumar, Associate
172 Director, NRSC, for their support and guidance in this work. We thank Dr. K. Sreenivas,
173 Deputy Director, RSA, NRSC, for his guidance in this work. We thank NRSC Climate Data
174 Analysis System (CDAS) team for providing IMD Grid data for analysis of daily rainfall
175 data. We would also like to thank Dr. Shantanu Bhatawdekar, Scientific Secretary, ISRO, Dr.
176 J V Thomas, Director, EDPO, Dr. John Mathew, Associate Director, EDPO and Dr. K. H. V.
177 Durga Rao, Group Head, DMSG for their active support to this study.

178

179
180 Funding

181 This study was not supported by other Organisations. No funding was used for this work.

182

183 Declarations

184 Competing Interests The authors declare no competing interests.

185 Data availability The data are available free to download.

186

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293 Urls:

294 www.indianexpress.com accessed in August 2021.

295 https://pudhari.news accessed on July 2023.

296 https://frontline.thehindu.com accessed on August 2023.

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Declaration of interests

☒ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships
that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

☐ The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered
as potential competing interests:

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