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Introduction
• An electric generator is based on the principle that whenever a
magnetic flux is cut by a conductor, an e.m.f. is induced which
will cause a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.
• The direction of induced e.m.f. (and hence current) is given by
Fleming’s right hand rule
• There are two types of electrical machines
DIRECT CURRENT MACHINES • Alternating Current (A.C) Machines
• Direct Current (D.C) Machines
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Construction
• DC generators and motors have the same general construction.
• Any DC generator can be run as a DC motor and vice-versa.
• The main parts of DC machines are
• Yoke
• Pole cores and pole shoe
• Field winding
• Armature
• Armature winding
• Commutator
• Brushes

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Construction
Yoke
• Outer frame of machine
• Provides mechanical support for the poles
• Acts as a protecting cover for the whole machine
• Carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles
Poles And Pole Shoes
• spread out the flux in the air gap
• Reduce the reluctance of the magnetic path (large cross-section)
• They also support the field coils
Construction
Field System
• Consists of salient poles bolted to the inside of the yoke/frame.
• Field coils/windings are mounted on the poles and carry the DC
exciting current.
• When current is passed through the field coils, they electro-
magnetize the poles which produce the necessary flux.
• The magnetic flux passes through the poles, the air gap, the
armature and the frame

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Armature Core
Field System
• Keyed to the machine/armature shaft
• Rotates between the field poles
• Houses the armature conductors/coils
• Causes them to rotate and hence cut the magnetic flux of the
field magnets.

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Commutator
Brushes
• Converts the alternating current induced in the armature
conductors into DC voltage across the brushes. • Collect/deliver current from
• Made of copper segments insulated from each other by mica commutator and deliver it to the
sheets and mounted on the shaft of the machine external load circuit.
• Armature conductors are soldered to the commutator segments • Made of carbon
to give rise to the armature winding • Rest on the commutator.
• Brushes having the same polarity are
connected together, thus we have two
terminals, the +ve terminal and the -
ve terminal.
• Multipole machines have as many
brushes as they have poles e.g. a 4-
pole machine has 4 brushes

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Features of DC Armature Windings Pole Pitch

• The length of a wire lying in a magnetic field in which an e.m.f. • Coil sides are placed a pole pitch apart i.e., one coil side of the
is induced is called A Conductor coil is under N-pole and the other coil side is under the next S-
• The coil may be Single-Turn Coil or a Multi-Turn Coil pole at the corresponding position

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Pole Pitch Commutator Pitch 𝑌𝑐

• The pole pitch is the distance measured in terms of number of • Number of commutator segments spanned by each coil of the
armature conductors (or armature slots) per pole. winding.
• If a 4-pole generator has 16 coils • Each coil has two ends and two coil connections are joined at
each commutator segment hence
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 16 × 2 • Number of coils = Number of commutator segments
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ = = = 8 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 4

• Alternatively,
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 16
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ = = = 4 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 4

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Types of DC Armature Windings Commutation

• Read on;
• Simplex lap winding
• Simplex wave winding
• Progressive Winding
• Retrogressive Winding
• Back Pitch
• Front Pitch

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Commutation
• Cylindrical metal ring cut into two
segments 𝑪𝟏 and 𝑪𝟐 insulated from
each other
• The ends of coil sides AB and CD are
connected to the segments 𝑪𝟏 and 𝑪𝟐
respectively
• Stationary carbon brushes rest on the
commutator.
• The commutator at all times connects
the coil side under S-pole to the +ve
brush and that under the N-pole to the -
ve brush. (for a gen)

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Commutation Commutation
• For ideal commutation, we • As the armature rotates, the
assume that the given coil has no brush will make contact with
inductance. segment 2 and thus short-
circuits coil A
• The brush width is equal to the
width of one commutator • The resistance of the path
segment and one mica through segment 2 is three
insulation. times the resistance of the path
through segment 1
• Suppose the total armature
current is 40A. Since there are • The brush again conducts a
two parallel paths, each coil current of 40 A; 30 A through
carries a current of 20A. segment 1 and 10 A through
segment 2

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Commutation Commutation
• When the brush is one-half on
segment 2 and one-half on
segment 1, the brush again
conducts 40A; 20A through
segment 1 and 20A through
segment 2

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Commutation Methods of Improving Commutation

• Ideal commutation cannot be attained in practice due to the fact • Read on
that the armature coils have appreciable inductance. • Resistance commutation
• When current in the coil undergoing commutation changes • E.M.F. commutation
direction, an e.m.f. known as Reactance Voltage is induced in • Brush Shifting
the coil.
• Use of Interpoles
• This voltage opposes the change of current in the coil
undergoing commutation.
• The change of current in the coil undergoing commutation
occurs more slowly than it would be under ideal commutation.

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DC Generator Operation
• The North and South poles produce a DC magnetic field and the
rotor coil turns in this field.
• A turbine or other machine drives the rotor.
• The conductors in the slots cut the magnetic flux lines, which
induce voltage in the rotor coils.
• The voltages generated in the two sides of the coil are added
DC GENERATORS
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DC Generator Operation DC Generator Equivalent Circuit

• The coil has two sides: one is placed in slot 𝒂, the other in slot 𝒃 • The magnetic field produced by the stator poles induces a
. voltage in the rotor (or armature) coils when the generator is
rotated.
• This induced voltage is represented by a voltage source.
• The stator coil has resistance, which is connected in series.
• The pole flux is produced by the DC excitation/field current,
which is magnetically coupled to the rotor
• The field circuit has resistance and a source
• The voltage drop across the brushes is represented by a battery

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DC Generator Equivalent Circuit DC Generator Equivalent Circuit

• The magnetic field produced by the stator poles induces a
voltage in the rotor (or armature) coils when the generator is
rotated.
• The dc field current of the poles generates a magnetic flux
• The flux is proportional with the field current if the iron core is
not saturated

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DC Generator Equivalent Circuit Types of DC Machines

• When the generator is loaded, the load current produces a
voltage drop on the rotor winding resistance.
• In addition, there is a more or less constant 1𝑉 – 3𝑉 voltage
drop on the brushes.
• These two voltage drops reduce the terminal voltage of the
generator.
• The terminal voltage is then given by;

𝐸 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ

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Separately Excited DC. Generators Separately Excited DC. Generators

• Field winding is supplied from an independent external DC • The voltage output depends on the speed of rotation of armature
source and the field current.
• The greater the speed and field current, greater is the generated
e.m.f.
• Separately excited DC generators are rarely used in practice.
• Their governing equation is;

𝐸 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ

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Ex Ex.
• A separately excited dc generator, when running at 1000 𝑟𝑝𝑚.
supplies 200𝐴 at 125𝑉. What will be the load current when its
speed drops to 800 𝑟𝑝𝑚 if the field is unchanged? The armature
resistance 0.04 Ω and brush drop is 2 𝑉? • The load resistance

125
𝑅 = = 0.625 𝛺
200
𝐸𝑔1 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
𝐸𝑔1 = 125 + 200 × 0.04 + 2
= 135 𝑉 ; 𝑁1 = 1000 𝑟. 𝑝. 𝑚.
• At 800 r.p.m.

135 × 800
𝐸𝑔2 = = 108 𝑉
1000

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Ex. Self-Excited DC Generators

If 𝐼 is the new load current, the terminal voltage is: • There are three types of self-excited generators depending on
the manner in which the field winding is connected to the
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑔2 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
armature;
𝑉 = 108 − 0.04 𝐼 − 2 • Series generator
= 106 − 0.04 𝐼 • Shunt generator

• The terminal voltage is also is given by • Compound generator

𝑉 = 𝐼 × 𝑅 = 0.625𝐼
Solving simultaneously
0.625𝐼 = 106 − 0.04 𝐼

106
∴ 𝐼 = = 159.39 𝐴
0.665

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Series Generator Series Generator

• The field winding is connected in series with armature winding.
• Armature current flows through the field winding as well as the • Armature current
load
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑠𝑒 = 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼
• Terminal voltage

𝑉 = 𝐸𝑔 − 𝐼(𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒 )
• Power delivered to load

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼𝑎 = 𝑉𝐼𝐿

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Shunt Generator Shunt Generator

• The field winding is connected in parallel with the armature
• Shunt field current
winding so that terminal voltage of the generator is applied
across it. 𝑉
𝐼𝑠ℎ =
• Only a part of armature current flows through shunt field 𝑅𝑠ℎ
winding and the rest flows through the load
• Armature current

𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ
• Terminal voltage

𝑉 = 𝐸𝑔 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
• Power delivered to load

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼𝐿

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Ex. Ex.
• A shunt generator delivers 450𝐴 at 230𝑉. The resistances of the • Current through the shunt field winding is:
shunt field and armature windings are 50Ω and 230
0.03Ω respectively. Calculate the generated e.m.f 𝐼𝑠ℎ = = 4.6𝐴
50
• Load current 𝐼 = 450𝐴
• Armature current
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ = 450 + 4.6 = 454.6𝐴
• Armature voltage drop
𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 = 454.6 × 0.03 = 13.64𝑉
• Emf generated in armature
𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 = 230 + 13.64 = 243.64𝑉

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Compound Generator Short Shunt Compound Generator

• Here, there are two sets of field windings on each pole • In a short shunt, only the shunt field winding is in parallel with
• one field winding is in series and the other in parallel with the the armature winding
armature.
• A compound wound generator may be short shunt or long shunt.

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Ex.
Short Shunt Compound Generator A short-shunt compound generator delivers a load current of
30𝐴 at 220𝑉 , and has armature, series-field and shunt-field
• The governing equations are;
resistances of 0.05 Ω, 0.30 Ω 𝑎𝑛𝑑 200 Ω respectively. Calculate
the induced e.m.f. and the armature current. Allow 1𝑉 per brush
• Series field current, for contact drop.
𝐼𝑠𝑒 = 𝐼𝐿
• Shunt field current
𝑉 + 𝐼𝑠𝑒 𝑅𝑠𝑒
𝐼𝑠ℎ =
𝑅𝑠ℎ
• Terminal voltage
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑔 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 − 𝐼𝑠𝑒 𝑅𝑠𝑒

• Power delivered to load

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼𝐿

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Ex. Ex.
• Voltage drop in series winding • Brush drop
= 30 × 0.3 = 9 𝑉 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ = 2 × 1 = 2 𝑉
• Voltage across shunt winding
220 + 9 = 229 𝑉 𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉 + 𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 + 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎

229 = 220 + 9 + 2 + 1.56 = 232.56 𝑉

𝐼𝑠ℎ = = 1.145 𝐴
200
𝐼𝑎 = 30 + 1.145 = 31.145 𝐴

𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 = 31.145 × 0.05 = 1.56 𝑉

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Long Shunt Compound Generator Long Shunt Compound Generator

• In a long shunt, the field winding is in parallel with both series • The governing equations are;
field and armature winding
• Series field current,
𝐼𝑠𝑒 = 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ
• Shunt field current
𝑉
𝐼𝑠ℎ =
𝑅𝑠ℎ
• Terminal voltage
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑔 − 𝐼𝑎 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒 )
• Power delivered to load
P = 𝑉𝐼𝐿

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Ex. Ex.
• A long-shunt compound generator delivers a load current of 500
50𝐴 at 500𝑉 and has armature, series field and shunt field 𝐼𝑠ℎ = = 2𝐴
250
resistances of 0.05Ω, 0.03Ω 𝑎𝑛𝑑 250Ω respectively. Calculate the • Current through armature and series winding
generated voltage and the armature current. Allow 1𝑉 per brush 𝐼𝑎 = 50 + 2 = 52𝐴
for contact drop • Voltage drop on series field winding
= 52 × 0.03 = 1.56𝑉
• Armature voltage drop
𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 = 52 × 0.05 = 2.6𝑉
• Drop at brushes
𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ = 2 × 1 = 2𝑉

𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 + 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ

= 500 + 2.6 + 1.56 + 2 = 506.16𝑉