ISTANBUL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND LETTER

PHYSICS ENGINEERING DESIGN 1 PROJECT

DEVELOPMENT OF TRIBO-MECHANOLIMUNESCENCE MEASUREMENT

SYSTEM

Ersin Erel

Department: Physics Engineering

SPRING 2021

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like thank Prof. Dr. Esra Alveroğlu Durucu for given me the opportunity to carry
out my research under her supervision

My special thanks to Asst. Prof. Nuri Solak for his support and guidance on this research
and given me the opportunity to use his laboratory.

I would like to offer my sincerest gratitude to Cem Kıncal. His support, knowledge and
guidance helped me write this paper and taught me a lot.

Finally, I am grateful to my mother, my father and my brother. They gave me the

encouragement, moral and motivation my whole life. Also, I appreciate to my friends who
believe in me and support me.

Ersin Erel

June 2021

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TABLE OF CONTENT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABBREVIATIONS
LIST OF FIGURES
SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION

1.1. Luminescence
1.1.1. Mechanism of Luminescence
1.1.2. Types of Luminescence
1.1.2.1. Photoluminescence
1.1.2.2. Radioluminescence
1.1.2.3. Electroluminescence
1.1.2.4. Chemiluminescence
1.1.2.5. Thermoluminescence
1.1.2.6. Crystalloluminescence
1.1.2.7. Mechanoluminescence
2. MECHANOLUMINESCENCE
2.1. Types of ML
2.1.1. Deformation-ML
2.1.2. Tribo-ML
2.2. Mechanoluminescence Materials’ Applications
3. MEASUREMENT SETUP
3.1. Previous Setups
3.2. Mechanical design
3.2.1. Continuous Load
3.2.2. Impact
3.3. Electronics and Software
3.3.1. DC Motor Control
3.3.2. Reading Load Cells

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 3.3.3. Displaying Spectrometer
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5. REFERENCES

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ABBREVIATIONS

UV: Ultraviolet

ML: Mechanoluminescence

FML: Fracto-mechanoluminescent

PML: Plastico-mechanoluminescent

EML: Elastic-mechanoluminescent

TML: Tribo-mechanoluminescence

AHC: Alkali Halide Crystals

PWM: Pulse Width Modulation

RPM: Rotation Per Minute

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Diagram of luminescence process: (A) electrons in the ground state, (B)
excited electron by the external energy, (C) emission of light [10]

Figure 2.1. FML on fractured sugar

Figure 2.2. TML producing by tape

Figure 3.1. 3D model of designed setup

Figure 3.2. Downward movement of the midde section

Figure 3.3. Emitted light from the TL sample

Figure 3.4. Compressed spring with load cells

Figure 3.5. Impact of the spring on the sample

Figure 3.6. Arduino Uno

Figure 3.7. Arduino Mega 2560

Figure 3.8. Ocean Optics Flame Miniature Spectrometer and attached fiber cable

Figure 3.9. LabView interface for measurement setup

Figure 3.10. Generalized LabView block diagram for measurement setup

Figure 3.11. A) Serial Com-Port, B) On-Off button for motor controller, C) Reverse
button for changing direction, D) Controlling speed vith PWM signal, E) Stop button

Figure 3.12. Block diagram of Labview motor control interface

Figure 3.13. DC motor, L298N and Arduino Uno connection.

Figure 3.14. LabView interface for displaying gram and force

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Figure 3.15. LabView block diagram for load cells

Figure 3.16. Labview interface for displaying light intensity and wavelength emitted
from the sample

Figure 3.17. Intensity-Wavelength graph

Figure 4.1. General view of the setup and load cells with a pointy head bolt

Figure 4.2. (a) Before load (b) mechanoluminescence occurs . Red circle shows
mechanoluminescent area due to applied continous load by pointhead bolt.

Figure 4.3. (a) Spring is compressed, (b) spring is released

Figure 4.4. Compressed spring

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DEVELOPMENT OF TRIBO-MECHANOLIMUNESCENCE MEASUREMENT
SYSTEM

SUMMARY

Luminescence is a light emission from the materials. These materials divided into several
types depending on the given external energy. Tribo-mechanoluminescence is emitted due
to the mechanical excitation such as impact, continuous load or friction. ML materials
have many applications because they are useful in terms of no contact visual information.
In this study, a setup is designed to apply impact and continuous load to ML sample.
Optical spectrum data simultaneously measured with spectrometer. The LabView
program is used for controlling DC motor, read force on the load cells and display the
optical spectrum measured by the spectrometer. Created data is saved as a comma
separated value (.csv) format for further analysis.

1.INTRODUCTION

1.1 Luminescence

Luminescence is emission of light of materials. It happens when the materials are

relatively cool and energy transferred from an external source. This event is opposed to
incandescent bodies such as hot glowing iron, lava [8]. The word “luminescence” was
defined in 1888 by a German physicist Eilhardt Wiedemann. In Latin language “lumen”
means “light” and the materials that shows that property called luminescent materials [15].

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1.1.1 Mechanism of Luminescence

Luminescence is light emission caused by movement of electrons in a material from

higher energy states to lower energy states resulted in emission of light at normal or low
temperatures without generation of heat. This event caused by the absorption of photons,
radiation, chemical reactions or stress on a crystal [5].

Given energy by the external sources such as x-ray radiation, UV, electrons beams,
chemical reactions, mechanical stress, excites the atoms and lifts the electrons from
ground state to a higher and excited state, since the excited states are unstable, electrons
undergo to another transition, they go back to their ground state and the energy released
the form of light, heat or both [8].

Figure 1.1 Diagram of luminescence process: (A) electrons in the ground state, (B)
excited electron by the external energy, (C) emission of light [10].

1.1.2 Types of Luminescence

1.1.2.1 Photoluminescence

Photoluminescence is the emission of light due to absorption of electromagnetic radiation

(photons). It is divided to two types: Fluorescence and Phosphorescence.

Fluorescence is a luminescence type with very short lifetime from picoseconds to

hundreds of nanoseconds. On the other hand, phosphorescence is takes longer to decay

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than fluorescence. Photoluminescence materials can be used in highlighting paints, secret
inks [10].

1.1.2.2 Radioluminescence

In radioluminescence case, light is created after the bombarding the material with ionizing
radiation such as X-rays, γ-rays or beta particles. Application of radioluminescence
materials are X-ray imaging, X-ray scintillators, scintillation detectors and dosimetry [10].

1.1.2.3 Electroluminescence

Electroluminescence is caused by the electric current passing through a substance or when

the material exposes the strong electric field. This type of materials can be used in LEDs,
laser diodes or displays [10].

1.1.2.4 Chemiluminescence

After a chemical reaction, materials form an excited intermediate and breaks down
releasing some of its energy with photons. In analytical chemistry and for chemical
analysis chemiluminescence materials are used [10].

1.1.2.5 Thermoluminescence

Thermoluminescence is observed by the certain type of materials, which are absorbed the
energy previously and release it as light when the temperature is above a certain threshold.
These materials are used in dosimetry of ionizing radiation, geological and archeological
dating and environmental monitoring [10].

1.1.2.6 Crystalloluminescence

During the crystallization of certain salts from liquid solutions or from the fused phase,
crystalloluminescence occurs [10].

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1.1.2.7 Mechanoluminescence

Mechanoluminescence occurs when the mechanical deformation occurs in the materials

such as elastic deformation, plastic deformation or fracture [10].

2. MECHANOLUMINESCENCE

Mechanoluminescence is induced by any mechanical action on material. The material can

be excited by grinding, rubbing, shaking, scratching, cleaving, compressing or crushing.
Also, thermal shocks due to dire heating or cooling and shock waves from strong laser
pulses can induce ML [4].

Mechanoluminescence occurs when mechanical stress applied to the material and applied
stress releases the trapped carriers inside the mechanoluminescent material [7].

ML was first recorded by the Francis Bacon in 1605. He reported that “hard sugar being
nimbly scraped with a knife would afford a sparkling light” [4].

2.1 Types of ML

Mechanoluminescent can be divided into two types: Deformation-ML and Tribo-ML.

2.1.1 Deformation-ML

Deformation mechanoluminescence depends on the material which applied deformation

but independent of material which is used for deform the material and contact moment.

DML can be subdivided into three types: Fracto-mechanoluminescence (FML), Plastico-

mechanoluminescent (PML) and Elastico-mechanoluminescence (EML) [4].

When fracto-mechanoluminescence material is fractured several effects occur, like highly

localized heat, intense electric fields, emission of electrons and positive ions, acoustic
waves.

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Fractures surface becomes highly charged which develops electric fields about 106-108
V/cm [3]. Due to this electric field, charges are extracted and accelerated resulting
producing piezoelectricity which, in turn, excites the activator and FML occurs.

Figure 2.1. FML on fractured sugar (Smarter Every Day)

Electrostatic or mechanical interaction of dislocations with defect centers, electrification

of material surfaces by the movement of charged dislocations, or thermal excitation in the
stressed regions of solids results in plastic deformation on the PML material and due to
this deformation PML occurs [4]. While this process happening, no fracture is seen [3].

Two main mechanisms are identified for EML. First one is deformed crystalline structure
generates an electric field. This field reduces the trap depth of the carriers or move
electrons into the conduction band. After that, some of the electrons transfer energy to
activator ions and trigger their luminescence.

In the second mechanism, electron trapping arises because elastic deformation of the
crystal induces bending of the dislocation planes that capture electrons from nearby defect
centers. These electrons move with the dislocation planes and recombine with holes in the
dislocation band, as a result of light emission triggered [3].

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2.1.2 Tribo-ML

TML depends on the material that is deformed as well as the material that deforms it
because the contact potential between the materials affects the luminescence [4]. For
example, luminescence produced by rubbing the sugar crystal with steel or any type of
rod is deformation-mechanoluminescence, as it is independent of the what material the
rod is made of; on the other hand, luminescence produced during low energy impact of a
steel or sapphire needle on alkali halide crystals (AHC) is triboluminescence [4].

Well known examples of TML are the light emission from separation of tape as shown in
Figure 2.2., low-impact of a sapphire needle on AHC.

Figure 2.2. TML producing by tape (nature video)

2.2 Mechanoluminescence Materials’ Applications

Mechanoluminescence materials have many applications. Such as structural health

monitoring. Coated structures with ML material visually inform the user about stress
distribution, crack initiation and crack propagation. Comparison to conventional,
electrical and magnetic signals, ML signal is wireless and visual and convenient [16].

When ML material emits light with impact or load, emitted light directly shows the
relation between light intensity and impact or load energy. By making use of this property
impact-load sensor can be made [9].

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3. MEASUREMENT SETUP

3.1 Previous Setups

Various methods used for the creating luminescence. For example, dropping a heavy ball
with various heights and create impact to the sample. Dependent on the released height
potential energy which is PE=mgh (m is the mass of the ball, g=9,81m/s2 gravitational
acceleration and h is the height that the ball released from), at the impact potential energy
turns into the impact energy and energy versus intensity relation is obtained [11]. Also,
there are some studies which are using a solenoid to create an impact [14]. There are
studies which are investigating the effect of the continuous load on mechanoluminescence
material. Continuous load is created by using high power press machines [13].

High rpm (rotation per minute) motor is used rotate a disk made of TL material. While it
is rotating a stick is pressed to create a friction and light is emitted [17].

Purpose of the setup designed for this paper is making a multifunctional ML measurement
system. It is able to measure the spectrum of ML material while load is applied and impact
is applied.

3.2 Mechanical Design

The setup is designed to apply continuous load and create impact to designed sample.
From now on continuous load and impact will be investigated. For continuous load DC
motor and for the impact spring will be used.

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 Figure 3.1. 3D model of designed setup

This setup has two type of testing. First one is applying continuous load and the second
one is applying impact.

The middle section has 8 linear bearings, 4 of them are ease the up and down movement
and 4 of them control the position of load cells. Up and down movement is provided by a
DC motor.

There are two 20 kg load cell to measure the load on the material and arrange the impact
force of the spring.

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3.2.1 Continuous Load

To apply continuous load to TL sample, computer-controlled DC motor provides

downward movement to middle section.

Figure 3.2. Downward movement of the midde section

Each load cells are attached to shafts. They move with the middle section. As middle
section moves downward, probe that is attached to load cells starts to crush the sample
and luminescence occurs.

Figure 3.3. Emitted light from the TL sample

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3.2.2 Impact

Impact is created by the spring and the force is again measured by the load cells.

Figure 3.4. Compressed spring with load cells

DC motor moves the middle section to the bottom. The load cells slide under the spring
through the linear bearings. After that, DC motor lifts up the middle section and load cells
start to compress the spring. According to Hooke’s law amount of compression(xs) times
spring constant(k) is equal to the spring force Fs=k.xs and that force is measured with the
load cells.

Figure 3.5. Impact of the spring on the sample

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When the desired force is set, the load cells are pulled back and release the spring.
Dependent on the impact force TL material emits light. Emitted light is captured with fiber
cable and transferred to the spectrometer.

3.3 Electronics and Software

For data acquisition, Arduino Uno, Arduino Mega and Flame Miniature spectrometer is
used. Arduino microcontrollers are controlled with LabView software. Measurement
setup is consisting of 3 main parts: DC motor, load cells and spectrometer.

Figure 3.6. Arduino Uno [2]

Figure 3.7. Arduino Mega 2560 [1]

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Figure 3.8. Ocean Optics Flame Miniature Spectrometer and attached fiber cable [6]

Figure 3.9. LabView interface for measurement setup

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 Figure 3.10. Generalized LabView block diagram for measurement setup

3.3.1 DC Motor Control

DC motor is attached to L298N H-bridge motor driver and this driver is controlled with
Arduino Uno.

(a)

(b) (c)
(e)

(d)

Figure 3.11. (a) Serial Com-Port, (b) On-Off button for motor controller, (c) Reverse
button for changing direction, (d) Controlling speed vith PWM signal, (e) Stop button

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 Figure 3.12. Block diagram of Labview motor control interface

LabView interface and block diagram shown in Figure 3.8. and Figure 3.9. sends the
control signal to Arduino Uno and L298N controller. Arduino Uno reads the signal and
apply HIGH and LOW signals to L298N pins. Motor starts to turn. By appling HIGH and
LOW voltages to opposite pins motor turns the other way. As a result, middle section of
the setup moves downward and upward.

In terms of controlling the speed, PWM signal is applied from arduino to L298N ENA
pin. Dependent of the duty cycle percentage speed is increased or decreased. Controlling
speed provides precision to set the forces.

Figure 3.13. DC motor, L298N and Arduino Uno connection[12].

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3.3.2 Reading Load Cells

A load cell has a strain gage inside and its resistance changes depending on the applied
force. Change in the resistanace results in creating voltages. These voltage changes read
by the Arduino, after calibrating the code with a known mass, gram values will be printed
on the serial monitor.

Labview program takes that gram values and calculate the applied forces on the load cells.

Figure 3.14. LabView interface for displaying gram and force

Figure 3.15. LabView block diagram for load cells

Measured load data is written to an Excel file to analyze in Origin 2018.

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3.3.3 Dispalying Spectrometer

LabView library created by the Ocean Optics is used to display the data from Ocean Optics
Flame Miniature Spectrometer.

Figure 3.16. Labview interface for displaying light intensity and wavelength emitted
from the sample

While intensity and wavenlength values displayed numerically, LabView code displays
them on the graph.

Figure 3.17. Intensity-Wavelength graph

Every measured peak intensity value of the emitted light written to an Excel file to obtain
load force versus maximum peak intensity graph.
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4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Measurements were done in a dark room and covered to eliminate the external light. As a
sample a composite mechanoluminescent material (commercial strontium aluminate
powder mixed with epoxy resin) was used.

Figure 4.1. General view of the setup and load cells with a pointy head bolt

In the first configuration, continuous load is applied and pointy head bolt is contacting
with the sample. Since the intensity of light is very low and and no collimator lens is
present, fiber cable unable to catch light. Camera recorded the mechanoluminescent.

(a) (b)

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 Figure 4.2. (a) Before load (b) mechanoluminescence occurs . Red circle shows
mechanoluminescent area due to applied continous load by pointhead bolt.

In the second configuration, load cells slide under the spring and motor lifts up the load
cells and compress the spring. In the mean time, compressive force exerted on the spring
is measured and recorded just before releasing the spring.

(a) (b)

Figure 4.3. (a) Spring is compressed, (b) spring is released

To start to impact, load cells are pulled back and spring is released as shown in the
Figure 4.3. (b). Optical spectrum data was recorded for 30 s with 0.5 s steps to catch
optical spectrum signal at impact.

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 1250 51.60 N
(a)
20.365 N

1000
Intensity (a.u.)

750

(b)
500

250

400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750

Wavelength (nm)

Figure 4. Analyzed spectrum data (a) wavelength of the emitted light due to 51,6 N is
521 nm and intensity (a.u.) is 1151,068. (b) wavelength of the emitted light due to
20,365 N is 521 nm and intensity (a.u.) is 546,466

In conclusion, a semi-automated compact and adaptive measurement setup is designed

and constructed to measure mechanoluminescence occurs due to continous load and
impact. Data acqusition were performed with Arduino UNO R3 and Arduino Mega 2560.
LabView software is used to perform communication between arduino, sensors and
computer. Optical spectrum of mechanoluminescence emission occurred due to impact
was measured succesively. On the other hand, although mechanoluminescence from the
material due to continous load was seen by naked eye, optical spectrum could not be
measured probably because miss-allignment of the fiber optical cable.

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As a future work, continuous load setup will be improved further. Higher power and
higher torque DC or Stepper motor will be used to arrange precise force values. Collimator
lenses should be use to capture more light.

Impact setup will be improved with more robust spring release mechanism. By using
various springs, more impact force and impact energy data can be measured and analyzed.

LabView code will be improved for reading force and spectrometer values. Peak values
of the spectrum corresponding to the applied load or impact will be written in real-time
on the LabView display.

Additionaly, by adding controllable temperature system, temperature response of the

luminescence materials can be measured, temperature-light intensity of the light will be
displayed on the screen.

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