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General Chemistry I - Chapter 1 and 2 Notes

General Chemistry I (Ohio State University)

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CHAPTER 1
MATTER AND MEASUREMENT

Chemistry: deals with composition, structure, and reactions of matter

 Matter – has mass and occupies space
o Mass – measures quantity of matter
o Weight – result of gravitational attraction between matter
 Weight and mass are NOT the same
 Composition – what matter is made of and how much of each component is present
o E pressed …
 Weight/mass
 Volume
 Percent
 # of moles
 # of atoms
o Macroscopic – can be seen and weighed
o Submicroscopic level – number and types of atoms
 Atoms = simple units of matter
 Molecules = combinations of atoms
 Do ’t separate he dissol ed likes o pou ds  ionic
o pou ds do ’t e ist as ole ules a d separate he
dissolved
 Qualitative = ethanol consists of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
 Quantitative = ethanol = C2H6O
 Structure – arrangement of components and how they are bonded
o Different arrangements of same combination of components = isomers
o Structures rotate freely
o Dashed lines = behind dark triangles = forward

 Reactions – changes in composition and structure

o What products?
o How much of product? (stoich)
o How fast change occurs?
o What energy changes accompany rxn?

 2H + O 2H O + heat
2 2 2
 exothermic reaction  produces energy over a long period of time

Scientific Method
 Experiment (record observations)  numerical + observational
o Careful recordings and analysis of data
 Controlled conditions so we pinpoint what is causing another thing to happen
o Reproducible
 Draw a Conclusion – LAW
o Concise statement about a basic relationship or regularity of nature drawn from observations

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 True for ALL cases examined

 Ex = Law of gravity
 Model (Explanation)
o Idea that explains or correlates a number of facts  how and why
o Hypothesis – tentative model that is tested wit new experiments
 Try to come up with an experiment that will disprove your model not prove it.
o Theory – model that has been tested man times and NOT disproved
 Best idea that agrees with all KNOWN facts
 Can be outdated and tweaked  ut does ’t ha ge dra ati all

States of Matter - How fast the particles are moving and the attractive forces between those particles

Liquid molecules
move rapidly and
allows molecules
to slide over one
another  easy to
pour

Compressing a
gas decreases the
amount of space
between
molecules and
increases
frequency

Physical and Chemical Properties

 Physical – can be determined WITHOUT changing identity of substance
o Physical state, color, odor, MP, BP, density, specific heat
 Chemical – reaction with or conversion into another substance
o Flammability
 Extensive Property depends on sample size  mass, volume,
heat content
o extensive not useful for identifying a substance but
i te si e properties are / does ’t depe d o sa ple
size
 Intensive property does ’t depe d o size
o Color, MP, BP, density, specific heat

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Physical and Chemical Changes

 Physical changes – change in appearance without change in identity (ex. Change in state)
o melting = fusion (heat of fusion)  CO2 sublimes
 Chemical changes (Reactions)
o Convert substance into a chemically different substance
o Change in composition/structure

 2 K(s) + 2 H O(R) 2 KOH(aq) + H (g)

2 2
o rxn = exothermic and will ignite the potassium gas

Pure Substances and Mixtures

 Pure substances = uniform/homogeneous properties throughout
o Constant (fixed) composition  does not vary from sample to sample
o Distinct intensive properties
o Not separable by physical methods
 Mixtures = combinations of pure substances that retain their chemical identity and can be separated
o Homogeneous/solution vs. heterogeneous
o Separation by taking advantage of differences in their properties
 Filtration
 Distillation - depends on the different abilities of substances to form gases
 Chromatography – abilities of substances to adhere to the surfaces of solids

ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

Elements
 Substances that cannot be decomposed into simples substances by chemical means
 Smallest until retains the qualities of the substance
 118 elements

Periodic Table
 Arranged in order of
increasing atomic
number
o Periods =
horizontal rows
 gives
information
about atomic
structure (where
protons are
located (what
shells))
o Groups = vertical
columns 
similar physical
and chemical
properties
o 2 liquids – Hg, Br Gases – H, Hg, N, O, F, Cl, He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn

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First 30 Elements

Compounds
 composed of two ore more elements (ex. H2O)
o Chemically combined  separable into its elements by chemical means
o molecular vs. ionic compounds
(dissolve into elements)
Mixtures
 2 or more substances NOT chemically
combined  components retain their own
properties (chemical identities)
 Variable compositions
 Separable by physical methods
 Hetero – physically can be separated
o Different number of each components
 Homo – referred to as solutions
o Properties are uniform throughout
(down to molecular level)
o Pure substances are homogeneous
o Solid homo solution  alloys
o Gas is miscible  mix in all
proportions

UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS
 SI unites have base units from which all other units are derived

 Volume – liter is defined as a cube with one dm on each side

o Touch tip of glasswares when delivering
o Grad Cylinder TD = to deliver  even if stuff left, the amount is
accurately DELIVERED
o Grad Cylinder TC = to contain  contains accurate amount but
all amount wont be DELIVERED
o Pipettes and Burets(w/o air bubbles) is TD

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 Temperatures
o Conversion
 Ration = difference of number of units from
freezing to boiling
 Subtract the freezing farenheit temperature
because it is equal to 0 degrees C
 UNDERSTAND WHERE CONVERSION COMES
FROM
o Kelvin = absolute scale

 Density
o Changes with temperature
o Mass and volume = extensive
o Density = intensive
 Dividing two extensive can be intensive
 Graph  m = DV  D is slope in best fit line
(averaged out the error)
 mL = cm^3

o Specific Gravity = relative gravity  no unit

 Change with temperature
 Can tell information about health
 Less dense things float

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MEASUREMENTS AND SIG FIGS

 Precision – degree of reproducibility of repeated
measurements
o How close they are to each OTHER
o Depends on skill of MEASURER
 Accuracy – how close measurement is to TRUE VALUE
o Depends on quality of measuring DEVICE
o So eti es ou do ’t k o
o Ex. Analytical is more accurate than top balance
 Sig Figs
o All digits we know exactly plus one we estimate
o Calibration of instrument determines number of
sig figs
o Exact numbers
 Infinite number of sign figs
 By Count – Integers
 Not all integers are exact
 By Definition
 Dozen = 12, 1yd = 1ft, etc.
 1 in = 2.54 cm
o Rules
 All non zero digits  1542 = 4 sf
 Captive zeros (zeroes between sig figs) 
20.06 = 4sf 20.6 = 3sf
 Leading zeros (zeros to left of first nonzero dif are NOT sf)  0.401 = 3sf 0.004 = 1 sf
 Trailing zero (zeroes to right of last nonzero digit)  0.040 = 2 sf 400.0 = 4 sf
 Temp. is an exception, when using a beaker/ volumes
 Number ends in zero to left of decimal pt are NOT sig  400 = 1sf 4100 = 2sf
 Scientific Notation
o Sig Fig in Calc  ROUNDING 1 sf
 Result of calc must reflect accuracy of original
measurements
 Multiplication and Division 2 sf
 Answer must contain same # of sf as quantity with
least # of sig fig 3 sf
 Addition and Subtraction
 Last place in answer is last decimal place common to all numbers
 If left most number is >5 or 5 followed by non zero digits round up
 Can lose sig figs when you subtract
 If number to be discarded is 5/ 5 followed by zeroes  round down if even, round up if
odd
o Zero is considered even

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CHAPTER 2
ATOMS
 Dalto ’s Ato i Theor
o Elements composed of minute, indivisible particles called atoms
o Atoms of a given element are identical but atoms of different elements have different properties and
masses
o Atoms combine in whole numbers to form compounds (molecules)
o Atoms of one element cannot be changed into another  atoms cant be created or destroyed in rxn
 Law of Multiple Proportions
o Compounds are composed of atoms of different elements chemically combined
 Relative number of each type of atom is CONSTANT
 Law of Constant Composition
o In chemical reactions, atoms are rearranged, but the number and kind of atoms is unchanged
o Derived from law of conservation of mass
 Law of Conservation of Mass
o The total mass of materials present after a chemical reaction is the same as the total mass present
before the reaction

ATOM SIZE
 Mass
 Radius/ Volume – atoms are spherical
o Angstrom – 10^-8 to compensate for the radii scientific
notification

SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
 Electron - first particle discovered
o (JJ Thompson) CATHODE RAY TUBE **  tells it is
negatively charged
 e/m = -1.7588 X 10^8 C/g  C = Coulomb
 Charge to mass ratio
o Beta rays are electrons

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o Millikan’s Oil-Drop Experiment

 Charges of oil dropped 
determined charge of electron in
C (because all multiple of this #)
 Could then determine from
Tho pso ’s harge to ass ratio
 Proton
o Smallest massed ratio came from H
o Protons must equal to electrons for
atoms to be neutral
o Number of protons in atom are
characteristic of the element
 Neutron
o Only half of atom mass is protons so other half is neutrons

RADIOACTIVITY
 Rutherford showed that alpha and beta rays
consist of fast moving particles
o Beta rays are electrons (-1)
o Alpha rays are helium (+2)
 Gamma radiation is high energy radiation similar to
X-rays (no particles or charge)

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NUCLEAR MODEL OF THE ATOM

 Plum Pudding Model
 Rutherford foil experiment  most of the atom is empty space but sometimes when
the particles encountered something dense they scattered
o Contain a dense nucleus of protons and neutrons that accounts for the mass of
the atom
o Nucleus surrounded by electrons in motion in mostly empty space
 Moving so fast that they effectively occupy the empty space

COMPOSITION OF ATOMS
 (Z) Atomic Number = # of protons
o Neutral atom  #p = #e
o Distinguishes atoms of one element from those of another
o Whole number in block with chemical symbol  periodic table ordered by increasing atomic
number
 (A) Mass Number = #p + #n
 Elemental symbol describes composition of nucleus
 Isotopes – atoms of same element with different
numbers of neutrons
o Have same chemical properties and react the same
o Element sample contains combination of different isotopes
o A distinguishes between isotopes of the same element
o Z distinguishes different elements
 Atomic Weight – weighted average of naturally occurring isotopes expressed in amu
o based on assignment of exactly 12 amu to Carbon 12 isotope
o **mass can be lost when neutrons and protons combine in nucleus because mass
converts into energy

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PERIODIC TABLE
 Periodic Law
o Mendeleev: table based on idea that properties of elements are periodic function of their AW
 Exceptions = I/Te, Ar/K
o Moseley: proper correlation is with atomic number
o Modern Periodic Law: properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic number
 Modern Periodic Table: arrangement of elements in order of inc. atomic number placing those with
similar chem. And phys. Prop. In columns
o Groups/ Families  vertical columns
 Elements within a group have similar properties
 Labeled by Roman (I – VIII) or Arabic (1-8) numerals and letter (A or B)
 Representative Elements  main group elements (1A – 8A)
 1A – alkali metals (not H)
 2A – alkaline earth metals
 7A – halogens
 8A – noble or rare gases
 Transition Metal Element  1B – 8B
o Periods  horizontal
 Two Long rows below main body of table = inner transition elements : lanthanides and
actinides

MOLECULAR ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

 Molecular Substances – group of chemically bonded atoms which has the characteristic properties of the
substance
 Molecular Elements
o Diatomic – 2 atoms sharing elections (covalent)
 H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2,I2
o Polyatomic – P4, S8
o Allotropes – elements that can exist in different forms
under the same condition
 Ex: Carbon – diamonds, graphite, C60
 Molecular Compounds – molecules of compounds contain 2 or
more diff. elements
 Molecular Formula – actual number of each kind of atom in
molecule
o Benzene – C6H6 (6 membered ring with alternating
single and double bonds)
 Empirical Formula – relative number of atoms of each kind
in a molecule
o  smallest whole number ration of atoms
o Benzene – C1H1
o Molecular formula subscripts are some integer multiple
of subscripts in empirical formula
 Structural Formula – gives and idea about the structure of
the molecule

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IONIC SUBSTANCES
 Ions – particles that contain more/fewer electrons than protons  net electrical charge
o Total charge = #p - #e
o Anion – negative ion  gain of 1 or more e by
neutral atom
 Formation of anions is a property of
nonmetals
o Cation – positive ion resulting from loss of 1 or
more e by neutral atom
 Formation of cations is a property of metals  lose e easily
o Predicting charge using Periodic Table

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o Ionic Compounds – oppositely charged ions held together by electrostatic attractions

 Metals + Nonmetals
 Crystalline solids (salts)  bases (ex. NaOH) are
not called salts
 Formula Units – compounds are electrically
neutral
 Not a molecule but a 3D arrangement of ions
 Ionic compounds usually dissolve leading to free
floating ions —> YOU DO NOT GET INDIVIDUAL
NACL MOLECULES
 Molecular compounds rarely dissolve —> individual sugar molecules in all phases

NAMING IONS

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POLYATOMIC IONS
 Group of chemically bonded atoms with an overall charge

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CHEMICAL EQUATIONS AND REACTIONS STOICHIOMETRY

Chemical Equations – symbolic representation of a

chemical reaction

Balancing Chemical Equations

 Law of Conservation of Mass
o Mass neither created nor destroyed 
rearrangement of atoms
o # atoms of each element in reactants = # atoms of each element in products
o Balance atoms  balance mass
 General Method for Balancing Equations
o Requirements
1. Correct chemical formulas must be used for all reactants and products
2. The number of atoms of each element in the reactants must equal the number of atoms of each
element in the products
3. Any charge on the left must equal any charge on the right
4. Only the smallest whole number coefficients are acceptable
o Guidelines
1. Disregarding hydrogen, oxygen, and polyatomic ions  find the molecule containing the largest
number of atoms of a single element  balance that element first.
2. Balance polyatomic ions as a until if they remain unchanged
3. Balance hydrogen and oxygen last. If either appears in elemental form, it is balanced last.

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SIMPLE PATTERNS OF CHEMICAL REACTIVITY

 Elements in the same group tend to undergo
similar reactions
 Combination Reactions – 2 ore more reactants
combine to give 1 product

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Decomposition Reactions – single compound breaks down into 2 ore more simpler substances

Combustion Reactions

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MOLECULAR AND FORMULAR WEIGHTS

 Molecular Weights - sum of the atomic weights of
the atoms in the molecule
 Formula Weights – sum of the atomic weights of the
atoms as given in the formula
o Used for ionic substances

AVOGADRO’S NUMBER AND THE MOLE

 If we weight quantities in ratios of weights of individual
items, we obtain equal numbers of items

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EMPIRICAL FORMULA
 Express composition in grams  if %
comp is given  assume 100g sample
 Determine # moles of each element
 Divide by smallest # moles to obtain
mole/atom ratio
 Multiply by simplest factor to get whole
numbers
 Write the formula

MOLECULAR FORMULA
 Molecular formula is always some integer
multiple of the E.F.
 For compounds with CH or CHO, molecular
formula must have even # of H.

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STOICHIOMETRY & THE BALANCED EQUATION

 Determination of quantities of reactants and
products involved in chem reactions.
 Balanced chemical equations tell you how much
of the reactants and products are involved in the
rxn.
 Grams given  Grams desired Procedure
1. Calculate number of moles in given
2. Determine mole of desired
a. Use coeff. In eqn. and convert moles
give to moles desired
3. Convert moles desired to grams desired

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LIMITING REACTANT
 Reactant which is entirely consumed when a rxn goes to completion  limits amt of product formed

 THEORETICAL YIELD: amt product which can be obtained

from given amt of reactants if ALL react completely
 ACTUAL YIELD: amt usually obtained ( < theoretical yield)
 PERCENT YIELD: how close actual yield is to theoretical yield.

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REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION

 Homogeneous mixtures  same properties throughout, separable by physical means, variable comp.
 Solvent = component present in greatest amount
 Solute = other components
 Dissolution – solute is solvated by solvent -> solvent surrounds solute
 Nonelectrolytes – substances which dissolved in MOLECULAR FORM
o Prese t i oth solid a d solutio as ole ules (do ’t o e
apart to form ions)
o Do not conduct electricity
 Electrolytes – substances whose aqueous solutions
conduct electricity due to ions in solution
o Dissociation – all soluble ionic substances dissociate
completely (strong electrolyte)
o Ionization – some polar covalent molecules dissolbe
with formation of ions
 Strong Acids
 Weak Electrolytes – weak conductors b/c less
ions dissociate  partial ionization
 Weak acids and basses (carboxylic acid)

PERCIPITATION REACTIOSN
 Insoluble solid formed

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EXCHANGE (METATHESIS) RXN  DOUBLE REPLACEMENT RXN

 Precipitation Reactions
o Molecular Eqn used for quantitative calc
o Ionic shows each substance as exist in solution
 Solid ionic substances  ions(aq)
 Insoluble ionic substance  formula (s)
 Molecular strong electrolytes  ions(aq)
 Molecular
weak
electrolytes/
nonelectrolyte
s  formula
(phase)
o Net Ionic Equation

ACIDS, BASES, NEUTRALIZATION RXNS

 acids ionize in water to form H+ (aq)  proton donors
o H+ donates proton to H20 to form hydronium
o Strong acids = HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, HClO3, HClO4, H2SO4
 all others are weak and ionize partially
 Bases produce OH- (aq) in water  proton acceptors
o Strong bases = hydroxides and oxides of IA and IIA except
Be/Mg
o Weak bases = ammonia, amines (organic analogues of
ammonia)
 Lone pair on nitrogen allow them to be bases

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 Neutralization Rxns with Gas formation

o Gaseous products escape from solution.

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OXIDATION REDUCTION REACTIONS

 Loss of electron by one element and game of election by
another element.
 LEO = lose electron oxidation (inc in ox#)
 GER = gain electron reduction (dec in ox#)
 Oxidizing agent = substance that is REDUCED
 Reducing agent = substance that is OXIDIZED
 Oxidation number = charge that an atom would have if
electrons in compounds were assigned in a certain way
o Elemental form  0
o Monatomic ion  ox# = charge
o Hydrogen  +1
 Exc: Hydrides (NaH, CaH2)  -1
o Oxygen  -2
 Exc: group 1A peroxides O22- (H2O2, Na2O2)  -1
 Exc: superoxides O21- (KO2)  -1/2
o Fluorine  -1
o Halogens (Cl, Br, I)  -1
 Except when combined with a more EN element
 Sum of ox # in neutral compounds = 0
 Sum of ox # in polyatomic ion = charge
 Ox # cannot be more positive than group #

Redox Reactions
 Oxidation  increase in ox # (lose electrons)
 Reduction  decrease in ox # (gain electrons)

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DISPLACEMENT RXNS
 Single replacement rxns  one element replaces another element in a compound
 Active metals displace less active metals/hydrogen
 Most active metals lose e- most EASILY (most easily oxidized  strongest reducing agent)

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