11.3.

2 Wings
Construction;
Fuel storage;
Landing gear, pylon, control surface and high lift/drag attachments

 COMPONENTS OF WING STRUCTURE

While the design and method of manufacturing wings has changed, the basic requirements and
nomenclature remain the same. These are:

􀂾 Spars
􀂾 Ribs
􀂾 Stringers
􀂾 Skin
􀂾 End caps
􀂾 Wing tips
􀂾 Leading edge
􀂾 Trailing edge
􀂾 Root
􀂾 Torsion box
􀂾 Centre section
Diagram 3.5 shows the basic components used to produce a fabric covered light aircraft wing. Extra
torsional rigidity is achieved by using tension wires to brace the structure. The main structural component
of a conventional wing, the spar, takes all the flight loads generated by the wing and transfers them to the
fuselage structure. In very light aircraft, there may only be one spar. However, in medium transport
aircraft, it is standard to fit two spars (see diagram 3.5A). For large air transport aircraft, three spars are
normally used as seen in diagram 3.6.

 STRINGERS

Stringers are smaller span-wise members that act to support the skin and increase the wing’s rigidity
when the surface they are attached to is in compression. For alloy-skinned aircraft, stringers are attached
by either rivets or bonding to both ribs and skin.

 RIBS

Ribs that run front to rear give the wing its aerofoil cross section. They act to brace the spar and
support the skin and the stringers. They also act to spread the concentrated loads of wing mounted
engines, undercarriages, and control surfaces to the other structures. Wings can be manufactured as one
complete assembly, normally for light aircraft, or in various sections that are joined together (e.g. Airbus).

 SPARS

Diagram 3.6 shows the location of spars in large aircraft wing structure. There are normally three
spars in a large aircraft:

􀂾 Front or forward spar

􀂾 Main spar
􀂾 Rear or auxiliary spar

The front spar is designed to take the air-load acting to bend the wing backward. Where external loads
such as engines are mounted, the front spar shares some of the load.

 FUEL TANKS

TYPES

There are three types of fuel tanks used in aircraft for storing fuel:

􀂾 Rigid tanks
􀂾 Flexible tanks
􀂾 Integral tanks

Rigid tanks were the first type of fuel tank used on aircraft, as shown in diagram 10.3. The fuel is
carried in an externally mounted rigid tank allowing a gravity feed to the engine. While modern aircraft can
incorporate rigid fuel tanks fitted internally, they are no longer the main fuel storage system as they have
the following disadvantages:

􀂾 The rigid fuel tank and the extra strengthening required adds to the overall mass of
the aircraft and reduces the useful load of the aircraft.

􀂾 As they are built as a separate structure, if they are large, they have to be built up in
situ as the aircraft is manufactured, making maintenance replacement awkward.

􀂾 For practical and economic purposes, rigid tanks can only be fitted where there is
sufficient space available for a large uncomplicated shape to be manufactured.

􀂾 They have to be tied to the aircraft’s structure. This requires the surrounding structure
to be strengthened to support the added mass and cater for the acceleration/deacceleration
loads imposed by the fuel tank and its contents.

 FLEXIBLE TANKS

Flexible tanks are made from a fuel resistant rubberised fabric, which has the advantage of being lighter
than the comparable rigid tank. They can be manufactured to fit into areas where it would not be
practicable to produce and fit a rigid tank. Diagram 10.4 shows this type of tank. Being flexible (to an
extent) they are more crashworthy than either rigid or integral tanks provided that they do not get
punctured.

Some tanks have an external layer of high-density closed cell foam that swells when in contact
with fuel, so it self-seals (reducing the size of the leak). While modern aircraft can incorporate
flexible fuel tanks fitted internally, they are no longer the main fuel storage system as they have the
following disadvantages:

􀂾 There is no guarantee that the bottom of the tank is flat. It can be rucked, causing
ridges that trap water.

􀂾 The fuel from a leaking flexible tank can run down the internal structure before
showing on the exterior of the aircraft.

􀂾 The areas in which they are fitted have to be lined with tape to prevent any sharp
edges from puncturing them.

􀂾 They have to be clipped or tied to the surrounding structure to preventing them from
collapsing as the fuel is used.

􀂾 Once used with fuel, the tank must not be allowed to dry out as it can split and leak.

􀂾 Over a period of time, these tanks can become porous, so they have a finite life.

 INTEGRAL TANKS

Modern air transport aircraft use integral tanks as their main fuel storage system. These are formed by
internally sealing structures. This system allows manufacturers to utilise areas that would otherwise not
be viable as part of the aircraft’s fuel system. As the main areas used are the aircraft’s wings, the system
has been termed wet wing. In this system, sections of the wing’s structure are converted into fuel tanks.
This is achieved by coating the joints with two or more layers of rubberised sealant, which can be painted
on. The system has the advantage of being lighter and making use of structural bays that would otherwise
be left as voids. The disadvantage, as with the flexible tank, is that the rubberised sealant must not be
allowed to dry out. Otherwise, it can crack and cause the tank to leak. This weight reduction in turn allows
either more fuel to be carried to extend the aircraft’s range or more payload in place of the extra fuel. For
modern turbine-powered air transport aircraft with thinner wing sections, the utilisation of the wet wing
system allows fuel to be stored further toward the tips. Increasing the weight at the tips, counters the
upward bending action created by lift.

As most modern air transport aircraft have wings that are straight or slightly dihedral, the fuel runs from
the tips toward the wing root. Any manoeuvre that causes a wing to drop results in the fuel running back
toward the wing tip. To control the movement of fuel within the tank, baffles can be fitted. In diagram 10.6,
showing a cross section of an integral tank, the ribs have the same effect. Here the fuel is able to flow
past the rib, as there are gaps between it and the surrounding structure.

 WING MOUNTED LANDING GEAR

On light monoplanes that have fixed landing gear, such as the Piper Warrior, the main gear legs
normally attach directly to the main spar, thereby transferring the fuselage’s load via the spar to
the main gear. Large aircraft that have retractable undercarriages mounted in the wings have one
trunnion pivot point attached to the main spar and the other to supporting structures, as shown in diagram
3.9.
  Pylons

The structure of the pylons is attached to the front and main spars to spread the load created by the
engines to the wing (see diagram 3.28). As the engines protrude forward of the spars, their masses
produce a downward twisting (torsional), moment. For the airflow, the pylons act as vertical plates that
guide it rearward, reducing the under wing span wise flow. However, at the intersection of the pylon and
the wing, a pressure increase can cause the oncoming airflow to lift upward and create a vortex across
the top surface of the wing running from front to rear.
  PRIMARY CONTROL SURFACES

Ailerons act about the longitudinal axis to roll the aircraft in the rolling plane. They are
aerodynamic surfaces attached to the trailing edge of the outboard section of the wings.

Elevators act about the lateral axis to pitch the aircraft in the pitching plane. They are
aerodynamic surfaces attached to the trailing edge of the tailplane.

Rudders act about the normal axis to yaw the aircraft in the yawing plane. They are aerodynamic
surfaces attached to the trailing edge of the fin.

 HIGH LIFT DEVICES

Lift augmentation devices, also referred to as high lift devices, are a range of airflow-modifying
attachments that are fitted to either the leading or trailing edges of the aircraft’s wings. The spoilers/lift
dumpers covered earlier fall within this group. Listed below are leading and trailing edge devices.
Trailing edge flap types are:

􀂾 Plain
􀂾 Split
􀂾 Slotted
􀂾 Blown
􀂾 Fowler
􀂾 Slotted Fowler

Leading edge devices are:

􀂾 Kruger flaps
􀂾 Slots
􀂾 Fixed slats
􀂾 Retractable slats
􀂾 Droop nose

DRAG

The impedance of the airflow by components, such as fixed undercarriage legs, tries to bend the
component backward out of the airflow.

There are two types of wing-mounted speed brakes. These are vertical spoilers and hinged spoilers.
When deployed, the vertical spoiler is raised like a plate across the chord of the wing, creating drag and
turbulence, thereby reducing the lift. When stowed, the upper surface of the spoiler is flush with the top
surface of the wing. Hinging and actuating the upper surface flap fairing shrouds can form hinged
spoilers. This saves weight and is less complicated as the design adapts panels that were removable or
openable for maintenance functions. Aircraft that make use of spoilers for roll control, such as air
transport aircraft, normally use hinged spoilers. Speed brakes are designed to increase drag and spoil the
airflow over the wings on touch down, resulting in a slowing of the aircraft and a reduction in the landing
run. Reducing the lift from the wings meant that the gear felt the full weight of the aircraft more quickly,
which in turn increased the efficiency of the wheel brakes. Improvements on the basic design have
allowed these panels to be used in flight as speed brakes and roll control.