Course of Energy Systems

Steam Cycles

Department of Energy

Marco Binotti

Stefano Consonni

Paolo Chiesa

Emanuele Martelli

Luca Mastropasqua

Matteo Romano
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Contents
Contents ______________________________________________________________________________ 2

1 Generalities _________________________________________________________________________ 3

2 Basic configurations of the Rankine steam cycle ____________________________________________ 3

2.1 Ideal Saturated Steam Cycle ____________________________________________________ 3

2.2 Regenerative Steam Cycle ______________________________________________________ 7

2.3 Superheated Steam Cycle _____________________________________________________ 12

3 Choice of Cycle Parameters ____________________________________________________________ 14

3.1 Evaporation pressure _________________________________________________________ 14

3.2 Maximum Cycle Temperature __________________________________________________ 15

3.3 Condensation Pressure _______________________________________________________ 16

3.4 Number of Regenerators ______________________________________________________ 19

3.5 Number of Re-heaters ________________________________________________________ 19

Nomenclature _________________________________________________________________________ 19
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1 Generalities
Steam cycles represent the reference technology for electric energy generation from cheap and low quality
fuels (i.e. coal, oil, biomass, wastes); the thermodynamic cycle is in fact based on an external combustion
process which allows decoupling the thermal power generation, which sustains the high temperature
source of the cycle, from the working fluid of the thermodynamic process. In other words, the exhaust
gases of the combustion process do not directly contribute to the production of mechanical energy by
passing through the machines of the thermodynamic cycle, but they exchange their thermal energy with
the working fluid of the cycle. The main advantages and disadvantages of this technology shall be
straighten out around this important characteristic.

Steam cycles have had a great importance in the transportation field; well-known examples of application
are ships and trains moved by steam engines. Nowadays, however, these technologies have been
overcome by others in this sector and are therefore mainly used for stationary power generation
applications.

The thermodynamic cycle at the basis of steam power plants is the Rankine cycle.

2 Basic configurations of the Rankine steam cycle

In the following sections the basic configuration of the Rankine steam cycle are described, namely: (i) the
ideal saturated steam cycle, (ii) the regenerative steam cycle and (iii) the superheated steam cycle.

2.1 Ideal Saturated Steam Cycle

The simplest configuration of the Rankine cycle is the saturated cycle. It is made up of four main processes,
as it can be noticed by making reference to Figure 1, which represents the chief components carrying out
the whole cycle. In Figure 2, the cycle is represented on T-s and h-s diagrams.

3
Steam Turbine

Steam
Generator
(Boiler)

2
Feed Condenser
Water
Pump
1 4

Figure 1 – Steam cycle simplified layout

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T h

P 3
P

2 4
2
1
1 4

s s
Figure 2 – Saturated steam cycle thermodynamic process on T-s and h-s diagrams 1

The following four processes characterize the saturated Rankine cycle.

From 𝟏𝟏 → 𝟐𝟐: Liquid water compression – adiabatic reversible (isoentropic) compression

The work consumed by the pump per unit mass of working fluid (i.e. in 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) can be calculated from the
energy conservation equation as:
𝑝𝑝2
𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝 = ℎ2 − ℎ1 = � 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ≈ 𝑣𝑣(𝑝𝑝2 − 𝑝𝑝1 )2
𝑝𝑝1

From 𝟐𝟐 → 𝟑𝟑: Heat introduction in the cycle – isobaric heating-up

It can be broken down into two segments:

• 2 → 𝑃𝑃: liquid phase heating

• 𝑃𝑃 → 3: evaporation from liquid to saturated vapour (𝑇𝑇 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐)

The heat introduced per unit mass of working fluid (i.e. in 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) can be calculated from the energy
conservation equation as:

1
In case of ideal liquid (i.e. perfectly incompressible fluid), all isobaric curves in the liquid region would be represented
as a single curve and points 1 and 2 would be superimposed, in case of an isentropic compression (while a
temperature increase results with an ideal liquid in case of non-ideal compression with isentropic efficiency <1). Ideal
liquid equation of state is an excellent approximation of the real behaviour of water at typical condensation
temperatures and for this reason saturated liquid and compressed liquid are often represented as superimposed
points on the T-s diagram. Rigorously, liquid water shows some very small compressibility even at these temperatures
and therefore points 1 and 2 can be distinguished on the T-s diagram. The distance is however amplified in this
simplified figure. On the other hand, points 1 and 2 differ on the h-s diagram, even if considering an ideal liquid
behaviour.
2
Assuming ideal liquid behaviour, the integral can be easily calculated. The approximation of ideal liquid gives an
excellent representation of the real behaviour of liquid water at low temperature (typical condensation temperature),
while it becomes increasingly less accurate at higher temperatures.
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𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = ℎ3 − ℎ2

From 𝟑𝟑 → 𝟒𝟒: Expansion – adiabatic reversible (isoentropic) expansion

The work produced by the turbine can be calculated as:

𝑝𝑝4
𝑊𝑊𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = ℎ3 − ℎ4 = − � 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 3
𝑝𝑝3

From 𝟒𝟒 → 𝟏𝟏: Isothermobaric condensation

The heat rejected from the cycle can be calculated as:

𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = ℎ4 − ℎ1

The analysis of the ideal cycle, allows highlighting some features which are useful in the investigation of the
real one.

The ideal cycle may be divided into two sub-cycles, as represented in Figure 3:

• Cycle B: an equivalent Carnot cycle between 𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 and 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

• Cycle A: triangular-like cycle between points 1,2, 𝑃𝑃, 𝑄𝑄

Tev
P 3

B
A
2
1 Q Tcond 4

Figure 3 – Subdivision of the ideal saturated steam cycle into two sub-cycles

The efficiency of the global cycle can be evaluated as follows:

𝑊𝑊𝐴𝐴 + 𝑊𝑊𝐵𝐵 𝜂𝜂𝐴𝐴 𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐴 + 𝜂𝜂𝐵𝐵 𝑄𝑄𝐵𝐵 𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐴 𝑄𝑄𝐵𝐵

𝜂𝜂 = = = 𝜂𝜂𝐴𝐴 + 𝜂𝜂𝐵𝐵
𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐴 + 𝑄𝑄𝐵𝐵 𝑄𝑄𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑄𝑄𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑄𝑄𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

3
This integral cannot be solved easily, since it requires a complex equation of states. In fact, steam at typical pressure
and temperature encountered in steam cycles cannot be considered as an ideal gas nor an ideal liquid. Therefore, the
work of steam turbines must always be calculated from the inlet/outlet enthalpy, by using tables, Mollier’s diagram or
dedicated computational tools.
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𝑊𝑊𝐴𝐴 𝑊𝑊𝐵𝐵
Where, 𝜂𝜂𝐴𝐴 = 𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐴
and 𝜂𝜂𝐵𝐵 = 𝑄𝑄𝐵𝐵
. Therefore, the global efficiency represents the weighted average of the

single sub-cycles efficiencies, where the weights are represented by the fraction of the heat input in the
sub-cycle.

The efficiency of the Carnot-like cycle can be evaluated as:

𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝜂𝜂𝐵𝐵 = 1 −
𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

The efficiency of the triangular cycle A can be calculated assuming to subdivide the cycle in a series of
infinitesimal Carnot-like cycles, as it is represented in Figure 4.

T P

Infinitesimal
Carnot cycles

2
1 Q
s

Figure 4 – Reversible triangular cycle

Assuming that the specific heat capacity of water is not a function of temperature 4, the efficiency of cycle A
is obtainable as follows:

𝑇𝑇𝑃𝑃 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐� (𝑇𝑇 ) 𝑇𝑇𝑃𝑃

∫ 𝜂𝜂𝐶𝐶 𝑑𝑑𝑄𝑄̇ ∫𝑇𝑇2 �1 − 𝑇𝑇� ∙ 𝑐𝑐𝐿𝐿 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐𝐿𝐿 ∙ 𝑃𝑃 − 𝑇𝑇2 − 𝑐𝑐𝐿𝐿 ∙ 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∙ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � �𝑇𝑇2 � 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝜂𝜂𝐴𝐴 = = = = 1 −
∫ 𝑑𝑑𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑇𝑇𝑃𝑃
∫𝑇𝑇 𝑐𝑐𝐿𝐿 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐𝐿𝐿 ∙ (𝑇𝑇𝑃𝑃 − 𝑇𝑇2 ) 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
2

𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 −𝑇𝑇2
Where, 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑇𝑇 .
ln 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝑇𝑇2

Since 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 < 𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 , then 𝜂𝜂𝐴𝐴 < 𝜂𝜂𝐵𝐵 . Therefore, if the heat source of the steam cycle provides all the heat at
temperature higher than or equal to the evaporation temperature, it would be advisable to modify the
cycle to reduce the impact of cycle A on the energy balance and therefore increase the overall efficiency of
the cycle. From this idea, the regenerative cycle concept explained below originates.

4
Specific heat of water is not rigorously constant with temperature, but this assumption allows to obtain an analytical
explicit expression of the cycle efficiency. The general conclusion obtained can be however extended to a rigorous
case where specific heat is expressed as function of temperature.
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2.2 Regenerative Steam Cycle

In order to increase the overall efficiency of the cycle, it can be ideally designed a cycle in which the inlet
heat necessary to cycle A was made available by cycle B by means of a decreasing-entropy expansion (a
non-adiabatic reversible expansion, therefore non-isoentropic), as that represented in Figure 5.

Equal shaded areas

P 3

2
1 4

Isobaric heat-up parallel to

cooled expansion

Figure 5 – Ideal regenerative cycle with cooled expansion

The theoretical plant layout, which reproduces the mentioned ideal cycle, is represented in Figure 6;
wherein heat for water preheating is provided by the steam along the expansion in the steam turbine 5.
With this cycle, all the heat is introduced in the cycle at 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 and released at 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 . Therefore, its
efficiency is equal to the Carnot cycle efficiency operating between these temperatures, i.e. to the
efficiency of the sub-cycle B of the simple cycle previously illustrated.

3
Steam Turbine

Steam
Generator
(Boiler)
4 Condenser

2
1

Feed
Water
Pump

Figure 6 – Ideal plant layout with non-adiabatic expansion

5
A regenerative thermodynamic cycle is defined as a cycle where an internal heat transfer between the working fluid
at different temperatures and pressures is undertaken, specifically from the hotter lower pressure fluid to the colder
higher pressure one.
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In reality, efficient heat transfer processes inside machines (or turbomachines) – such as steam turbines –
are impossible to be achieved with a feasible design of the machine; the main reason is that the surfaces
which characterise turbomahines are not sufficient to transfer significant thermal power.

It is therefore impossible from the technical point of view to perform a continuous preheating of the feed
water mass flow rate before entering the steam boiler. On the other hand, it is possible to carry out a
discrete regeneration, where the liquid can be heated up exploiting the latent heat of the condensation of a
fraction of steam bled by the steam turbine. A possible application is throughout the use of mixing
regenerators, as the component labelled 𝑀𝑀 in Figure 7.

3
Steam Turbine

Steam
Generator
(Boiler)
4 Condenser
A

C B M 2

Feed
Water
Pump

Figure 7 – Regenerative steam cycle with mixing regenerator

Component 𝑀𝑀 mixes the liquid at point 2 with the steam/water mixture bled from the steam turbine at
point A in an isobaric process; the product of the mixing is an outlet flow at a higher temperature 𝑇𝑇𝐵𝐵 > 𝑇𝑇2 .
If point B is characterised by saturated liquid condition, the T-s diagram of the cycle results as that in Figure
8.

P 3

C B A

2
1 4

Figure 8 – T-s diagram of regenerative steam cycle with mixing regenerator

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It is possible to prove that the regenerative cycle has a higher efficiency than the non-regenerative one. The
efficiency of the non-regenerative cycle can be calculated as:

𝑊𝑊𝑇𝑇,𝑁𝑁 ℎ3 − ℎ4
𝜂𝜂𝑁𝑁 = =
𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛,𝑁𝑁 ℎ3 − ℎ2

Where 𝑊𝑊𝑇𝑇,𝑁𝑁 = ℎ3 − ℎ4 and 𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖,𝑁𝑁 = ℎ3 − ℎ2 , in the assumption to neglect the pump consumption
compared to the steam turbine power output (generally a reasonable hypothesis in conventional steam
cycles), are the power output and the heat input of the non-regenerative steam cycle.

Considering the regenerative cycle, it is possible to compute the steam mass flow bled from the steam
turbine (𝑚𝑚̇𝐴𝐴 ) which is required to heat the feed water up from point 2 to B. Using the mass flow at the
steam turbine outlet as a reference (i.e. 𝑚𝑚̇4 = 𝑚𝑚̇2 = 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑠𝑠), the energy balance on the mixing
regenerator (M) is thus:

ℎ𝐵𝐵 − ℎ2
𝑚𝑚̇𝐴𝐴 ℎ𝐴𝐴 + ℎ2 = (1 + 𝑚𝑚̇𝐴𝐴 )ℎ𝐵𝐵 → 𝑚𝑚̇𝐴𝐴 =
ℎ𝐴𝐴 − ℎ𝐵𝐵

Knowing that,

𝑊𝑊𝑇𝑇,𝑅𝑅 = ℎ3 − ℎ4 + 𝑚𝑚̇𝐴𝐴 (ℎ3 − ℎ𝐴𝐴 )

𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖,𝑅𝑅 = (1 + 𝑚𝑚̇𝐴𝐴 )(ℎ3 − ℎ𝐶𝐶 ) = 𝑊𝑊𝑇𝑇 + 𝑄𝑄𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = ℎ3 − ℎ4 + 𝑚𝑚̇𝐴𝐴 (ℎ3 − ℎ𝐴𝐴 ) + (ℎ4 − ℎ1 )
= ℎ3 − ℎ2 + 𝑚𝑚̇𝐴𝐴 (ℎ3 − ℎ𝐴𝐴 )

The regenerative steam cycle efficiency results:

𝑊𝑊𝑇𝑇,𝑅𝑅 ℎ3 − ℎ4 + 𝑚𝑚̇𝐴𝐴 (ℎ3 − ℎ𝐴𝐴 ) 𝑊𝑊𝑇𝑇,𝑁𝑁 + 𝑚𝑚̇𝐴𝐴 (ℎ3 − ℎ𝐴𝐴 )

𝜂𝜂𝑅𝑅 = = =
𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖,𝑅𝑅 ℎ3 − ℎ2 + 𝑚𝑚̇𝐴𝐴 (ℎ3 − ℎ𝐴𝐴 ) 𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖,𝑁𝑁 + 𝑚𝑚̇𝐴𝐴 (ℎ3 − ℎ𝐴𝐴 )

Therefore, 𝜂𝜂𝑅𝑅 > 𝜂𝜂𝑁𝑁 since 𝑚𝑚̇𝐴𝐴 (ℎ3 − ℎ𝐴𝐴 ) > 0.

It may happen that 𝑚𝑚̇𝐴𝐴 (ℎ3 − ℎ𝐴𝐴 ) = 0, and therefore 𝜂𝜂𝑅𝑅 = 𝜂𝜂𝑁𝑁 , if:

• 𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴 = 𝑝𝑝𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ⇒ 𝐴𝐴 ≡ 4, 𝐵𝐵 ≡ 2 ⇒ 𝑚𝑚̇𝐴𝐴 = 0

• 𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴 = 𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ⇒ 𝐴𝐴 ≡ 3 ⇒ ℎ3 − ℎ𝐴𝐴 = 0

It is possible to plot the difference 𝜂𝜂𝑅𝑅 − 𝜂𝜂𝑁𝑁 as a function of the bleeding pressure, as that reported in
Figure 9 for specific evaporation pressure. A maximum in the efficiency gain obtainable from the
regenerative bleedings compared to the non-regenerative case is clearly visible. Therefore, the pressure of
the bleeding flow can be optimised to maximize the cycle efficiency.
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Figure 9 – Efficiency difference between the regenerative and non-regenerative saturated steam cycle as a
function of the bleeding pressure (calculated for evaporation temperature of 295°C and condensing
temperature of 30°C).

In order to further increase the cycle efficiency, it is possible to increase the number of bleedings from the
steam turbine. This allows to perform the heating up of the feed water mass flow under littler Δ𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇. The
plant layout is consequently complicated as the one represented in Figure 10.

M M

Figure 10 – Regenerative steam cycle with multiple bleedings

In theory, assuming an infinite number of bleedings from the turbine, divided by infinitesimal expansions, a
result similar to the ideal regenerative cycle represented in Figure 5 and Figure 6 would be reached; in fact,
it would be possible to exchange heat between the bled steam and the feed water under infinitesimal Δ𝑇𝑇s.
A representation of this solution is depicted in Figure 11, wherein a comparison between the T-Q diagrams
of three feed water pre-heating lines is proposed. Therefore, with such theoretical cycle the same efficiency
as the Carnot cycle operating between 𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 and 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 would result as well.

The drawback of the cycle of Figure 10 is that each mixing regenerator requires the presence of an
additional pump, because the preheated saturated water exiting each regenerator will be at the same
pressure of the steam bled from the turbine. This complicates the plant configuration. Therefore, surface
regenerators are usually preferred instead of mixing ones. Surface regenerators are shell-and-tube heat
exchangers in which the feed water (flowing in the tubes at higher pressure) is heated up by the
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condensing steam (contained in the shell at lower pressure). In this way, only one pump is needed in the
cycle. A possible plant layout which considers this configuration is represented in Figure 12.

T T T
Condensing
Condensing bled steam bled steam (2) Infinitesimal
Tin,sg Tin,sg Tin,sg regenerative
Condensing bleedings
bled steam
(1)

T2 T2 T2

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 11 – Comparison of T-Q diagrams of feed water flow pre-heating line with (a) single regenerative
bleeding (b) two regenerative bleedings (c) distributed infinitesimal regenerative bleedings

Figure 12 – Regenerative steam cycle with shell and tube regenerators

A T-Q diagram of a surface regenerator – which employs saturated bled steam – is that reported in Figure
13:
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Condensing steam

Figure 13 – T-Q diagram of a surface regenerator

2.3 Superheated Steam Cycle

A possible methodology to increase the cycle efficiency is to upgrade the saturated cycle to a superheated
(SH) one, by heating up the saturated steam to higher temperature along an ideally isobaric process. The T-
s diagram is represented in Figure 14, were point 3 lies in the superheated steam zone of the chart.

Tsh 3

Tev
P M

B
A C
2
1 Q Tcond N 4

Figure 14 – Superheated steam cycle

It is now possible to break down the cycle into three sub-cycles. The efficiency can hence be written as:

𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐴 𝑄𝑄𝐵𝐵 𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐶

𝜂𝜂 = 𝜂𝜂𝐴𝐴 + 𝜂𝜂𝐵𝐵 + 𝜂𝜂𝐶𝐶
𝑄𝑄𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑄𝑄𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑄𝑄𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
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With respect to the saturated cycle, the contribution of sub-cycle C is now added; it is characterised by an
efficiency 𝜂𝜂𝐶𝐶 which can be calculated as follows (assuming again a constant specific heat 6).

𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝜂𝜂𝐶𝐶 = 1 −
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚,𝑐𝑐

𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠ℎ −𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
Where, 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚,𝑐𝑐 = 𝑇𝑇 .
ln� 𝑠𝑠ℎ�
𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

Since 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠ℎ > 𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 , it is evident how the efficiency of cycle C must be greater than that of cycle B (𝜂𝜂𝐶𝐶 > 𝜂𝜂𝐵𝐵 ).
This can be explained more in general because cycle C has a higher average temperature of heat
introduction than cycle B. Therefore, the additional cycle C is beneficial to the overall cycle efficiency.

Multiple superheating processes may also be adopted as an additional method to increase the cycle
efficiency; these can be done by interrupting the expansion and heating back up the steam to high
temperature. The multiple superheating processes are named re-heating (RH). The T-s diagram of a cycle
with one RH is shown in Figure 15, whist a simplified plant layout is depicted in Figure 16.

T
Tsh 3 Trh 4

P Tev
M

7
6
B C
2 A

1 Q Tcond N 5

Figure 15 – Superheated steam cycle with one re-heat

6
Similarly as before, this expression is rigorously valid if a constant specific heat is assumed for the superheated
steam. This approximation represents rather badly the real behavior of steam, especially in the area close to the
saturated vapor line. Nevertheless, the general conclusion obtained here is valid even when non-constant specific
heat is considered.
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3 4

7 5

6
1
2

Figure 16 – Plant layout of a super-heated regenerative steam cycle with one re-heat

3 Choice of Cycle Parameters

The main parameters affecting the efficiency of a steam cycle are the following:

• Evaporation pressure
• Maximum cycle temperature
• Condensation pressure
• Number of re-heaters
• Number of regenerators

The selection of these parameters is made on the basis of economic considerations and basically result
from the optimal compromise between efficiency (affecting the operating cost) and the capital costs.

3.1 Evaporation pressure

Steam cycle obtain a thermodynamic benefit from the rise of the evaporation pressure. It can be observed
from Figure 17 that the single efficiencies of the three sub-cycles A, B and C are subjected to a general rise
thanks to an increment of the evaporation pressure (and therefore of the average temperature of heat
introduction in the cycle), at constant condensation pressure and maximum superheated steam
temperature. Consequently, a rise of the overall cycle efficiency results in accordance to the weighted
average of the single sub-cycle efficiencies.
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Course of Energy Systems – Steam Cycles

T T

3 Tsh
Tsh 3

Tev
P M
Tev M
P
C
B
B
A C
2 A 4 2
1 Q Tcond N 1 Q Tcond N 4

s s

Figure 17 – Influence of the evaporation pressure on steam cycles

The reported thermodynamic advantage is maintained even when the evaporation pressure level is
brought beyond the water critical pressure (221.2 𝑏𝑏𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎); therefore, the adoption of supercritical steam
cycle is also thermodynamically suggested.

To sum up, a rise of the evaporation pressure determines:

• A rise of the cycle efficiency, due to the increase of the average temperature of heat introduction in
the cycle
• A reduction of the steam quality at the turbine outlet; this has negative effects on the isentropic
efficiency of the last turbine stages and their lifetime, since water droplets cause blades erosion
• A rise of the overall plant cost in relation to the greater thickness of the pipes walls to stand the
higher pressure

Following these last considerations an economic optimal maximum cycle pressure exists. This value, in
modern state-of-the-art (SoA) large-scale supercritical plants lies between 250 and 300 bar.

3.2 Maximum Cycle Temperature

A similar discussion can be made for the super-heated steam temperature. The rise of the maximum cycle
temperature implies i) a growth of the cycle efficiency; ii) a rise of the steam quality at the steam turbine
outlet and therefore a rise of its expansion efficiency and of expected lifetime; iii) a rise of the plant costs,
due to the higher quality materials needed to withstand the higher temperatures.

Figure 18 reports a qualitative cycle efficiency as a function of 𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 and 𝑇𝑇𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 .

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[°C]

Figure 18 – Efficiency dependence upon superheating temperature and evaporation pressure

As far as large SoA plants are concerned, typical values range between 600-620°C.

3.3 Condensation Pressure

A similar analysis may be brought forward in relation to the condensation pressure; its reduction would
determine a rise of the cycle efficiency along with a rise of the plant costs (bigger turbine outlet cross
sectional area, bigger heat exchange surfaces, higher cooling mass flow).

Consider the following cycles reported in Figure 19 in order to understand the effect of a reduction of
condensation temperature.

Tev

2
1 4
A C
2’
1’ 4’

Figure 19 – Effect of the condensation pressure on super-heated steam cycles

′
Cycle 1,2,3,4 has a condensation temperature at 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 . The cycle 1′ , 2′ , 3, 4′ condenses at 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 < 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ,
having the same turbine inlet conditions.

𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑊𝑊̇ ′ 𝑊𝑊̇ + Δ𝑊𝑊̇

𝜂𝜂 = ; 𝜂𝜂 ′ = ′ =
𝑄𝑄̇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑄𝑄̇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑄𝑄̇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + Δ𝑄𝑄̇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
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Δ𝑊𝑊̇
If 𝜂𝜂 ∗ = , then
Δ𝑄𝑄̇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

𝑊𝑊̇ + 𝜂𝜂 ∗ Δ𝑄𝑄̇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝜂𝜂 ′ =
𝑄𝑄̇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + Δ𝑄𝑄̇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

Therefore, if 𝜂𝜂 ∗ > 𝜂𝜂 ⇒ 𝜂𝜂 ′ > 𝜂𝜂.

The value of Δ𝑄𝑄̇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (difference of the inlet thermal power between the two cycles), which is represented as
the sum of the left-hand crossed shaded area and the solid-diamond filled area in Figure 19, is found as
follows:

Δ𝑄𝑄̇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 𝐿𝐿 (𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

′ ) = 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 Δ𝑇𝑇
𝐿𝐿

Where, 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 is the specific heating value of water. Being the two cycles ideal, Δ𝑊𝑊̇ is the difference in the
𝐿𝐿

areas of the two cycles (sum of right-hand crossed shaded area and the solid-diamond area). Consequently,
Δ𝑊𝑊̇ is approximately equal to Δ𝑆𝑆̇Δ𝑇𝑇, where:

ℎ4 − ℎ2 𝑥𝑥4 Δℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 )

Δ𝑆𝑆̇ = 𝑠𝑠4 − 𝑠𝑠2 = =
𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

Considering indicative values, such as:

𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 310𝐾𝐾 = 36.85°𝐶𝐶

𝑝𝑝𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0.062 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

𝑥𝑥4 = 0.85

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Δℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (310𝐾𝐾) = 2414
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 𝐿𝐿 = 4.16
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝐾𝐾
0.85∗2414
The following holds: 𝜂𝜂 ∗ = = 1.59. Then, surely 𝜂𝜂∗ > 𝜂𝜂 ⇒ 𝜂𝜂 ′ > 𝜂𝜂. Consequently, a reduction in the
4.16∗310

condensation temperature determines a rise of the efficiency.

Optimum condensation temperature largely depends upon the technology used for heat rejection to the
ambient and on the temperature of the cooling media. The following cooling systems are employed in large
scale power plants: (i) open loop water cooled condenser, where cooling water is taken from a river or the
sea and rejected to the same sink after flowing through the condenser, (ii) air cooled condenser and
(iii) semi-closed loop water cooled condenser, where cooling water flowing through the condenser is
cooled in a cooling tower by direct contact with ambient air and then returned at lower temperature to the
condenser. The condensation system influences the outcomes of the techno-economic optimisation, since
the heat exchange performances and the resulting exchange surface would be appreciably different. In
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particular, water cooled systems are characterized by higher heat transfer coefficients and therefore lower
heat transfer surfaces with respect to air cooled systems for given ambient and condensation
temperatures. The qualitative diagram reported in Figure 20, represents the result of an optimisation
analysis which compares air-cooled and water-cooled condensation technologies.

Min costs values

Total costs air
condenser
Total costs water
condenser

Fuel costs

Air condenser HE
costs

Water condenser HE costs

Figure 20 – Qualitative investment and O&M cost trends for a condenser

While fuel costs depends only on the efficiency of the steam cycle, since they are related to its
thermodynamic efficiency, capital cost of the condenser largely depends on the cooling system. As a result,
optimal condensation temperatures (i.e. minimizing the total cost of electricity) are higher in air-cooled
condensers than in water-cooled ones. In Table 1, indicative design values of the condensation-ambient
temperature difference are reported for the three types of cooling system employed in power plants.
Derived values of condensation temperature and pressure are also shown for ambient temperature of
15°C.

Table 1 – Typical design values of condensation and ambient temperature differences and derived
condensation temperature and pressure in case of design ambient temperature of 15°C
Open loop water cooled Air cooled condenser Closed loop water cooled
condenser condenser with cooling tower
Tcond-Tamb, °C 12-15 25-35 18-25
Condensation temperature (for 27-30 40-50 33-40
design Tamb=15°C), °C
Condensation pressure (for 0.036-0.042 0.074-0.12 0.050-0.074
design Tamb=15°C), bar
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3.4 Number of Regenerators

The number of regenerative water preheaters constitutes an additional parameter which is subjected to a
techno-economic optimisation during the design of a steam cycle. Indeed, a rise of their number generates
an increment to the plant investment cost other than to the plant complexity. At the same time, however,
we have already mentioned how the energy conversion efficiency is favourably increased thanks to the
contextual rise of the average temperature of heat introduction into the cycle. This already well-known
trade-off generally suggests a number of regenerative pre-heater between 7 and 9, in large SoA plants.

3.5 Number of Re-heaters

The number of re-heaters is the last fundamental design parameter of steam cycles. As for the number of
regenerators, their introduction is beneficial from a thermodynamic perspective, because it contributes to
the rise of the average temperature of heat introduction into the cycle. In addition, it offers the advantage
to increase the steam quality at the steam turbine last stages. This improvement comes along with
additional costs and more complex plant layouts. In fact, the expansion needs to be interrupted in order to
place the re-heating section, thus requiring additional turbine sections too.

In the industrial practice large power plants always have at least 1 RH. Rarely, some configurations have
been designed with two re-heaters.

Nomenclature
𝑚𝑚̇ [𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑠𝑠 −1 ] Mass flow rate
ℎ [𝐽𝐽 𝑘𝑘𝑔𝑔−1 ] or [𝐽𝐽 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 −1 ] Enthalpy
𝑠𝑠 [𝐽𝐽 𝑘𝑘𝑔𝑔−1 𝐾𝐾 −1 ] or [𝐽𝐽 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 −1 𝐾𝐾 −1 ] Entropy
ℎ0 [𝐽𝐽 𝑘𝑘𝑔𝑔−1 ] or [𝐽𝐽 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 −1 ] Enthalpy of formation
𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 [𝐽𝐽 𝑘𝑘𝑔𝑔−1 𝐾𝐾 −1 ] Mass specific heating value
𝑇𝑇 [𝐾𝐾] Temperature
𝑀𝑀̇ [𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑠𝑠−1 ] Molar flow rate
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 [𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑔𝑔−1 ] Lower Heating Value
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 [𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑔𝑔−1 ] Higher Heating Value
𝑊𝑊̇ [𝑊𝑊] Mechanical work rate (mechanical power)
𝑄𝑄̇ [𝑊𝑊] Thermal power
𝑥𝑥 [−] Molar fraction
Subscripts
cond Condensation condition
ev Evaporation conditions
SH Super-heating
RH Re-heat
ml Mean logarithm