QNA > MvwYwZK m~ÎmgMÖ > 165

cÖ_g Aa¨vq : Z_¨ I †hvMv‡hvM cÖhyw³ : wek¦ I evsjv‡`k †cÖwÿZ

GK bR‡i wek¦MÖvg I evsjv‡`k †cÖwÿZ welqK mswkøó welqvewj

welqe¯‘ Avwe®‹viK m„wóKg© cªfve

wek¦MÖvg nvevU© gvk©vj w` ¸‡UbevM© mdj:
Dcv`vb: g¨vKjynvb M¨vjvw· (e&B) 1. mn‡R I `yªZ c„w_ex
1. nvW©Iq¨vi bvMwiK: KvbvWv 1962 Ry‡o †hvMv‡hvM|
2. mdUIq¨vi Rb¥: RyjvB 21,1911 AvÛvi÷¨vwÛs 2. wkÿv e¨e¯’vi
3. Kv‡bKwUwfwU g„Zz¨: wW‡m 31, wgwWqv (eB) DbœwZ|
BZ¨vw` 1980 1964 Kzdj:
1. B›Uvi‡bU n¨wKs‡qi
gva¨‡g Z_¨ Pzwi|
2. mvBevi AvµgY|
fvP©yqvj wi‡qwjwU R¨vib R¨vcj †jwb BÝUªy‡g›U Ad †PÄ mydj:
Dcv`vb: bvMwiK: hy³iv‡óª ( cªKkbv), 1994 1. `ÿ Wv³vi ˆZwi
1. fvP©yqvj Iqvì© Rb¥-g„Zy¨: 2. `ÿ ˆmwbK ˆZwi
2. Bgvimb ‡g 3, 1960 (eqm- 3. WªvBfvi cÖwkÿY
3. †mÝi BZ¨vw`| 57) Kydj:
1. `vgx hš¿cvwZi
e¨envi
2. e¨envi LyeB Kg
AvwU©wdwmqvj Rb c¨vwUªK AvwU©wdwmqvj mydj:
Bw›Uwj‡RÝ g¨vKK¨vw_© Bw›Uwj‡RÝ, 1. PvKzwi myweav
Dcv`vb: bvMwiK: hy³ivóª 1956, 1950 2. ÿwZi m¤¢vebv Kg
1. †iv‡evwU· Rb¥: †m‡Þ 4, 1927 3. Jla wn‡m‡e KvR
2.wfkb wm‡÷g g„Zz¨: A‡±v 24,2011 K‡i
BZ¨vw` Kzdj:
1.`vwg hš¿cvwZ e¨envi
2. Ace¨env‡ii
m¤¢vebv
‡iv‡evwU· RR© Pvj©m †Wfj c¨v‡U›U dj mydj:
Dcv`vb: bvMwiK: hy³ivóª BDwb‡gU, 1954 1. wekÖv‡gi cÖ‡qvRb
1. †m‡Ýi Rb¥: †diªy 20, 1912 nq bv|
2. †gvUi WªvBwfs g„Zy¨: AMv 11. 2011 2. KwVb Kv‡R
BZ¨vw` cvi`k©x
 QNA > MvwYwZK m~ÎmgMÖ > 166
3. `ÿ I wbf©yj
djvdj
Kydj:
1. †gwkb wbf©ikxjZv
evovq
2. gvbeZv Kg‡Q
3. Avjm¨ evo‡Q
µv‡qvmvR©vwi ‡Rgm AvibU µv‡qvmvR©vwi mydj:
Dcv`vb: bvMwiK: hy³ivR¨ (cÖKvkbv), 1851 1. cvk¦© cÖwZwµqv †bB|
1. µv‡qv‡cÖve Rb¥: 1997 2. e¨_vgy³
2. bvB‡Uªv‡Rb M¨vm g„Zz¨: 1883 3. SzuwK Kg
BZ¨vw` Kydj:
1. `ÿ Wv³v‡ii
cÖ‡qvRb
2. memgq ‡mev cvIqv
hvq bv
3. LiP †ewk
ev‡qv‡gwUª· AvBR¨vK Awmgf w` dvD‡Ûkb mydj:
Dcv`vb: bvMwiK: hy³ivóª wmwid w` †iveU 1. wek¦vm‡hvM¨Zv †ewk
kvixwiK Rb¥: Rvby 2, 1920 wmwiR BZ¨vw`, 2. mÿgZv †ewk
gyL, †PvL BZ¨vw` g„Zz¨: Gwcªj 6, 1992 1942 3. MÖnY‡hvM¨Zv †ewk
AvPiYMZ KÚ¯^i, Kzdj:
`¯ÍLZ 1. e¨envi Kg
2. `ÿ Rbe‡ji
cÖ‡qvRb
3. `vwg hš¿cvwZi
e¨envi
ev‡qv Bbdi‡gwU· cIwjb †nv‡MvI‡qM ev‡qv Bbdi‡gwU· mydj:
Dcv`vb: bvMwiK: WvP 1970 1. myweavRbK hvPvB
1. ch©vqµwgK Rb¥-g„Zz¨: 2. mgq `ÿZv
MvwYwZK aviv wW‡m 24, 1943 3. mwVKfv‡e hvPvB
2. DNA I RNA ‡eb n¨vmcvi Kzdj:
MvwYwZK m¤¢vebv bvMwiK: Z_¨ ARvbv 1.M‡elYvq LiP †ewk
Rb¥-g„Zz¨: Z_¨ ARbv 2. ÿwZi m¤¢vebv †ewk

‡RwbwUK BwÄwbqvwis nvevU© †ivqvi ev‡qvjwR, 1983 mydj:

Dcv`vb: bvMwiK: hy³ivóª 1. DbœZ dmj
1. DNA 2. A_©‰bwZK Dbœqb
 QNA > MvwYwZK m~ÎmgMÖ > 167
2. RNA Rb¥-g„Zy¨: Ryjv 10, 3. `ywfÿ `~ixKiY
3. †µv‡gv‡Rvg 1936 (eqm) 81 ‡mvwm‡qvjwR, Kzdj:
÷¨bwj †Kv‡nb 1973 1. ÿwZi m¤¢vebv †ewk
bvMwiK: `wÿY 2. M‡elYvq LiP †ewk
Avwd«Kv 3. Ace¨env‡ii
Rb¥: †deªy 23, 1942 m¤¢vebv
g„Zz¨: Rvby 7, 2013
b¨v‡bv †UK‡bvjwR wiPvW© wdg¨b w_DwiwUK¨vj mydj:
Dcv`vb: bvMwiK: hy³ivó wdwR·, 1959 1. cÖv_wgK †ivM wbY©q
1. dzjv‡ib Rb¥: ‡g 11, 1918 2. cÖhyw³i Dbœqb evqy
2. Kve©b b¨v‡bv wUDe g„Zz¨: †deªy 15, 1988 3. `~lYgy³KiY
3. b¨v‡bv cvwU©K¨vj ‡bvwiI Uvwb¸wP ‡ewmK Kb‡÷ Ad Kydj:
bvMwiK: Rvcvb b¨v‡bv †UK‡bvjwR 1. AviI M‡elYv
Rb¥: †g 27, 1912 1974 cÖ‡qvRb
g„Zz¨: b‡f 15, 1999 2. miKvwifv‡e me
b¨v‡bv Dcv`vb
e¨env‡ii AbygwZ †bB
3. b¨v‡bv Dcv`vb `vwg

wØZxq Aa¨vq : †WUv KwgDwb‡Kkb I Kw¤úDUvi †bUIqvwK©s

wewfbœ †gvevBj †dvb †Rbv‡ik‡bi ga¨Kvi Zzjbv

welqe¯‘ 1g †Rbv‡ikb 2q †Rbv‡ikb 3q †Rbv‡ikb 4_© †Rbv‡ikb

‡gvevB‡ji
AvK…wZ
e¨vwßKvj 1979-1990 1991-2000 2001-2008 2009- eZ©gvb
cÖ_g ïiæi ¯’vb USA Finland Japan South Korea
evsjv‡`‡k 1989 1996 A‡±vei, 2012 ‡deªæqvwi, 2018
ïiæi mgqKvj
wmMb¨vj A¨vbvjM wWwRUvj wWwRUvj wWwRUvj
wm‡÷g
IRb Ges ‡ewk Av‡Mi Zzjbvq Av‡iv Kg Av‡iv Kg
D”PZv Kg
cÖhyw³ AMPS, IS-95, GSM IMT2000,JK LTE,
NMT, WCDMA WIMAX
TACSF
 QNA > MvwYwZK m~ÎmgMÖ > 168
P¨v‡bj FDMA CDMA, WCDMA LTE
A¨vK‡mm FDMA HSDPA
wm‡÷g TDMA
myBwPs UvBc mvwK©U (KÚ) I c¨v‡KU myBwPs c¨v‡KU myBwPs c¨v‡KU myBwPs
c¨v‡KU myBwPs
(‡WUv)
‡WUv UªvÝdvi 204 Kbps- 14.4 kbps 3.1 Mbps 100 Mbps
†iU 14.4 Kbps
g~j ˆewkó¨ ïaygvÎ K_v ejv GKm‡½ eny gvwëwgwWqv D”PMwZm¤úbœ,
e¨enviKvixi myweav Ges cÖK„Z mg‡q
GKB P¨v‡b‡ji wfwWI Kj m¤úªPvi
e¨envi
we‡kl ‰ewkó¨ 1g Iq¨vi‡jm IG Gi wWwRUvj A‡bK `ªæZ
KwgDwb‡Kkb wWwRUvji~c eªRe¨vÛ Ges MwZnRm¤úbœ
MwZi e„w×
mv‡cvU© wm‡÷g ïaygvÎ K_v ejv K_v Ges †WUv K_v Ges †WUv K_v Ges †WUv
(‡U·U) †U·U, Qwe, †U·U, wÎ-gvwÎK
wfwWI) Qwe, wfwWI)
e¨vÛDB_ A¨vbvjvM 25 MHz 25MHz 100 MHz
Acv‡iwUs 800 MHz GSM: 2100 MHz 850 MHz
wd«Kz‡qwÝ 900MHz, 1800 MHz
1800 MHz
CDMA: 800
MHz
e¨v‡Ûi b¨v‡ive¨vÛ b¨v‡ive¨vÛ eªWe¨vÛ AvjUªveªRe¨vÛ
(wd«Kz‡qwÝ)aib
wd«Kz‡qwÝi 30 KHz 200 KHz 5 MHz 15 MHz
evnK
‡ivwgs myweav ‡bB Av‡Q Av‡Q Av‡Q
‡g‡gvwi Aa©cwievnx cwievnx cwievnx cwievnx
B›Uvi‡bU e¨envi Kiv †hZ b¨v‡ive¨vÛ eªWe¨vÛ Av‡ëªveªWe¨vÛ
bv
myweav ms‡hv‡Mi Rb¨ gvwëwgwWqv D”P wbivcËv `ªæZMwZ, D”P
miiZg (SMS, Ges MwZm¤ú
Dcv`v‡bi MMS) &B›Uvb¨vkbvj n¨vÛAd,
e¨envi B›Uvi‡bU Ges ‡ivwgs-Gi e¨e¯’v MIMO cÖhyw³,
wm‡gi e¨envi wek¦e¨vcx
MwZkxjZv
 QNA > MvwYwZK m~ÎmgMÖ > 169
Amyweav ¯^í aviYÿgZv, Kg †bUIqvK© D”PgvÎvi we`y¨r ev¯Íevqb KwVb,
Awbivc`, wekvj we¯Í…wZ, †WUv kw³, Kg RwUj
AvK„wZi †gvevBj ¯’vbvšÍ‡ii MwZ †bUIqvK© we¯Í…wZ nvW©Iq¨v‡ii
†dvb BZ¨vw`| Kg cÖhyw³ wbeÜb e¨envi
e¨qeûj
e¨envi ïaygvÎ K_v ejv K_v †U·U wfwWI D”P MwZm¤úbœ
†g‡mR I Kbdv‡iwms †gvevBj TV,
AvswkK eªvDwRs †gvevBj TV I me©Î e¨envi‡hvM¨
wRwcGm
D`vniY NMT, AMPS GSM-900, GSM , Wi-max,
GSM-R, EDGE, Flash-
GSM 1800 UMTS Ges OFDM Ges 3
BZ¨vw` CDMA- GPPLTE
2000

wewfbœ †bUIqv‡K©i g‡a¨ Zzjbv

welqe¯‘ c~Y©bvg MwZ ‡bUIqv‡K© gva¨‡g LiP Kw¤úDUv‡ii

i AvKvi msL¨v
PAN Personal LyeB Kg LyeB †QvU eøyUz_, LyeB LyeB Kg
Area (10 USB Kg
Network wgUvi)
LAN Local Area `ªæZ 10- ‡QvU UzB‡÷W Kg Kg msL¨K
Network 1000 (2500 ‡cqvi
Mbps wgUvi) K¨vej
CAN Campus `ªæZ (10- ‡QvU UzB‡÷W Kg Kg msL¨K
Area 1000 (2500 †cqvi
Network Mbps) wgUvi) K¨vej
MAN Metropoliti Kg (100 eo (200 UzB‡÷W ‡ewk ‡ewk msL¨K
on Area Mbps) wK.wg.) †cqvi I
Network dvBevi
AcwUK
K¨vej
WAN Wide Area me‡P‡q eo me‡P‡q dvBevi A‡bK A‡bK ‡ewk
Network (wek¦e¨vcx) Kg MwZ AcwUK †ewk msL¨K
(1.5 K¨vej,
Mbps) m¨v‡UjvBU,
†iwWI
I‡qÛ
 QNA > MvwYwZK m~ÎmgMÖ > 170

‡bUIqvK© wWfvBmmg~‡ni Zzjbv Q‡Ki gva¨‡g †`Lv‡bv n‡jv

wgwWqv UvBc msÁv cÖKvi‡f` MwZ
nve (Hub) GwU †bUIqvK© I wWfvB‡mi Kv‡b±i 2 cÖKvi h_v mwµq WvUvi MwZ
c‡q›U| A_©vr 2 Gi AwaK ‡cvU©hy³ nve I wbw®Œq nve Kg _v‡K
wWfvBm‡K nve e‡j|
myBP ‡h wWfvBm †cÖwiZ wmMb¨vj‡K MÖn‡Yi ci bvB ‡ewk
(Switch) Uv‡M©U Kw¤úDUv‡i †cÖiY K‡i Zv‡K myBP
e‡j|
wiwcUvi ‡h wWfvBm cÖevwnZ wmMb¨vj‡K cybivq bvB †ewk
(Repeter) kw³kvjx I AwaK `~iZ¡ AwZµg Kivi
Rb¨ e¨envi Kiv nq, Zv‡K wiwcUvi
e‡j|
ivDUvi ‡h wWfvBm †WUv †cÖi‡Yi †ÿ‡Î me‡P‡q 2 cÖKvi h_v- ‡ewk
(Router) Kg `~i‡Z¡i cv_ e¨envi K‡i, Zv‡K ÷¨vwUK I
ivDUvi e‡j| WvBbvwgK
‡MUI‡q ‡h wWfvBm wewfbœ ai‡Yi †cÖv‡UvKj mg„× bvB †ewk
(Gateway) †bUIqvK ¸‡jv‡K mshy³ K‡i Zv‡K
†MUI‡q e‡j|
weªR ‡h wWfvBm GKvwaK j¨v‡bi †fZi ms‡hvM 3 cÖKvi- Kg
(Bridge) ¯’vc‡bi Rb¨ e¨eüZ nq, Zv‡K weªR ‡jvKvj weªR,
e‡j| wi‡gvU weªR,
Iq¨vi‡jm weªR

wgwWqv UvBc ‡bUIqvK© UªvwdK g~j¨ ‡WUvi msNl© ‡WUv wdëvwis

nve (Hub) e„w× cvq g~j¨ Kg ‡WUv msNl© m¤¢e bq
nIqvi m¤¢vebv
_v‡K
myBP e„w× cvq bv wKQzUv †ewk m¤¢vebv _v‡K bv m¤¢e
(Switch)
 QNA > MvwYwZK m~ÎmgMÖ > 171
wiwcUvi e„w× cvq bv g~j¨ †ewk m¤¢vebv _v‡K m¤¢e
(Repeter)
ivDUvi e„w× cvq bv g~j¨ †ewk m¤¢vebv _v‡K m¤¢e
(Router)
‡MUI‡q e„w× cvq bv g~j¨ †ewk m¤¢vebv _v‡K bv m¤¢e
(Gateway)
weªR e„w× cvq g~j¨ †ewk m¤¢vebv _v‡K bv m¤¢e
(Bridge)

‡cvU©
wgwWqv UvBc myweav Amyweav
msL¨v
nve (Hub) Kg 1. `vg Kg| 1. †WUv wdëvwis Kiv
hvq bv|
myBP ‡ewk 1. wmMb¨vj‡K wdëvi K‡i| 1. MVb RwUj|
(Switch) 2. wmMb¨vj‡K wbw`©ó
Kw¤úDUv‡i cvVvq|
wiwcUvi ‡ewk 1. b‡qR `~i K‡i| 1. †WUvi msNl© NUvi
(Repeter) 2. †ewk `~i‡Z¡ wmMb¨vj m¤¢vebv _v‡K|
†cÖi‡Y e¨eüZ nq|
ivDUvi ‡ewk 1. †WUvi msNl© N‡U bv| 1. nve I myBP †_‡K
(Router) 2. wmMb¨vj‡K wdëvi MVb RwUj|
K‡i| 2. †UbIqvK© A¨v‡Wªm
GKwU †Uwe‡j Rgv iv‡L|
‡MUI‡q ‡ewk 1. wfbœ †cÖv‡UvK‡ji 1. Af¨šÍixY MVb RwUj|
(Gateway) †bUIqv‡K©i mshy³ K‡i|
2. †ewk `ÿ
weªR ‡ewk 1. wmMb¨vj‡K wdëvi K‡i| 1. wfbœ mdU&Iq¨vi
(Bridge) 2. wewfbœ ‡bUIqvK©‡K hy³ e¨envi Ki‡Z nq|
Kiv hvq|
 QNA > MvwYwZK m~ÎmgMÖ > 172
Z…Zxq Aa¨vq : msL¨v c×wZ I wWwRUvj wWfvBm

wewfbœ cÖKvi †Kv‡Wi Zzjbvg~jK QK

‡KvW I c~Y©bvg Avwe®‹viK mvj ‡gvU we‡Ui msL¨v

evBbvwi †KvW MUwd«W wjewbR 1679 2(0/1)
A±vj †KvW 7g ivRv Pvj©m (myB‡Wb) 1716 3 weU = 8(0-7)
‡Wwmgvj †KvW wn›`y-A¨vivweK 1911 10(0-9)
‡n·v‡Wwmgvj †KvW Rb DBwjqvg bvB÷ªg 1859 4 weU = 16
(0-9, A-F)
BCD CODE AvBweGg (IBM) 1928 4 weU
(evBbvwi †Kv‡WW
†Wwmgvj †KvW)
AvjdvwbD‡gwiK AvBweGg (IBM) 1837 ‡gvm©
†KvW/A¨vjdv‡ewUK Ges †KvW
wbD‡gwiK †KvW
(A¨vmwK+‡gvm© +
BDwb‡KvW +
BwewmwWAvBwm)
ASCII CODE ANSI (A¨vmwK †KvW) 1963 7/8 weU =
(A¨v‡gwiKvb ÷¨vÛvW© 128 / 256
‡KvW di Bbdi‡gkb
B›Uvi‡PÄ)
ASCII-7 1965
(ievU© DBwjqvg wegv)
EBCDIC CODE AvBweGg (IBM) 1950-64 8 weU = 256
(G·‡U‡ÛW evBbvwi
Bbdi‡gkb †KvW)
 QNA > MvwYwZK m~ÎmgMÖ > 173
BDwb‡KvW / BDwbfvm©vj A¨vcj (gvK© †Wwfm) + 1987 16 weU
†KvW / me©Rbxb †KvW †Ri· (‡Rv †eKvi) = 65,536
K‡c©v‡ikb
‡gvm© †KvW m¨vgy‡qj Gdwe †gvm© 1837 Ab-Ad/jvBU wmMb¨vj
/ wK¬K
‡MÖ †KvW / evBbvwi d«vsK †MÖ 1947
wm‡÷‡gi cÖwZ”Qwe ev
evBbvwi wbD‡gwiK¨vj
wm‡÷g

‡KvW I c~Y©bvg e¨envi D`vniY

evBbvwi ‡KvW 1. Kw¤úDUvi I Ab¨vb¨ B‡j±ªwb· wWfvB‡m (7)10 = (112)2
e¨envi nq
A±vj †KvW 1. eo evBbvwi msL¨v‡K †QvU Kivi Rb¨ (34)10 = (42)10
e¨eüZ nq|
2. wWwRUvj Kw¤úDUvi I gvB‡µvcÖ‡mmi G
ms‡hvM ¯’vc‡bI e¨eüZ nq|
†Wwmgvj †KvW 1. mvaviY mKj Kg©Kv‡Û e¨eüZ nq| (34)10 = (34)16
BCD CODE 1. ev‡qvm G ‡WUv msiÿ‡Y e¨eüZ nq| (34)10 = 0011
(evBbvwi †Kv‡WW 2. †h †Kvb B‡jKUªwb· wWfvB‡m †WUv 0100) BCD
‡Wwmgvj †KvW) msiÿ‡Y e¨eüZ nq|
AvjdvwbD‡gwiK 1. †WUv KwgDwb‡Kkb I †WUv UªvÝdv‡ii A = (65)10
‡KvW/ A¨vjdv‡ewUK †ÿ‡Î wbqgbxwZ wba©viY K‡i| = 01000001
Ges wbD‡gwiK †KvW
(A¨vmwK + †gvm© +
BDwb‡KvW +
BwewmwWAvBwm)
ASCII CODE 1. wewfbœ ai‡Yi eY© cÖKv‡k e¨eüZ nq| A = (65)10
= 01000001
 QNA > MvwYwZK m~ÎmgMÖ > 174
(A¨v‡gwiKvb ÷¨vÛvW©
†KvW di Bbdi‡gkb
B›Uvi‡PÄ)
EBCDIC CODE 1. AvBweGg †gBb‡d«g wgW‡iÄ A = (193)10
(G·‡U‡ÛW evBbvwi Kw¤úDUv‡ii Acv‡iwUs wm‡÷g ˆZwi‡Z = 1100 0001
Bbdi‡gkb †KvW) e¨eüZ nq|
2. AvBweGg wgW‡iÄ Kw¤úDUv‡ii
Acv‡iwUs wm‡÷g ‰Zwi‡Z e¨eüZ nq|
BDwb‡KvW/BDwbfvm©vj 1. wewfbœ ai‡Yi eY© I †jLv cÖKv‡k e¨eüZ A = /u0041
†KvW/ me©Rbxb †KvW nq|
2. mKj fvlvi †KvW ˆZwi‡ZI e¨eüZ nq|
‡gvm© †KvW 1. mvaviY †iwWI Pvjv‡Z e¨eüZ nq|
2. cvBjU I Gqvi UªvwdK K‡›Uªvj G e¨eüZ
nq|
‡MÖ †KvW/ evBbvwi 1. wWwRUvj KwgDwb‡Kk‡bi †ÿ‡Î fzj (34)8 = (011 100)2
wm‡÷‡gi cÖwZ”Qwe ev ms‡kva‡b e¨eüZ nq| = (011100) †MÖ †KvW
evBbvwi wbD‡gwiK¨vj
wm‡÷g

eywjqvb Dccv`¨ (Boolean Theorem)

‡hme Dccv`¨ e¨envi K‡i RR© eyj (George Boole) mKj cÖKvi hyw³MZ wel‡qi
MvwYwZK iƒc cÖ`vb K‡ib †m¸‡jvB g~jZ eywjqvb Dccv`¨| eywjqvb A¨vj‡Reivi mvaviY Dccv`¨¸‡jv
wb‡P †jLv n‡jv:
‡gŠwjK Dccv`¨ (Basic Theorem): mnvqK Dccv`¨
‡hv‡Mi †ÿ‡Î ¸‡Yi †ÿ‡Î (Secondary Theorem):
•A+0=A • A. 0 = 0 • A (A+B) = A
•A+1=1 •A.1=A • A + AB = A
•A+A=A •A.A=A •A+ AB= A+ B
 QNA > MvwYwZK m~ÎmgMÖ > 175

•A+ A =1 •A. A =0 • A + AB = A + B
wewbgq Dccv`¨ •A+ A B =A+ B
(Commulative Theorem): • A= A
•A+B=B+A wefvRb Dccv`¨ (Distributed
• A.B = B.A Theorem):
Abyl½ Dccv`¨ (Associative Theorem): • A(B+C) = AB + AC
• A + (B+C) = (A+B) + C • A + BC = (A+B) (A+C)
• A(BC) = (AB)C • A + AB = A + B
mswÿß †kvlYm~Î (Absorptive Law): • A  B = AB + AB
• A + AB = A
• A  B = AB = A B
• A.(A+B) = A
• A. ( A +B) = B

eywjqvb A¨vj‡Reiv †hv‡Mi wbqg: eywjqvb A¨vj‡Reiv ¸‡Yi wbqg:

i. 0 + 0 = 0 ii. 0 + 1 = 1 i. 0.0 = 0 ii. 0.1 = 0
iii. 1 + 0 = 1 iv. 1 + 1 = 1 iii. 1.0 = 0 iv. 1.1 = 1

wW-giM¨v‡bi m~Î I cÖgvY

Avwe®‹viK:
Bs‡iR MwYZwe` wW-giM¨vb (De Morgan) eywjqvb A¨vj‡Reivi †ÿ‡Î `ywU Dccv`¨ Avwe®‹vi
K‡ib|
bvgiKY:
De Morgan- Gi bvg Abymv‡i Dccv`¨ `yÕwU‡K wW-giM¨v‡bi m~Î ev Dccv`¨ ejv nq| evBbvwi
c×wZi MvwYwZK KvRK‡g© m~Î `yÕwU LyeB ¸iæZ¡c~Y© f‚wgKv cvjb K‡i _v‡K| `yB Pj‡Ki Rb¨ wW-
giM¨v‡bi Dccv`¨ `ywU n‡jv-
1. A + B = A.B
2. AB = A+B
jwRK †MB‡Ui gva¨‡g cÖ_g Dccv‡`¨i e¨vL¨v
 QNA > MvwYwZK m~ÎmgMÖ > 176
A I B `ywU Pj‡Ki †hvMd‡ji Kgwcø‡g‡›Ui djvdj PjK¸‡jvi Kgwcø‡g‡›Ui ¸Yd‡ji mgvb|
¸Yd‡ji mgvb|

jwRK ‡MB‡Ui gva¨‡g wØZxq Dccv‡`¨i e¨vL¨v

A I B `ywU Pj‡Ki ¸Yd‡ji Kgwcø‡g‡›Ui djvdj PjK¸‡jv Kgwcø‡g‡›Ui †hvMd‡ji mgvb|

wW-giM¨v‡bi Dccv‡`¨i cÖgvY: A I B `ywU Pj‡Ki Rb¨ wW-giM¨v‡bi m~Î `ywUi cÖgvY mZ¨K mviwYi
gva¨‡g Lye mn‡RB Kiv hvq| wb‡¤œ mviwY †`Lv‡bv n‡jv-

1g m~Î 2q m~Î
A B A B A+B A+B A.B AB AB A+B
0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

mZ¨K mviwYi gvb ch©‡eÿY K‡i †`Lv hvq †h, A I B `ywU Pj‡Ki mKj gv‡bi Rb¨-
1. A + B = A.B
2. AB = A+B
myZivs, wW-giM¨v‡bi m~Î `ywU mZ¨K mviwYi gva¨‡g cÖgvwYZ nj|
A, B I C wZbwU Pj‡Ki Rb¨ wW-giM¨v‡bi Dccv`¨¸‡jv wb¤œiƒc:
1. A + B + C = A. B. C
2. ABC = A+B+C
wb‡¤œ mZ¨K mviwYi gva¨‡g Dccv`¨ `ywU cÖgvY Kiv n‡jv-
A B C A B C A+B+C A + B+ C A.B.C ABC
ABC A + B+ C
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
 QNA > MvwYwZK m~ÎmgMÖ > 177
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

1g m~Î 2q m~Î

wPÎ : mZ¨K mviwY ev Uªy_ †Uwej

Dchy³ mZ¨K mviwYi gvb ch©‡eÿY K‡i †`Lv hvq †h, A, B I C wZbwU Pj‡Ki mKj gv‡bi Rb¨-
1. A+ B+C = A.B.C
2. ABC = A+B+C

myZivs, wZbwU Pj‡Ki wW-giM¨v‡bi m~Î `ywU mZ¨K mviwYi gva¨‡g cÖgvwYZ nj|
n msL¨K Pj‡Ki Rb¨ wW-giM¨v‡bi Dccv`¨:
n msL¨K Pj‡Ki Rb¨ wW-giM¨v‡bi Dccv`¨ `ywU wb¤œiƒcÑ
1. A1 + A 2 + A3 + ...............+ A n = A1 . A 2 . A 3 ........ A n
2. A1.A 2 .A3.............An = A1 + A 2 + A 3 ........ + A n

jwRK dvskb mijxKiY

jwRK¨vj dvskb¸‡jv jwRK †M‡Ui gva¨‡g Kvh©Ki Kiv nq| ZvB jwRK¨vj dvskb¸‡jv mij n‡j
ev¯Í‡e jwRK †M‡Ui e¨envi mnRZi nq| eywjqvb m~‡Îi mvnv‡h¨ RwUj jwRK¨vj G·‡cÖkb ev hyw³
ivwkgvjv‡K mijxKiY Kiv hvq| eywjqvb ivwkgvjv‡K mijxKi‡Yi d‡j mswkøó jwRK †M‡Ui msL¨v Kg
nq, d‡j mgq Ges LiP K‡g|
eywjqvb A¨vj‡Reivi mvnv‡h¨ jwRK dvskb mijxKiY
eywjqvb Dccv‡`¨i mvnv‡h¨ jwRK dvskb mijxKi‡Yi †ÿ‡ÎI KZK¸‡jv wbqg †g‡b Pjv nq|
wbqg¸‡jv n‡jv-
1. mijxKiY evg †_‡K Wvbw`‡K ïiæ Ki‡Z nq|
2. cÖ_g eÜxbi †fZ‡ii KvR Av‡M Ki‡Z nq|
3. c~iK (NOT) Acv‡ikb _vK‡j Zvi KvR Av‡M Ki‡Z nq|
 QNA > MvwYwZK m~ÎmgMÖ > 178
4. Zvici (AND) A_©vr (.) Acv‡ik‡bi KvR Ki‡Z nq|
5. Gici (OR) A_©vr + Acv‡ik‡bi KvR Ki‡Z nq|

1. mij Ki:

(A+B) (A+C)
= AA + AC + AB + BC
= A + AC + AB + BC [x.x=x]
= A(1+C+B) + BC
= A(1+B) + BC [1+x=x]
= A.1 + BC
= A + BC (Ans.)

2. cÖgvY Ki:

A  B = AB + A B

evgcÿ, AB
= AB + AB [AB = A B+ AB ]
= ( AB).(AB ) [ A + B = A B ]
= ( A + B) ( A + B ) [ AB = A + B ]
= (A+ B ) ( A +B)
= A A +AB + AB + BB [A. A =0]
= 0 + AB + A B + 0
= AB + A B
= Wvbcÿ (cÖgvwYZ)|

GKbR‡i jwRK †MUmg~n I †gŠwjK jwRK †MUmg~n

 QNA > MvwYwZK m~ÎmgMÖ > 179

‡M‡Ui bvg cÖZxK/wPý jwRK jwRK dvskb mggvb B‡jKwUªK mvwK©U

NOT Gate X = NOT

AND Gate X = AND

A.B = AB

OR Gate X = OR

A+B=A+B

‡hŠwMK jwRK †MUmg~n

‡M‡Ui bvg cÖZxK/wPý jwRK jwRK dvskb mggvb B‡jKwUªK

mvwK©U
NAND X = NOT (A AND
Gate B)
= NOT (A.B)
= AB
NOR Gate X = NOT (A OR
B)
= NOT (A+B)
= A+B
X - OR X=AB
Gate = AB+ AB
X - NOR X = NOT (AB)
Gate = NOT ( A B+ AB
)
= AB + AB
 QNA > MvwYwZK m~ÎmgMÖ > 180

= AB + A B

PZz_© Aa¨vq: I‡qe wWRvBb cwiwPwZ Ges HTML

HTML G KvR Kivi Rb¨ wbw`©ó wKQz U¨vM Av‡Q| dig¨vwUs U¨vM¸‡jvi eY©bv wb‡P †`Iqv n‡jv|
U¨vM
<b> ...................... </b>
<big> ............. </big>
<em> ............... </em>
<i> ................... </i>
<small> ...........</small>
<strong> ...........</strong>
_{..............}
^{.............}
<ins> .............. </ins>
<del> .............. </del>
<pre> .............. </pre>
<strike> .................. </strike>
<s> .......................... </s>
<u> .........................</u>
eY©bv
‡U·U‡K †gvUv ev †evì K‡i|
‡U·U‡K eo K‡i †`Lvq|
‡U·U‡K BçvmvBRW K‡i †`Lvq|
‡U·U‡K euvKv/BUvwjK K‡i †`Lvq|
‡U·U‡K †QvU K‡i †`Lvq|
‡U·U‡K ÷ªs K‡i †`Lvq|
mvew¯ŒÞ †U·U †`Lv‡Z e¨eüZ nq|
‡U·U‡K mycviw¯ŒÞ K‡i †`Lvq|
BbmvU©K…Z †U·U‡K AvÛvijvBb K‡i †`Lvq|
‡U·U‡K gvSLv‡b `vM †U‡b †mwU wWwjU Kiv
n‡q‡Q †evSv‡Z e¨eüZ nq|
IqvW© cÖ‡mm‡i †hfv‡e †U·U jvBb †f‡O †f‡O
mvwR‡q wjwL †mfv‡e †Kv‡W wjL‡j GB U¨vMwU
Abyiƒcfv‡eB cÖ`k©b K‡i|
‡U·‡Ui gvSLv‡b `vM †U‡b †`q|
‡U·‡Ui gvSLv‡b `vM †U‡b †`q|
‡U·‡K AvÛvijvBb K‡i †`Lvq|

GBPwUGgGj U¨vM †idv‡iÝ

U¨vM eY©bv
 QNA > MvwYwZK m~ÎmgMÖ > 181
<ol> AW©vW© wj÷ wba©viY K‡i|
<ul> AvbAW©vW© wj÷ wba©viY K‡i|
<li> wj÷ AvB‡Ug wba©viY K‡i|
<dl> ‡Wwfwbkb wj÷ wba©viY K‡i|
<dt> ‡Wwfwbkb wj‡÷i g‡a¨ †Kv‡bv Uvg© (AvB‡Ug) wba©viY K‡i|
<dd> ‡Wwfwbkb wj‡÷i g‡a¨ †Kv‡bv Uv‡g©i eY©bv wba©viY K‡i|
<dir> GwU Avi GLb Aby‡gvw`Z bq| Gi e`‡j <ul> e¨envi Kiv nq|
<menu> GwU Avi GLb Aby‡gvw`Z bq| Gi e`‡j <ul> e¨envi Kiv nq|

‡nW U¨vMmg~n
U¨vM eY©bv
<head> WKz‡g›U m¤úwK©Z Z_¨vw` wba©viY K‡i|
<title> WKz‡g›U UvB‡Uj wba©viY K‡i|
<base> GKwU †cB‡Ri mg¯Í wj¼¸‡jvi Rb¨ GKwU †em URL wba©viY K‡i|
<link> GKwU wi‡mv‡m©i †idv‡iÝ wba©viY K‡i|
<meta> ‡gUv Z_¨ wba©viY K‡i|

÷vBj U¨vMmg~n
U¨vM eY©bv
<style> ÷vBj †Wwfwbkb wba©viY K‡i|
<link> wi‡mvm© †idv‡iÝ wba©viY K‡i|
<div> GKwU WKz‡g‡›U GKwU †mKkb wba©viY K‡i|
<span> GKwU WKz‡g‡›U GKwU †mKkb wba©viY K‡i|
<font> GwU Avi GLb Aby‡gvw`Z bq| Gi cwie‡Z© style e¨envi Kiv nq|
<basefont> GwU Avi GLb Aby‡gvw`Z bq| Gi cwie‡Z© style e¨envi Kiv nq|
<center> GwU Avi GLb Aby‡gvw`Z bq| Gi cwie‡Z© style e¨envi Kiv nq|

Kw¤úDUvi AvDUcyU U¨vM

U¨vM eY©bv
 QNA > MvwYwZK m~ÎmgMÖ > 182
<code> Kw¤úDUv‡i †KvW †jLvi g‡Zv K‡i †U·U‡K cÖ`k©b Ki‡Z e¨eüZ
nq|
<kbd> wK‡evW© ‡U·U wba©vi‡Y e¨eüZ nq|
<samp> m¨v¤új Kw¤úDUvi †Kv‡Wi g‡Zv †U·U cÖ`k©‡b e¨eüZ nq|
<var> ‡fwi‡qej wba©vi‡Y e¨eüZ nq|
<pre> wcÖdi‡g‡UW †U·U wba©vi‡Y e¨eüZ nq| A_©vr IqvW© cÖ‡mm‡i †hfv‡e
†U·U‡K jvB‡b †f‡O †f‡O mvwR‡q †jLv nq †mfv‡e †Kv‡W wjL‡j GB
U¨vMwU Abyiƒcfv‡eB cÖ`k©b K‡i| Z‡e IB AskUzKz wfbœ d›U ÷vB‡j
†`Lvq|

mvB‡Ukb, †Kv‡Ukb I †Wwfwbkb U¨vM

U¨vM eY©bv
<abbr> A¨vweªwf‡qkb ev A¨v‡µvwbg wba©vi‡Y e¨eüZ nq| GB U¨v‡Mi gva¨‡g
†U·‡Ui †Kv‡bv GKwU Ask‡K wbw`©ó K‡i w`‡j eªvDRvi AvDUcy‡U IB
As‡ki Dci gvDm c‡q›Uvi ivL‡j Zvi A¨vweªwf‡qkb ev A¨v‡µvwbg
cÖ`wk©Z nq|
<address> ‡Kv‡bv WKz‡g‡›Ui †jLK/¯^Ë¡vwaKvixi Rb¨ †hvMv‡hv‡Mi Z_¨mg~n
wba©vi‡Y e¨eüZ nq|
<bdo> ‡U·‡Ui wW‡iKkb wba©vi‡Y e¨eüZ nq| †hgb-‡U·U Wvb †_‡K ev‡g
D‡ëv K‡i bv wK evg †_‡K Wvb †mvRv n‡q ‡`Lv‡e BZ¨vw` Gi gva¨‡g
wba©viY K‡i †`qv hvq|
<blockquote> wfbœ GKwU Drm †_‡K †KvUK…Z †mKkb‡K wba©vi‡Y e¨eüZ nq|
<q> GKwU BbjvBb (mswÿß) †Kv‡Ukb wba©vi‡Y e¨eüZ nq|
<cite> GKwU Kv‡Ri UvB‡Uj‡K wba©viY K‡i|
<dfn> ‡Wwfwbkb Uvg© wba©vi‡Y e¨eüZ nq|

w¯ŒÞ U¨vMmg~n
U¨vM eY©bv
 QNA > MvwYwZK m~ÎmgMÖ > 183
<script> GKwU w¯ŒÞ wba©viY K‡i|
<noscript> w¯ŒÞ Kvh©Kwi bv n‡j GKwU weKí ‡U·U wba©viY K‡i|
<object> A¨vg‡e‡WW Ae‡R±‡K wba©viY K‡i|
<param> GKwU Ae‡R‡±i Rb¨ ivb-ivBg †mwUs (c¨vivwgUvimg~n) wba©viY
K‡i|
<applet> GwU Avi GLb Aby‡gvw`Z bq| Gi e`‡j <object> e¨envi
Kiv nq|

Ab¨vb¨ U¨vM

U¨vM eY©bv
<ins> BbmvU©K…Z †U·U wba©vi‡Y e¨eüZ nq|
<del> ‡Kvb †U·‡Ui gv‡S `vM †U‡b Zv wWwjU Kiv n‡q‡Q Ggb eySv‡Z
e¨eüZ nq|
<p> c¨vivMÖvd †jLv wba©viY K‡i|
<code> Kw¤úDUv‡i †KvW †jLvi gZ K‡i †U·U cÖ`k©b K‡i|
<acronym> A¨v‡µvwgb wba©vi‡Y e¨eüZ nq|

cÂg Aa¨vq: ‡cÖvMÖvwgs fvlv

‡d¬vPvU©:
‡h wP‡Îi gva¨‡g †Kvb wm‡÷g ev †cÖvMÖvg Kxfv‡e KvR Ki‡e Zvi MwZaviv wba©viY Kiv nq Zv‡K
cÖevnwPÎ ev †d¬vPvU© ejv nq|

wm‡÷g †d¬vPv‡U© e¨eüZ wewfbœ ai‡Yi cÖZxK

cÖZxK D‡Ïk¨ eY©bv

cÖwµqvKiY cÖwµqvKi‡Yi KvR Kx iKg n‡e Zv wb‡`©‡ki
Rb¨ e¨eüZ nq
 QNA > MvwYwZK m~ÎmgMÖ > 184
WKz‡g›U WKz‡g‡›Ui BbcyU / AvDUcyU wb‡`©k K‡i|
wi‡cvU©, B‡gBj A_ev AW©vi MÖnY‡K BbcyU Ges
†cÖ‡R‡›Ukb, †g‡gv A_ev †jUvi ˆZwi‡K
AvDUcyU WKz‡g›U eySvq|
‡Kv‡jU ev mshyw³ ÷¨vÛvW© di‡gU ev e¨e¯’v Abyhvqx †WUv, Z_¨
A_ev DcKiY‡K mymsMwVZ Kiv eyS‡Z G
wm¤^jwU e¨eüZ nq|
gvR© ev GKwÎKiY GKvwaK cv_‡K GKwÎZ K‡i|
Kv‡b±i ms‡hvM cÖZxK wn‡m‡e e¨eüZ nq| hLb GKwU
eo †d¬vPvU© GK c„ôvq a‡i bv ZLb ms‡hvM
cÖZxK e¨envi K‡i evKx Ask Aci c„ôvq AvuKv
nq
g¨vbyqvj BbcyU Kx †ev‡W©i gva¨‡g Kw¤úDUv‡i g¨vbyqvwj †WUv
BbcyU K‡i|
cvÂKvW© cvÂKvW© Kw¤úDUv‡i BbcyU Kiv eySvq|
g¨vM‡bwUK wW¯‹ ‡WUv wW‡¯‹ †÷vi Kiv eySvq|
mvwU©s ev mvRv‡bv c~e© wb‡`©kbv Abymv‡i †WUv, Bbdi‡gkb A_ev
†gUvwiqvj‡K mvRv‡Z G wm¤^jwU e¨eüZ nq|
BbcyU/AvDUcyU cÖwµqvKi‡Yi Rb¨ BbcyU PvIqv nq Ges
cÖwµqvKi‡Yi †k‡l djvdj AvDUcyU cÖ`k©b
Kiv‡bv nq|
g¨vbyqvj Acv‡ikb A‡Uv‡gwUK n‡e bv Aek¨B g¨vbyqvwj n‡e wb‡`©k
K‡i|
wfRyqvj cÖ`k©b ‡Kvb e¨w³ (Kw¤úDUvi e¨enviKvix A_ev
†gwkb Acv‡iUi) Gi wbKU Z_¨ cÖ`k©b‡K
eySvq|
Ab-jvBb †g‡gvwi Ab-jvB‡b †WUv ev Z_¨‡K msiÿY eySv‡Z G
wm¤^jwU e¨eüZ nq|
‡hvMv‡hvM gva¨g ‡hvMv‡hvM gva¨g †hgb †UwjKwgDwb‡Kkb
eySv‡Z G wm¤^jwU e¨eüZ nq|
 QNA > MvwYwZK m~ÎmgMÖ > 185
cÖevnw`K ‡cÖvMÖv‡gi e¨envi c_‡K wb‡`©k K‡i| GKwU
Acv‡ikb Pvwj‡q hvevi ci cieZ©x‡Z †Kv_vq
†h‡Z n‡e Zv wb‡`©k K‡i|
Kx Acv‡ikb Kx WªvBf Acv‡ikb †hgb- cvwÂs, UvBwcs
BZ¨vw` eyS‡Z G wm¤^jwU e¨eüZ nq|
g¨vM‡bwUK wW¯‹ ‡WUv ev Z_¨ g¨vM‡bwUK wW‡¯‹ msiÿiY Kiv
eySvq|
mvwgs Rvskb A‡bK¸‡jv BbcyU cv‡_i †hvM Kiv eySvq|
Ai Kvh©cÖwµqvwU `yBwU c‡_i †h †KvbwU eySv‡Z G
wm¤^jwU e¨eüZ nq|
WvB‡i± A¨vK‡mm mivmwi A¨vK‡mm Kiv hvq †hgb- Kw¤úDUv‡ii
†g‡gvwi nvW©wW¯‹‡K eySvq|
wmKz‡qbwkqvj A¨vK‡mm wmKz‡qÝ Abyhvqx Z_¨ msiÿY Kiv †hgb
†g‡gvwi g¨vM‡bwUK †U‡c msiÿY eySvq|
wcÖcv‡ikb (cÖ¯‘wZ) ‡Kvb Kv‡Ri wcÖcv‡ikb ev cÖ¯‘wZ eySvq|

lô Aa¨vq : †WUv‡eR g¨v‡bR‡g›U wm‡÷g

Kz‡qwi:
‡WUv‡e‡R msiw¶Z AmsL¨ Z_¨ ‡_‡K ‡Kvb‡v wbw`©ó kZ© mv‡c‡¶ Z_¨ Lyu‡R ‡ei Kiv‡K ejv nq Kz‡qwi|
gvB‡µvmdU G‡·m ‡WUv‡e‡R wewfbœ ai‡bi Ky‡qwi Kiv hvq| wewfbœ c«Kvi Ky‡qwi wb‡q wb‡gœ Avj‡vPbv
Kiv n‡jv|

Select Query:
‡Uwe‡ji ‡WUv ev wdì wm‡j± K‡i ‡h Kz‡qwi cwiPvjbv Kiv nq Zv‡K Select Query e‡j|
 QNA > MvwYwZK m~ÎmgMÖ > 186
Parameter Query:
WvqjM e‡·i g‡a¨ wewfbœ c¨vivwgUvi wba©viY K‡i ‡h Kz‡qwi cwiPvjbv Kiv nq Zv‡K Parameter
Query e‡j|

Crosstab Query:
Kz‡qwiK…Z ‡WUv‡K mvgvwi ev Mªyc AvKv‡i Dc¯’v‡bi Rb¨ ‡h Kz‡qwi e¨envi Kiv nq Zv‡K Crosstab
Query e‡j|

Unmatched Query:
‡Kv‡bv k‡Z©i Ici wfwË K‡i GKwU ‡Uwe‡ji ‡iKW© Gi mv‡_ mvgÄm¨c~Y© bv n‡j Zv Unmatched
Query w`‡q Lyu‡R ‡ei Kiv hvq| A_©vr ‡h mKj ‡iK‡W©i mv‡_ wgj Lyu‡R cv‡e bv, ‡Kej ‡mB mKj
‡iKW© Lyu‡R ‡ei K‡i I Zv Kz‡qwi‡Z djvdj wn‡m‡e cÖ`k©b K‡i|

Action Query:
‡Kv‡bv Kz‡qwi djvdj w`‡q hLb ‡Uwe‡ji ‡WUvmg~‡ni ‡Kvb‡v cwieZ©b mvab Kiv nq ZLb Zv‡K
Action Query e‡j| Action Query wewfbœ ai‡bi nq|

Append Query: Kz‡qwii djvdj Ab¨ ‡Kv‡bv ‡WUv ‡Uwe‡ji ‡k‡l ms‡hvM Kivi Rb¨ Append
Kz‡qwi ‰Zwi Kiv nq| Append Kz‡qwii djvdj Ab¨ ‡Uwe‡ji ‡k‡l bZyb ‡iKW© wn‡m‡e msh‡vwRZ
nq|

Update Query:
Kz‡qwi‡Z ‡h mKj ‡iKW© AvDUcyU wn‡m‡e we‡ewPZ nq Zvi GK ev GKvwaK wd‡ìi gvb cwieZ©b K‡i
Ab¨ gvb w`‡q cÖwZ¯’vcb Kivi Rb¨ Update Kz‡qwi e¨envi Kiv nq|

Delete Query:
‡Uwej ‡_‡K AcÖ‡qvRbxq ‡iKW© wPwýZ K‡i Zv gy‡Q ‡djvi c«q‡vRb n‡j | Delete Kz‡qwi e¨envi
Kiv nq|

Make table Query:

 QNA > MvwYwZK m~ÎmgMÖ > 187
Kz‡qwi djvdj w`‡q bZyb ‡WUv ‡Uwej ‰Zwi Kiv n‡j Zv‡K Make table Kz‡qwi e‡j|

QUEL (Query Language):

QUEL n‡jv wi‡jkbvj ‡WUv‡eR Kz‡qwi j¨vs¸‡qR| QUEL -G ‡hme ‡÷U‡g›U e¨eüZ nq Zv
n‡jv Create, Range, Index, Modif.

OBE (Query By Example):

‡h c×wZ‡Z GKwU Example Gi g‡a¨ e¨enviKvix wK Ki‡Z Pvq Zv eY©bv Kiv nq Ges GB
Example Abymv‡i Kz‡qwi Kiv nq Zv‡K QBE (Query By Example) e‡j|

‡÷U‡g›U eY©bv
bZzb Table, View, Sequence, Index, Synonyms
CREATE
‰Zwi Kiv|
‰ZwiK…Z Table, View, Sequence, Index,
ALTER
Synonyms Gi ÷ªvKPvi cwieZ©b Kiv|
‰ZwiK…Z Table, View, Sequence, Index,
DDL DROP
Synonyms gy‡Q †djv|
‰ZwiK…Z Table, View, Sequence, Index,
RENAME
Synonyms bvg cwieZ©b K‡i|
‡WUv gy‡Q †djvi Rb¨ e¨eüZ nq Z‡e †Uwej ÷ªvKPvi I
TRUNCATE
Kb‡÷ªB›U wVK iv‡L|
SELECT GB Kgv‡Ûi gva¨‡g †WUv‡eR †_‡K Retrieve Kiv hvq|
INSERT ‡WUv †hvM/mwbœ‡ek Kivi Rb¨ e¨eüZ nq|
DML
UPDATE ‡WUv cwieZ©‡bi Rb¨ e¨eüZ nq|
DELETE ‡WUv gy‡Q †djvi Rb¨ e¨eüZ nq|
COMMIT msiÿ‡Yi Rb¨ e¨eüZ nq|
TCL SAVEPOINT GKwU wbw`©ó c‡q›U wWfvBb Kiv|
ROLLBACK wbw`©ó c‡q›U ch©šÍ mg¯Í KgvÛ evwZj K‡i wd‡i Avmv|
DCL GRANT ‡WUv‡e‡Ri BDRvi‡`i wcÖwf‡jR cÖ`vb K‡i|
 QNA > MvwYwZK m~ÎmgMÖ > 188
REVOKE ‡WUv‡e‡Ri BDRvi‡`i wcÖwf‡jR evwZj K‡i|

G Aa¨v‡qi ¸iæZ¡c~Y© kãwfwËK mvims‡ÿc

‡WUv‡eR : ‡Kv‡bv wel‡qi Ici e¨vcK Dcv‡Ëi ev Z‡_¨i mgv‡ek|

DBMS : DBMS (Database Management System) n‡jv Ggb
GKwU mdUIq¨vi hv †WUv‡eR ˆZwi, cwieZ©b, msiÿY, wbqš¿Y
BZ¨vw` cwiPvjbvi Kv‡R e¨eüZ nq|
Kz‡qwi : ‡WUv‡e‡R msiwÿZ AmsL¨ Z_¨ †_‡K †Kv‡bv wbw`©ó kZ© mv‡c‡ÿ
Z_¨ Luy‡R †ei Kiv‡K ejv nq Kz‡qwi|
SQL : GwU GKwU kw³kvjx †WUv †Wwdwbkb †WUv g¨vwbwcD‡jkb, †WUv
wiUªvB‡fj j¨v½y‡qR|

cÖvBgvwi wK : ‡h wd‡ìi cÖwZwU †WUv AwØZxq Ges hvi gva¨‡g GKvwaK dvB‡ji
g‡a¨ m¤úK© ˆZwi Kiv nq Zv‡K cÖvBgvwi wK e‡j|
d‡ib wK wi‡jkbvj ‡Uwe‡ji ‡¶‡Î ‡Kv‡bv GKwU ‡Uwe‡ji c«vBgvwi wK hw`
Ab¨ ‡Uwe‡j e¨eüZ nh ZLb H wK-‡K cÖ_g ‡Uwe‡ji mv‡c‡¶
wØZxq় ‡Uwe‡ji d‡ib wK e‡j|
K‡¤úvwRU : GKvwaK wd‡ìi mgš^‡q ‡h cÖvBgvwi wK MVb Kiv nh় Zv‡K
cÖvBgvwi-wK K‡¤úvwRU cÖvBgvwi wK e‡j|

dg : GwU GK ai‡bi Ae‡R± hv cÖv_wgKfv‡e ‡WUv‡eR ‡Kv‡bv BbcyU ev

‡WUv cÖ`k©‡bi e¨e¯’v wbqš¿‡Yi R‡b¨ e¨eüZ nq|
Kz‡qwi fvlv : ‡h fvlvi mvnv‡h¨ Kz‡qwi Kiv hvq Zv‡K Kz‡qwi fvlv e‡j| ZvQvov
‡WUv‡e‡Ri wewfbœ Ae‡R± ‰Zwi, cwieZ©b I gy‡Q ‡djv, ‡WUv
ms‡hvRb, ‡WUv D‡Ëvjb, ‡WUv AvaywbKxKiY, ‡WUv gy‡Q ‡djvi
Kv‡RI Kz‡qwi fvlv e¨envi Kiv nq|
mwU©s : mwU©s n‡jv †WUv †Uwe‡ji †WUvmg~n †Kv‡bv wba©vwiZ wdì Abymv‡i
mvRv‡bv| Gi gva¨g wb‡`©k w`‡q GK ev GKvwaK wd‡ìi †WUv
mg~n‡K wb¤œµg ev EaŸ©µg Abymv‡i mvRv‡bv hvq|
 QNA > MvwYwZK m~ÎmgMÖ > 189
Bb‡W· : mymw¾Zfv‡e ev myweb¨¯Ífv‡e Z_¨vewji m~wP cÖYqb Kiv n‡jv
Bb‡W·|
‡WUv wmwKDwiwU : Awbw`©ó e¨w³i nvZ †_‡K †WUv‡K myiÿv Kiv n‡jv †WUv wmwKDwiwU|
Gbwµckb : ‡WUv‡K GK RvqMv †_‡K Ab¨ RvqMvq cvVv‡bvi Av‡M g~j di‡gU
†_‡K Ab¨ di‡g‡U iƒcvšÍi Kivi cÖwµqv‡K e‡j Gbwµckb|
‡WUv Iq¨vinvDR : ‡WUv Iq¨vinvDR n‡jv †WUv I Bbdi‡gk‡bi †hŠw³K ev jwRK¨vj
msMÖn hv wewfbœ Acv‡ikbvj †WUv‡eR †_‡K msM„nxZ nq| GwU e¨emv
we‡kølY, e¨emvq eyw×gËv Ges wm×všÍ MÖnY cÖwµqvq mg_©b ˆZwi‡Z
e¨eüZ nq|
‡WUv gvBwbs : ‡WUv gvBwbs †WUv Iq¨vinvD‡Ri †WUv we‡kølY K‡i †WUvq jyKv‡bv
we‡kl ixwZ cÖKvk K‡i| wm×všÍ MÖn‡Yi c_ cÖ`k©b Ges fwel¨r
AvPiY Ki‡Z e¨eüZ Av`k© ixwZ I wbqg Luy‡R †ei Ki‡Z wekvj
cwigvY †WUvi we‡kølYB n‡”Q †WUv gvBwbs|