UNIT V - Trace and transpose -

Hermitian, unitary, normal

transformations, real quadratic
form
Vector space
• Definition : A nonempty set V is said to be a vector
space over a field F if
• 1) V is an abelian group with respect to addition
• 2) For 𝛼 ∈ F and v ∈ V , there is an element 𝛼v ∈ V F
satisfies the following conditions. 𝛼
• (i) 𝛼(u + v) = 𝛼(u) + 𝛼(v) V
• (ii) (𝛼+ 𝛽)v = 𝛼v + 𝛽v v 𝛽
• (iii) 𝛼(𝛽 v) = (𝛼𝛽)v, 𝛼v
u

• (iv) 1.v = v
• where 𝛼 , 𝛽 ∈ F and u, v ∈ V .
Inner Product space
• Definition : Let V be a vector space over a complex field F.
• It is said to be an inner product space if for any two vectors u,
v in V, an element (u,v), called inner product is defined in F
such that,
• (i) (u , v) = (v, u )
• (ii) (u, u ) ≥ 0, and (u,u) = 0 if and only if u = 0.
• iii) (𝛼u +𝛽v, w) = 𝛼(u,w) +𝛽(v,w) F

• For any 𝛼 , 𝛽 ∈ F and u, v, w ∈ V. V

u
(u,v)
v
Matrices : Trace
• Let A = (aij) be an n × n matrix.

• a11 a12 a13 . . . . . . . . a1n

• a21 a22 a23 . . . . . . . . a2n
• a31 a32 a33 . . . . . . . . a3n
•A= .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . .
• .. .. .. ..........
• .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .
• an1 an2 an3 . . . . . . . . ann
• The trace of A is the sum of elements on the main
diagonal of A.
We denote the trace of A as tr(A).
• Thus, tr(A) = a11 + a22 + a33 + ........ + ann.
n
That is, tr(A) = a
i =1
ii

• Lemma : For A,B ∈ Fn and λ ∈ F

• 1) tr(λ A) = λ tr(A)
• 2) tr(A + B) = tr(A) + tr(B)
• 3) tr(AB) = tr(BA)
Proof
• 1) Let A = (aij) . Then λ A = λ(aij)
•
n

⇒ tr(λ A) =  a = λ  a
n

i =1
ii ii = λ tr(A).
i =1

• That is, tr(λ A) = λ tr(A)

• 2) Let A = (aij) and B = (bij).
Then A + B = (cij), where cij = aij + bij .
n n n
• Now tr(A + B) =  (aii + bii) =  aii +  bii
i =1 i =1 i =1

= tr(A) + tr(B)
• Thus, tr(A + B) = tr(A) + tr(B) .
• 3) Let A = (aij) and B = (bij). n

Then AB = (cij), where cij =  a k =1

ik bkj and BA = (dij),
• where dij =  b a
n

ik kj
k =1

• tr(AB) =  cii =  (  a b )
n n

ik ki
i =1 i =1 k =1

• If we interchange the order of summation,

n n

• cii = (   a b ) = (   b a )
n n

ik ki ki ik
k =1 i =1 k =1 i =1
n

• =  dkk = tr(BA).
k =1
• Fact: If A is invertible, then tr(ACA−1) = tr(C).
• Proof: Let B = CA−1. Then, tr(ACA−1) = tr(AB) = tr(BA)
= tr(CA−1A) = tr(C).
• Definition : If T ∈ A(V ), then trace of T is the trace of
m1(T), where m1(T) is the matrix of T in some basis of
V.
• Result : Let A ∈ Fn and suppose that K is the splitting
field of the minimal polynomial for A over F, then an
invertible matrix C ∈ Kn can be found so that CAC−1 is
in Jordan form.
Lemma : If T ∈ A(V ) then tr(T) is the sum of the
characteristic roots of T.
• Proof: Assume that T is a matrix in Fn.
• If K is the splitting field for the minimal polynomial for
T over F, then in Kn, T can be brought to its Jordan
form J.
• That is, J is a matrix whose diagonal elements are the
characteristic roots of T, and each root appears as
often as its multiplicity.
• Thus, tr(J)= sum of the characteristic roots of T.
• Since J is of the form ATA−1, we have, tr(J) = tr(T).
Hence the lemma.
• Definition : If A = (𝛼ij) ∈ Fn then the transpose of A,
written as A′ is the matrix A′ = (𝛾ij) , where 𝛾ij =𝛼ji, for
each i, j.
• Lemma : For all A,B ∈ Fn
• (i). (A′)′ = A
• (ii). (A + B)′ = A′ + B′
• (iii). (AB)′ = B′A′ .
• Proof: (i). Let A = (𝛼ij) and A′ = (𝛾ij) where
𝛾ij =𝛼ji, for each i, j.
• Therefore, (A′)′ = (𝛿ij) where, (𝛿ij) = (𝛾ji) = (𝛼ij ) = A
• (ii). Let A = (𝛼ij) and B = (𝛽ij).
• Now A + B = (λij) where λij = 𝛼 ij + 𝛽ij .
• Now ( A + B)′ = (𝛿ij) where 𝛿ij = λji = 𝛼ji + 𝛽ji.
• But A′ + B′ = (𝛼ji)+ ( 𝛽ji)= (𝛿ij) = (A + B)′.
• Thus, (A + B)′ = A′ + B′
Let A = (𝛼ij) and B = (𝛽ij).
• Now AB = (λij) where λij = ∑k 𝛼ik 𝛽kj .
• By definition, (AB)′ = (μij) where
μij = λji = ∑k 𝛼jk 𝛽ki .
• On the other hand, A′ = (𝛾ij ) where 𝛾ij = 𝛼ji and B′
= (𝜉ij ), where 𝜉ij = 𝛽ji.
• Hence the (i,j)th element of B′A′ is
∑k 𝜉jk 𝛾ki = ∑k 𝛽kj 𝛼jk = ∑k 𝛼jk 𝛽kj = μij .
• Hence (AB)′ = B′A′ .
• Definition : The matrix A is said to be symmetric
matrix if A′ = A.
• Definition: The matrix A is said to be skew symmetric
matrix if A′ = −A.
• Definition: The matrix A is said to be Hermitian
matrix if A∗ = A.
• Definition: The matrix A is said to be skew Hermitian
matrix if A∗ = −A.
Unitary, Hermitian and Normal transformations

• Definition: A linear transformation T ∈ A(V ) is said to

be unitary iff (uT, vT) = (u, v), ∀ u, v ∈ V .
• Lemma : If T ∈ A(V ) is such that (vT, v) = 0
for every v ∈ V , then T = 0.
• Proof: It is given that (vT, v) = 0 for every v ∈ V . Let
u,w ∈ V . Then
• ((u + w)T, u + w) = 0 ⇒ (uT + wT, u + w) = 0
• ⇒ (uT + wT, u) + (uT + wT,w) = 0
• ⇒ (uT, u) + (wT, u) + (uT,w) + (wT,w) = 0
Given: T ∈ A(V ) is such that (vT, v) = 0
• But (uT, u) = 0, (wT, w) = 0. Therefore,
• (wT, u) + (uT,w) = 0 .........(1).
• Equation (1) holds for arbitrary w ∈ V and therefore it
must hold if we replace w by iw. Hence
• (iwT, u) + (uT, iw) = 0 ⇒ i(wT, u) − i(uT,w) = 0
• ⇒ (wT, u) − (uT,w) = 0 ⇒ (wT, u) = (uT,w) .........(2).
• Substituting (2) in (1),
• we have, 2(wT, u) = 0, ∀u ∈ V .
This implies, wT = 0 ⇒ T = 0.
Definition : An element T ∈ A(V ) is said to be
nilpotent if Tm = 0 for some positive integer m.
• Results :
• i) A non zero matrix is nilpotent iff all its
characteristic roots are equal to zero.
• ii) If V is finite dimensional over F, then T ∈ A(V ) is
invertible iff the constant term of the minimal
polynomial for T is not zero.
• iii) If T ∈ A(V ) has all its characteristic roots in F, then
a basis of V can be found in which the matrix of T is
triangular.
Lemma : If F is a field of characteristic zero and if
T ∈ AF(V ) is such that tr(Ti) = 0 for all i ≥ 1, then T
is nilpotent.
• Proof: It is given that T ∈ AF(V ).
• Let the minimal polynomial for T be
p(x) = xm + 𝛼 1xm−1 + 𝛼 2xm−2 + 𝛼 3xm−3 + ....... + 𝛼m.
• ⇒ Tm + 𝛼1Tm−1 + 𝛼2Tm−2 + 𝛼3Tm−3 + ....... + 𝛼mI = 0.
• Taking trace on both sides,
tr(Tm) + 𝛼1tr(Tm−1) + 𝛼2tr(Tm−2) + 𝛼3tr(Tm−3) + ....... +
𝛼mtr(I) = 0.
• i.e, 𝛼mtr(I) = 0.
• Since tr(I) ≠ 0, we have 𝛼m = 0.
• That is , the constant term of the minimal polynomial
for T is zero.
• Therefore by result (ii), T is singular.
• Let K be an extension of F. Let us consider T as a
matrix in Fn. This implies, T ∈ Kn. More over all the
characteristic roots are in Kn.
• Hence by result (iii), we can bring T in to a triangular
form.
Hence by result (1), we have T is Nilpotent.
Lemma : If F is of characteristic 0 and if S and T in
AF(V ) are such that ST − TS commutes with S, then
ST − TS is nilpotent.
• Proof: To prove this lemma, let compute the
following result for any k ≥ 1.
• (ST − TS)k = (ST − TS)k−1 (ST − TS)
• = (ST − TS)k−1 ST − (ST − TS)k−1 TS
• ie, (ST − TS)k = (ST − TS)k−1ST − (ST − TS)k−1 TS
..........(1)
• But it is given that ST − TS commutes with S. That is,
(ST − TS)S = S(ST − TS) .
• (ST − TS)2 S = (ST − TS) (ST − TS)S
• = (ST − TS) S (ST − TS)
• = S(ST − TS)(ST − TS)
• = S(ST − TS)2
• i.e, (ST − TS)2S = S(ST − TS)2
• In general, (ST − TS)k−1S = S(ST − TS)k−1
...........(2)
• From (1), (ST − TS)k = (ST − TS)k−1ST − (ST − TS)k−1TS
• = [(ST − TS)k−1S]T − [(ST − TS)k−1T]S
• = S[(ST − TS)k−1]T − [(ST − TS)k−1T]S
• i.e, (ST − TS)k = S[(ST − TS)k−1]T − [(ST − TS)k−1T]S
......(3)
• Put (ST − TS)k−1T = B.
• Substituting this in (3), we have, (ST − TS)k = SB − BS.
• tr(ST − TS)k = tr(SB − BS) = tr(SB) − tr(BS) = 0.
• Therefore, tr(ST − TS)k = 0 ⇒ (ST − TS) is nilpotent.
Definition
• Let V be an inner product space over a field F. A basis
S = {v1, v2, ......, vn} of V is said to be an ortho normal
basis if
• i) (vi, vj) = 0 if i ≠ j
• ii) (vi, vj) = 0 if i = j
Theorem : A linear transformation T on V is unitary iff it takes an
orthonormal basis of V in to another orthonormal basis.

• Proof: ( Necessary Part )

• Let T ∈ A(V ) is unitary. Let {v1, v2, ......, vn} be an
orthonormal basis of V .
• Claim : {v1T, v2T, ......, vnT} is an orthonormal basis of
V
• Now (viT, vjT) = (vi, vj) = 0 ( since T is unitary and i ≠ j )
and (viT, vjT) = (vi, vj) = 1 ( since T is unitary and i = j )
• That is, (viT, vjT) = 0 for i ≠ j
and (viT, vjT) = 1 for i = j
• Hence {v1T, v2T, ......, vnT} is an orthonormal basis of V
Sufficient part : Let {v1, v2, ......, vn} and {v1T, v2T, ......,
vnT} are orthonormal bases of V .

• Claim : T is unitary.
• Let u, w ∈ V . Since {v1, v2, ......, vn} is a basis for V,
every element in V can be expressed as a linear
combination of these basis elements.
• u = 𝛼1v1 + 𝛼2v2 + 𝛼3v3 + ....... + 𝛼nvn
• w = 𝛽1v1 + 𝛽2v2 + 𝛽3v3 + ....... + 𝛽nvn
• That is, u = ∑i 𝛼ivi and w = ∑i 𝛽ivi
• Then , (u, w) = (∑i 𝛼ivi , ∑i 𝛽ivi )
• (u, w) = ∑i 𝛼i (vi i,vi ) = ∑i 𝛼i ......
i
(1)
(u, w) = ∑i 𝛼i  ( vi,vi ) = ∑i 𝛼i
i i ...... (1)

• Also,
• uT = ∑i 𝛼iviT and wT = ∑i 𝛽i viT
• Now consider,
• (uT, wT) = (∑i 𝛼iviT , ∑i 𝛽i vi T )
• = ∑i 𝛼i  i (viT , viT)
• = ∑i 𝛼i  i ………(2)
• From equations (1) and (2), we have,
(uT,wT) = (u,w) for all u,w ∈ V .
• Hence T is unitary.
Lemma : T ∈ A(V ) is unitary iff TT∗ = I

• Proof: Suppose T is unitary.

• Then (uT, wT) = (u,w) for all u,w ∈ V .
• Now consider, (u, wTT∗) = (uT,wT) = (u,w) = (u,wI).
• That is, (u, wTT∗) = (u, wI). This implies, TT∗ = I.
• Conversely suppose, let TT∗ = I.
• Then, (u,w) = (u,wI) = (u,wTT∗) = (uT,wT).
• That is, (u,w) = (uT,wT) for all u,w ∈ V .
• Hence T is unitary.
Theorem: If { v1, v2, ....., vn} is an orthonormal basis of V and if the
matrix of T is (𝛼ij) then the matrix of T∗ is (𝛽ij) where
(𝛼ij) is the conjugate transpose of (𝛽ij). That is, 𝛽ij =  ji
• Proof: Let viT = 𝛼i1v1 + 𝛼i2v2 + ....+ 𝛼ijvj +......+ 𝛼invn and let
viT∗ = 𝛽i1v1 + 𝛽i2v2 + ....+ 𝛽ijvj + ..... + 𝛽invn for i = 1,2,...., n.
• Consider, (viT∗, vj)= (𝛽i1v1 + 𝛽i2v2 + 𝛽ijvj + .... + ......+ 𝛽invn , vj)
• = (𝛽i1v1 , vj) + (𝛽i2v2 , vj) + ......+ (𝛽ijvj , vj) + ......+ (𝛽invn , vj)
• = 𝛽i1(v1 , vj) + 𝛽i2 (v2 , vj) + ......+ 𝛽ij(vj ,vj) + ......+ 𝛽in (vn , vj)
• = 0 + 0 + ....... + 𝛽ij(vj ,vj) + 0 + .... + 0 = 𝛽ij .1 = 𝛽ij.
• That is, (viT∗, vj) = 𝛽ij .
• There fore, 𝛽ij = (viT∗, vj) = (vi, vjT).
• That is, (vi, vjT) = 𝛽ij ...........(1)
• Now, (vi,vjT) = (vi, 𝛼j1v1 + 𝛼j2v2 +....+ 𝛼jivi +....+ 𝛼jn
vn)
• (vi, 𝛼j1v1) + (vi, 𝛼j2v2) +....+ (vi, 𝛼jivi) +....+ (vi, 𝛼jn vn)
• =  j1 (vi, v1) +  j 2 (vi,v2) +....+  ji (vi, vi) +....+  jn (vi, vn)
= 0 + 0 + ...... +  ji 1 + ..... + 0 =  ji
• That is, (vi, vjT) =  ji .........(2).
• From equations (1) and (2) we have 𝛽ij =  ji
• Hence the Theorem.