Philosophy in Education: Ethnophilosophy, Phenomenology, Critical Theory, African

Philosophy and Scientific Rationalism (and Others)

Philosophy and the Curriculum

• Ogwora et.al. (2013:95) outline the relationship between philosophy and education, or rather
the curriculum
• They regard particular philosophies as the foundation of educational practices: so,
philosophy is the theory and education is the practical implementation of this theory
• The word Curriculum comes from the Latin word curro which means 'to run', so it is
associated with a race course
• So, depending on the beliefs of the particular philosophy, the curriculum will be designed
accordingly, and meter out its structure in accordance with a particular philosophical view
e.g. outcomes based education
• The curriculum has a philosophical, historical, psychological and social foundation
• From its philosophical orientation, curriculum goals and learning objectives are formed so it
prescribes what schools do e.g. subjects, contents, methodologies, materials
• There is also a political link, and so over time, educational philosophies are continually
constructed and reconstructed e.g. education during the Apartheid era vs in recent times in
SA
• Heywood (2003:5) speaks to the ideologies of a political regime, namely that it is:
o A political belief system
o An action-oriented set of political ideas
o The ideas of the ruling class
o The world view of a particular social class or group

The Psychological Basis of the Curriculum

There are several psychological views that influence what we focus on in the curriculum:

• Behaviourist psychology Organised, sequenced, step-by-step process

• Cognitive psychology How new learning is processed and interpreted Problem solving,
thinking skills, reflective thinking, critical thinking, constructivism
• Humanist psychology Learners can develop their human potential and learners engage with
new learning
• Social psychology Learners do not learn in a vacuum but as part of societal norms

Philosophy and Educational Policy

• Educational policy refers to the collection of laws and rules that govern the operation of
education systems
• It dictates how the school system runs: this is based on the philosophy that is followed and
how it influences aims and goals of the Education System
• Plato suggests that learners should be separated from parents so that they can learn from
their teachers who would promote talents
 • Kant claimed that children learn through doing
• Aristotle asserts that human nature, habit and reason are important aspects and should
be developed in education

Philosophy, Educational Objectives and Goals

• Educational objectives are targets to be achieved at the end of a course of study
• They are the action statements related to the goals of an educational view
• Underlying values and having critical awareness are also important when setting these
objectives: these are all framed by the philosophy
• Goals are the broad aims of the philosophy used in educational planning e.g. Montessori

Philosophy, ideals, Vision and Mission

• Vision is what is intended to be achieved
• Mission is the way to achieve it
• The ideals, values and beliefs are a powerful vision (Ogwara, et.al., 2013:98)
• The mission statement gives the motivation for the school values
• The philosophy will guide the formulation of appropriate goals, set the vision and then the
mission will develop from there

Philosophies to Effect Change

• African philosophy (ubuntu, commonality, kindness, compassion, generosity)
• Empiricism (experience gained through five senses)
• Scientific Rationalism (critical thinking through questioning)
• Phenomenology (reality and felt experience over scientific analysis)
• Systems theory
• Feminism
• Critical Theory (freedom from false claims of societies)
• Modernism and Postmodernism (combination of theories guiding education)
 African Philosophy
The Role of Philosophy of Education in Understanding the Creation of Knowledge within the South
African Schooling Context

What is African Philosophy?

• Ethnic philosophy: philosophy of Africa:
o The religious and moral beliefs of the continent of Africa
o The philosophy of Africa looks at the whole experience of human beings (it is holistic)
• Sage, or wisdom, philosophy focuses on those individuals in society who are known to be wise
and far-sighted and who can think critically
• Africa’s political philosophy is unique: it must be different from capitalist, socialist or
communist political philosophies
• Pure philosophy is the work of African philosophers in the areas of Empiricism, Critical
Rationalism and Existentialism

African History and Colonisation

• Dominated by colonialism and non-native practices
• Attempts to overthrow domination and regain African way of thinking
• Post-colonialism and African Renaissance

The African Renaissance

• This call for a renewal and resurgence of a truly African identity is referred to as the African
Renaissance which has been present for 40 years during post-independence from
colonialism
• The aim was and is to move away from being seen through the lens of the West

Impact of Western Power

• Domination and devaluation of traditional knowledge systems
• Erasure of African legacy and heritage
• Unequal relationships and self-alienation

African Philosophies and the South African Education System

• Indigenous African Knowledge System programme (1998)
• Aims: support restructuring and democratising, promote and protect African heritage,
support local economic development
• Integrated framework of knowledge in the curriculum
• Benefits: acknowledgement of African Knowledge Systems, critical questioning, African
contribution, monitoring and evaluation of cultural and gender bias, addressing alienation
and domination
South African Schooling Context
• Different types of schooling contexts:
o Small, costly minority-type schooling
o Large, conformist, lack of critical and independent thinking (majority schooling)
o Religious and homeschooling (values and beliefs prioritized over math, science, and
technology education)
o Poor state-run schools in remote and rural environments (ill-resourced, teachers
lack academic and philosophical foundations)

African Philosophy and Education

• Ubuntu (humanity, human happiness, well-being, relationships, caring, compassion, kindness,
respect, forgiveness)
• Communality (belonging, common goals, values, morals, working together)
• Indigenous African Knowledge Systems (holistic, life experiences, relevant, personal, derived
from various sources)

Ubuntu and Education

• The central idea in traditional African thought is ubuntu which is related to human
happiness and well-being
• It is best described by looking at the Nguni expression Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu which
loosely translated refers to “humanity” but a wider explanation of this belief is the following:
o A human being is a human being through other human beings. In other words: ‘I am
because we are, and since we are, therefore I am’ (John Mbiti in African Religions
and Philosophy, 1975)
o Ubuntu recognises that a person exists at birth but can only develop a sense of self
through relationships with other people: this sense of self is much more blurry than
the Western idea of self
o Ubuntu is about caring, sharing, compassion, generosity, kindness, benevolence,
fairness, courtesy, respect, forgiveness and reconciliation (Higgs & Letseka, 2022,
2017:19)
o Ubuntu has a link with communal interdependence and the value of tolerance
(reciprocal altruism)
o The aim is for everyone to co-exist in a commitment to peace despite differences

Communality and Education

• Communality is related to ubuntu as it refers to the interdependence of peoples within a
community and reflects a notion of belonging
• The success of wider society is emphasised but not at the expense of the individual
• Mbiti (cited in Higgs & Letseka, 2022:21) says “Whatever happens to the individual happens to
the whole group, and whatever happens to the whole group happens to the individual”
• The notion of cooperation for the common good is highly prized in this view
Indigenous Knowledge Systems
• Indigenous African knowledge systems (IKS) are regarded to be unique to African culture
and society
• They form the basis of decision making in agriculture, education, health and nature resource
management in rural communities
• They represent holistic knowledge because they express all dimensions of being human
• They are derived from:
o Old knowledge that has existed for generations such as historical events, ancestral
wisdoms and genealogies of the clan
o Empirical knowledge that has been learnt through daily observation
o Revealed knowledge acquired through dreams, visions and spiritual institutions
• IKS has been historically pushed aside by colonialism and globalisation
• The Eurocentric knowledge systems did not find them ‘scientific’ and therefore excluded
them
• This has played into the concepts of ‘First World’ and ‘Third World’ countries, and the idea of
the ‘developed world’ versus the ‘undeveloped world’: the ‘First World’ being seen as a sign of
the desirable way of living
• Progress is only achieved through the advancement of Western/Eurocentric science and IKS
were relegated to inferior status

Education Today:
• Hoppers cited in Higgs & Letseka (2022:13) states that IKS can complement some of the
scientific capabilities of the West by generating forms of creativity in education so all can
benefit
• By including IKS, it ensures that it is acknowledged in the curriculum
• Critical questions will be asked about Western and African knowledge systems
• The inclusion of IKS will address issues of alienation and dominance: learners get to see
various view points
• The development of knowledge will be seen as a more holistic journey e.g. prizing cooperation
over competition
 Empiricism
The Effect of Empiricism on Education in Schools

Empiricism and Pragmatism

• Empiricism: philosophy based on facts, personal experience, and the five senses
• Pragmatism: all inquiry is practical, with concrete facts, and working together in a
community

Key Principles of Empiricism

• We are born as blank slates, knowing nothing
• Facts and experience are used to determine truth
• Verified through scientific measurement and testing
• Encourages critical thinking

Influential Empiricist Philosophers

• John Locke: prioritise science subjects, rationalise logically, think critically, and pursue
practical professions
• Richard Peters: education requires acceptance from both teacher and learner, critical
thinking skills help identify indoctrination
• Yusef Waghid: define education and identify its aims
• Harvey Siegel: empower learners to be rational thinkers through facts and evidence, active
role in education to avoid manipulation

Criticism of Empiricism in Education

• Favors subjects like mathematics, science, and engineering over art, literature, and music
• Denies importance of human emotions, human values, and culture
• Emphasizes objective testing, defined outcomes, IQ testing, and examinations
• Influenced teaching by prioritising maths and science teachers, and identifying good
teachers by learners' results
 Scientific/Critical Rationalism
Scientific Rationalism and its Influence on the Development of Critical Thinking

Definition and Principles

• It is an approach to thinking that is opposed to organisational structures that discourage
questioning and critical engagement.
• It has a similarity with Empiricism because it speaks to relating ideas to what has been
experienced through testing ideas from reality, existing knowledge and theory.
• Scientific Rationalism encourages a questioning attitude.
• Scientific Rationalism is an attitude rather than a full philosophy. Its aim is to identify
falsehood.

Aim of Education
• It is about having an open mind
• It promotes questioning and critical engagement
• It encourages relationship of ideas to what has been experienced (senses)
• It values participatory approaches to teaching and learning in order to solve problems
• The contributions and opinions of the individual are welcome
• It rejects dogma* and authoritarian structures that attempt to control the individual
• It supports the notion of disproving falsity and it seeks to critically question what truth is
• It prefers to test convictions (e.g.social norms and practices, religious beliefs)
• It is willing to view knowledge as dynamic

*Dogma – a principle or set of principles laid down by an authority as incontrovertibly true.

How does scientific rationalism ‘test’ truth?

• It promotes the use of questioning and discussion It asks for evidence

• It encourages a questioning attitude.
• It requires the learner to question the source of information.
• It wishes to test knowledge by seeking fallibility of:
o i) argument
o ii) reason
• The aim is to identify falsehood, so as to question what people are told. This may result in
constantly revising knowledge.
• For example: News in the media. (e.g. it may create bias, blindness of views; even indoctrination)
The exposure to information in the digital world (e.g. the effects of fake news)
• Scientific Rationalism focuses on fallibilism. (The analysis of argument to see whether there are
holes in the arguments that people present, or not / if the argument is fallible.) e.g.There is a
white bird species in the water. If a bird species is white, it is a waterbird.
• It rejects false premises for argument and reason. Below are examples of how we see that
Scientific Rationalism in action of disproving falsity and and critically questioning what is
regarded as truth
Types of False Arguments
• Name-calling
• False cause-and-effect
• Falsely representing an opinion to discredit it
• Appealing to emotions
• Falsely claiming popularity equals truth

How does knowledge benefit from scientific rationalism?

• It is willing to view knowledge as dynamic
• It permits knowledge to be revised in the face of evidence
• It is willing to admit new evidence for discussion and consideration

Morality and Scientific Rationalism

• Moral statements are not objective and cannot be tested
• Non-prescriptive about what is right or wrong
• Encourages independent thought and expression

Examples of Failure to Practice Scientific Rationalism

• Reserve Bank in the USA (lack of critical thinking led to financial crisis)
• Fundamental Pedagogics of apartheid era (dogmatic and obedience-based)
• OBE (Outcome-Based Education) (too expensive and sophisticated)

Influence on Formal Education Systems

• a perspective that emphasizes the importance of critical thinking, evidence-based
reasoning, and open discussion in the pursuit of knowledge.
 Phenomenology
The Influence of Phenomenology as a Construction of Reality on Education

Definition and Principles

• Phenomenology focuses on that which is human
• Furthermore, its focus is on:
o The inner reality of the emotions and the psyche
o Reality that can only be interpreted in community
• Phenomenology can be used to promote trust and true understanding between the
teacher and the child
• It is the study of the lived experience: the experience of living in the world
• It is the experience in the first-person point of view: an intentional reflection on everyday
conscious experience to understand the experience

What is Phenomenology?
• Phenomenology looks at things and ourselves in reality: as they really are, without imposing
theories or opinions of this reality
• Our felt experiences rather than a scientific analysis of the experience
• Involves a careful, reflective and meditative approach to everything
• By putting our own assumptions and beliefs aside for a while (called “bracketing”), we can
focus on our conscious experience of something: our own reality
• Three categories:
o Phenomenology of the Self (who am I?)
o Social Phenomenology (who and what is my community?)
o Cosmic Phenomenology (our place in the universe)

Phenomenology of the Self:

• We need to confront ourselves to get nearer to the ‘real self’
• If we allow theories about ourselves and about life to influence us, then we are allowing
these entities to impose human constructs on our lives
• Just because we can’t measure something in a scientific sense, does not mean it is not real:
this would be very reductionist thinking
• Phenomenology is a view that encourages us to reflect on the human condition and to
discover our true selves in the process
• We do interact with the world, so it is not ignoring that: “I am in the world and the world is
in me’’
• We need to re-evaluate the human endeavour, including how we seek the truth
Prominent Philosophers
• Edmund Husserl: reality exists with human consciousness and philosophy examines mental
states and conditions
o believed that reality consists of two phenomena: human consciousness and the
world of objects
o To understand the world of objects, we also need mental constructs
o Therefore, what is in our mind is the reality and we need to examine human mental
states and conditions
o A minute of time is a minute of time and how we experience that minute is the
reality of that minute for us e.g. Aha! Moment
o We need to focus on our conscious experience of a moment with intentionality
whether it is a dream or refers to something specific
• Martin Heidegger: true self is linked to self-consciousness and reality consists of human
consciousness perceiving objects and events
• Carl Jung: collective consciousness through dreams, consciousness, and children's play
o initially worked under Freud but over time turned his attention to people sharing
their dreams (without imposing his views on their interpretations)
o He returned to his childhood games and fantasies and felt that inner images that
were released to him in this process enabled him to recognise symbols which were
self-healing
o He used these ideas to help others overcome problems and to heal from various
afflictions

Phenomenology in Education
• Phenomenology rejects abstract theories about education
• Rejected OBE as against working towards outcomes
• What really happens in classrooms and between teachers and learners is what is
important: children should be encouraged to find out about new knowledge
• Against idea that people have to send their children into formal schooling: works against
development of individual learner as learners are conformed to becoming “competent
technocrats of a capitalist society”(Higgs & Letseka, 2022:59)
• This makes it harder for anyone to really get to know their ‘real selves’ as they have been
moulded by society for so long

Influential Educators
• Maurice Merleau-Ponty: focus on lived experiences and creative expressions, reject
imposition of adult lives on children
o Primacy of our bodies and role of our bodies and bodily senses in how we experience
the world
o Human beings must return to their lived and felt experiences: put aside rationalism,
abstract and logical reasoning
 o Need to engage in creative expressions
o Primary task of any teacher is to understand the child and how the child
experienced the world: not ‘teacher-knows-and-tells-all’ approach
o Teachers learn as much from learners as the other way around

• Max van Manen: respect children's life experiences, natural condition of childhood, and
concern with virtual and electronic experiences
o He was appalled at the basis of Canadian and American education systems which
placed emphasis on outcomes and analysis
o Teaching and learning have to be based on personal relationships characterised by
trust and the hope in a better tomorrow for both the learner and teacher
o He disagreed that learners came to school as empty pots to be filled with content
from the teacher
o He looked to the natural: too much impact of artificial, frenetic, electronic virtual
realities on the developing child is counterproductive to natural development
o Children should develop at own pace

• Shaun Gallager: importance of child's experience, learning from others, and social
interactions
o Reality tells us that human minds do not have direct access to other human minds
o Therefore, teacher and learner do not simply exchange information
o Rejection of empirical science of learning: each child responds differently to the
same social environment
o Rejection of idea that child uses own mental experiences as models for
understanding other people’s minds
o Rejection of idea of innate learning mechanism in brain
o We learn through observation of bodily movements and facial expressions of others:
no modelling of behaviour but rather makes matching gesture or movement
o Gradual experience of self as separate from other: reflecting on self as person who
makes choices, including moral choices

Critical Comments:
• In SA, the claim was that Fundamental Pedagogics was based on Phenomenology
• Reflect on who we are in community
• In Apartheid era, communities segregated on racial grounds: so reflected on self in relation
to particular community
• This was regarded as fundamental to our identity: called Fundamental Pedagogics
• Here, Phenomenology was distorted to serve an educational ideology (same applied to
Christian National Education)
• This led to a rejection of Phenomenology and the uncritical adoption of Empiricism after 1994
 Feminism
Systems Theory and Feminism: Their Effect on the Modern Educational Context

Systems Theory
• Inter-disciplinary and focuses on complex systems
• Concerned with the nature of education systems and their effects
• Holistic approach, explaining phenomena in its entirety
• Education seen as a vast and complex system
• Influential thinkers: John Dewey, Norbert Weiner, Peter Senge, Michel Foucault

Key Ideas
• Education includes mini systems (teaching, learning, assignments, testing)
• People involved in education are biological and psychological systems
• Impact of education on the environment (resources, alterations to environment)

Feminism
• Philosophy based on the notion that women have been seen as inferior to men
• Seeks recognition and power for women
• Types of feminism: liberal, phenomenological, radical, African
• Influential thinkers: Mary Wollstonecraft, Lucretia Mott, Sojourner Truth, Simone de
Bouviour, Margaret Atwood, Shulamith Firestone
• Feminist approach to education: inclusion, co-operation, respect for learners' contributions

Feminism and Education

• Feminist topics often excluded from school curriculum
• Examples of feminism and education through prominent activists: Charlotte Perkins Gilman,
Nel Noddings, Jane Rowland Martin, Maxine Greene, Ileana Jimenez
 Critical Theory
Critical Theory and Education

Definition and Principles

• Radical philosophy against human domination by power structures
• Questions authority and encourages critical thinking
• Seeks to emancipate individuals from oppressive social structures

Influence on Education
• Critical theory influences how we think about social structures, including education
• Challenges dominant groups and elite control over education
• Encourages critical thinking and emancipation from oppressive systems

Examples of Critical Theorists

• Max Horkheimer and the Frankfurt school: interdisciplinary approach to understanding
society
• Jurgen Habermas: critiques elite control over economy and democracy
• Theodor Adorno: impact of authoritarianism on education
• Paulo Freire: critical pedagogy, literacy, and social inequality
• Peter McLaren: humanistic approach to critical theory and education

Critique of Modern Schooling Systems

• Built to disempower people and pass on ideologies without critical thinking
• Need for emancipation from modern schooling systems
• Technology in the classroom can alienate individuals
 Modernism and Postmodernism
Modernism and Postmodernism within an Educational Framework

Modernism
• Emerged during times of war, concentration camps, and apartheid
• Based on Enlightenment values: science, reason, rationality, freedom of thought, rejection of
religion

Postmodernism
• Arises as a response to Modernism
• Rejects absolute truth and reason, emphasizes human emotion and temporality

Key concepts:
o Moral truths are problematic
o No neutrality due to biases and agendas
o Reality and knowledge are socially constructed
o Human beings are ruled by both reason and emotions

Implications for Education

• Postmodernism challenges traditional notions of knowledge and truth
• Emphasizes exploration and questioning over authoritative imposition
• Influential postmodern educators:
o Ludwig Wittgenstein: language and community
o Jean-Francois Lyotard: emphasis on dreams, goals, and creativity
o Nicholas Burbules: active engagement, informal learning, and curriculum limitations
 Inquiry Based Learning
John Dewey: Educational Philosophy - inquiry in the classroom places the responsibility for learning
on the students and encourages them to arrive at an understanding of concepts by themselves
Inquiry Based Learning:

• Students are responsible for their own learning

• The idea is to get the learners actively involved in searching for answers and working
together collaboratively in the process
• Thereby they are constructing their own understandings of knowledge

What does Inquiry Based Learning look like?

• The teacher would present the question, problem or situation to the learners
• The learners would start engaging with the teacher and each other about the issue at hand
• They would then continue by investigating more about the specific issue which they have
identified
• They would attempt to find patterns and relationships
• These would be further discussed
• Learners would then share their findings

Which skills are refined?

• cooperating/collaboration
• research skills
• observational skills
• skills in selecting relevant info
• analyse and draw inferences
• critical thinking
• independent thinking
• how to take responsibility for their own learning

Levels of Inquiry Based Learning:

Depending on a number of variables, the teacher would make a decision on what level of inquiry they
will use. This can be different between classes and individuals.

• Structured inquiry: teacher gives questions/s and basic instructions

• Guided inquiry: teacher poses a situation and guides learners through prompting, pertinent
questions, providing certain materials which learners could use
• Open inquiry: Learner establishes problem, methods of investigation: higher level thinking is
applied

Problem Solving:
Woolfolk's definition of a problem: “any situation that you are presented with in which you have to
find the means to reach a particular goal
 Situation → path → goal
Problem solving is more about finding solutions for problems: often these are new in the sense that
they have not been experienced before

Algorithms:
A step-by-step approach to solving a problem.
Example - acronym IDEAL to identify the five steps in problem solving (Bransford and Stein):

• I = Identify problems and opportunities

o What is the problem here? How could we begin to plan how to solve the problem
from here? What is our goal?
o Finding a solvable problem that turns into an opportunity for learners is even better

• D = Define goals and represent the problem

o Focus attention to find the problem and then develop ways in which to find an
appropriate solution
o Problems are presented in a way that learners can understand what is required
o The problem needs to be seen as a whole (certainly initially) so that the learner has
a clearer view of the goals required
o Schema are developed to solve problems and as learners are exposed to further
problems, they can be refined, extended upon, etc.

How do teachers educate learners about this?

o Using worked out examples

o Compare different ways of solving problems
o Working from familiar to unfamiliar

Strategies?

o Categorise problem type

o Representation of problem, words, pictures, graphs
o Attention to relevant aspects: select appropriate information

• E = Explore possible strategies

o Algorithms: a step-by-step prescription for achieving a goal
o Heuristics: a general strategy that might lead to the correct answer
o A “means to an end” heuristic: Where are we now and where do we want to go?
How to get there? (situation → plan → goal)
▪ “backwards working” heuristic: We start with the solution and work
backwards to see what plan we need and if we have all the data needed
▪ A “creating subgoals” heuristic: breaking down a larger problem into smaller
chunks or problems
o Analogies: solve future problems in the same way as those in the past
 • A = Anticipate outcomes and consequences
o When solving a problem, you need to consider the consequences of your options
before making your final decision
o e.g. By making tomatoes tougher, what would be the consequences on the sales of
tomatoes? What would be the consequences of having a litter free school?

• L = Look back and Learn

o When evaluating, you need to ask yourself if the path fitted the problem and
goal/solution you wanted to achieve, and if the solution answered the problem in
the first place

What hinders effective problem solving?

• A mental set: A person might be locked into a particular way of doing things
• Functional fixedness: the inability to see how familiar objects can be used in new ways
• Letting irrelevant information cloud our attention from the original problem

How should teachers facilitate problem solving techniques?

• Guidelines from Woolfolk (2010:286)

• Ask learners if they understand the problem
• Encourage them to see problems from different angles
• Don’t just hand them solutions: let them do the thinking
• Support learners in developing systematic ways of considering alternatives
• Teach heuristics

The Jig-Saw Method (Elliot Aronson): A cooperative learning strategy where each student in a group
takes responsibility for one chunk of the content and teaches it to the others to construct a
complete body of knowledge

1. Divide students into groups (same number in each group)

2. Divide content into chunks (one chunk per student in each group)
3. Assign one chunk to one person per group
4. Have students meet in 'expect' groups - students doing the same chunk from different
groups
5. Students return to Jig-Saw groups and each student takes a turn to present - others take
notes, ask questions and learn
6. Assess all students on all the content

Jig-Saw II (variation by Robert Slavin)- has individual score AND group score, calculated by adding
scores together, which builds competitiveness and sense of accountability
 Collaboration and Cooperation: Learning from Others through Interpretation,
Discussion, and Working with Others

Co-operative Learning
• Ability of learners to work together in a diverse, social environment to achieve academic
goals
• Benefits:
o Children facilitating other peers' learning
o Motivating each other to achieve, especially for underperforming children
o Improving interpersonal and communication skills

Effective Co-operative Learning

• Interdependence in the group is important
• Individuals are accountable for their task
• Developing groupwork skills:
o Active listening
o Respectful communication
o Clear idea sharing
o Accepting responsibility
o Sharing and taking turns
• Promoting interaction between group members
• Group processing:
o Reflecting on achievement of goals and working relationships
o Teacher-led or learner-led
o Involves summarizing contributions, encouraging participation, and acceptance of
decisions

Considerations for Effective Groupwork

• Group composition:
o Mixed-ability groups
o Groups of four or less
• Tasks:
o High-level tasks demonstrating higher-order thinking and problem-solving skills
• Teacher's role:
o Promoting an interactive environment
o Creating co-operative opportunities for learners
 Service Learning

Service Learning: a teaching and learning strategy which integrates meaningful community service
with instruction and reflection to enrich the learning experience, teach civic responsibility and
strengthen communities

Types of Service Learning:

• Direct service e.g. tutoring, work at after care or homework centre, walk dogs for SPCA,
reading for children, serving meals for the poor, volunteering for CANSA Shavathon, painting
a classroom or school walls, murals on walls, teach English to foreign learners, decorate Old
Age Home
• Indirect service e.g. collecting clothes for Children’s Home, raising money for a cause,
collecting food for the poor
• Advocacy e.g. design and distribute posters, pamphlets, write articles, design a logo

Benefits
• Critically reflect on one's role in society
• Become aware of social justice issues
• Experience commitment to a cause
• Feel a sense of:
o Competence
o Empathy
o Tolerance
o Inclusivity

Approach
• Constructivist
• Active learning
 Constructivism

Definition: “A view that sees knowledge not as given, but as actively and continuously constructed
and reconstructed by individuals, groups and societies

• Alternative to positivism: Positivism uses scientific methods to try to establish ‘the truth’
• Positivists: Learners are passive individuals that need to be filled with knowledge
• Constructivists challenge this view by emphasizing the active agency of learners in
constructing their own understandings of knowledge

Pillars of Constructivism
Central Ideas:

1. Active learners develop their own knowledge

• Learners have active agency to develop their own understandings of knowledge through
interacting with their physical and social worlds
• They engage, debate, work in groups to collaborate and negotiate knowledge
• Examples: Piaget - active engagement ‘from the inside out’, Vygotsky - active engagement
‘from the outside in’, Bruner - active engagement ‘from the inside out and outside in

2. Social interaction is important in collaboration with others

• Knowledge is shaped, constructed and reconstructed in different social environments
• Learners do this through cooperation, collaboration and cooperative learning with others
• Knowledge is regarded as more flexible in nature: it is forever changing and is not a fixed
phenomenon
• The different discourse in different environments also play a role in terms of the underlying
assumptions and world views within different contexts

Meta-Cognition
• Awareness of learning strategies and how to choose what is best in what situation
• This refers to the learner being aware of their thought processes: how the learner would
think, plan, remember

Tools of Cognition:
o These tools help learners to represent knowledge as they understand it
o e.g. systems of symbols such as language, mathematics, musical notation
 Constructivism: Piaget, Vygotsky, Erikson & Bruner

PIAGET

Jean Piaget's Theory

• Children actively construct their knowledge and understanding of the world around them
• Three processes:
o Assimilation: new information fits into existing information
o Accommodation: new information contradicts existing information and must be
accommodated into existing schema
o Equilibration: establishing an equilibrium between assimilation and accommodation

Piaget's Four Stages of Development

1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years)

• Schemata: simple maps constructed by child to represent internal images of outer world
• Object permanence: ability to represent something in mind even if out of sight
• Examples: throwing toy out of cot, calling for mother even if not seen

2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)

• Internally represents reality with images and symbols

• Difficulty understanding conservation and egocentrism
• Examples: folding rope, choosing birthday present

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)

• Less egocentric, more logical thinking

• Can conserve, reverse, identify, and arrange sequencing
• Examples: recognizing letters, problem-solving

4. Formal Operational Stage (11+ years)

• Abstract thinking, metaphorical understanding

• Can think about situations involving abstract relationships
• Examples: mathematical problem-solving, understanding metaphors
Implications for Education
• Encourage active engagement and exploration
• Focus on child's abilities, not limitations
• Quality of thinking over quantity of knowledge
• Bear in mind that not all children develop formal operational stage during adolescence

VYGOTSKY
Vygotsky's Teachings
• Role of social contexts: cognitive development occurs through social interaction
• Language: key factor in cognitive development, includes spoken, written, sign language, and
symbols
• Mediation: proximal interaction between child and other (parent, teacher, peer, etc.) to
construct knowledge

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

• Space where child has potential to grasp new understanding with help of another person
• Gap between what learner can achieve with assistance and what she can achieve alone
• Importance of finding critical space of potential development to lead to higher cognitive
functions

Implications for Education

• Knowledge is socially constructed and changes according to social contexts, history, and
social interaction
• Importance of language development in cognitive development
• Determining how to connect with learner's potential in the ZPD and mediate understanding
to new and higher levels of cognition
• All mediators (parents, teachers, peers, etc.) should be part of the education of the child
 NEUROPLASTICITY
Historical Beliefs About the Brain
• The brain is composed of different parts, each with a specific function (e.g., hearing, seeing,
logical thinking)
• The brain is formed at birth, and while cognitive changes occur, the physical composition
remains largely unchanged

New Research and Discoveries

• The brain can remap itself if necessary, with certain parts taking over functions of other
parts (Merzenich et al.)
• Implications for teaching and learning:
o Reliance on certain cognitive areas for deeper learning
o New cognitive mapping and neural circuits can be developed in the brain

Importance for Educators

• Need for further research and understanding of neuroplasticity for practical application in
cognitive development of children
• Students should investigate and explore this area to inform their teaching practices

ERIKSON
• He developed his theory after coming to America where he studied different cultures and
felt the need to accommodate more social and cultural influences into the original
psychoanalytic theory
• Therefore, he combined psychoanalytic thinking with social insights and the ability of people
to be active in their own development (biological and psychosocial sources)

Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

• A person develops through a series of stages (genetically laid down)
• Our personalities are shaped by how we deal with a series of psychosocial crises or
challenges during these stages
• There is an interaction between the nature of the person (genetic influences) and society
(environmental influences)
• The person’s “ego” develops as he/she works through his/her internal needs and how the
environment supports or challenges them
 The Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development
• Stages are genetically determined in a fixed sequence
• Society and the environment play a role in making demands and providing the opportunities
for the challenge at each stage to be resolved: at the same time the ego develops
• A crisis is a turning point at which the person must make choices about future development
• The aim is for a healthy balance: harmony between the inherent needs and the external
pushes If the crisis is not resolved, then this will hamper further development at the next
stage
• When development is progressing successfully, the ego acquires characteristics such as
hope, will-power, etc.

1. Infancy (0-1 year): Trust vs. Mistrust

• Dependence on caregivers, experiences of trust and mistrust
o First psychological challenge: development of a sense of trust toward his social
environment
o When parents treat the child warmly and are responsive to his/her needs, a sense
of trust develops: trust of the self and the world If the parents seldom respond, are
detached or respond coldly, then a basic sense of mistrust of others occurs
o A healthy person should generally be trustful of others
o This leads to the ego strength of HOPE

2. Toddlerhood (2-3 years): Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

• Independence, encouragement, and caution

o The child is becoming more mobile an interacting with the environment
o Parents who encourage their child toward greater independence will nurture his/her
sense of autonomy: the child will assert himself/herself and realise his/her will
o Parents who demand too much too soon, make excessive demands, restrain or
punish the child excessively will develop a sense of self-doubt and shame
o A healthy person should feel a sense of independence, autonomy and belief in
his/her abilities
o This leads to the ego strength of WILLPOWER

3. Early Childhood (3-5 years): Initiative vs. Guilt

• Physical and cognitive development, social interactions, and leadership skills

o The child is now increasingly more independent: he/she will make his/her own
decisions and takes more responsibility
o Children who assume more responsibilities, succeed in their efforts and are praised
for their accomplishments will develop a sense of initiative and competence
4. Middle to Late Childhood (6-12 years): Industry vs. Inferiority

• Expansion of social world, development of skills, and comparison with peers

o Children become more industrious and develop a variety of skills: they are driving
their energies into mastering knowledge and developing other skills
o If a child believes that they can perform competently, then they will be more active
and productive both in the classroom and on the sports field
o If they fails to acquire the necessary skills, they will feel a sense of inferiority and
become withdrawn unmotivated and unproductive
o A healthy person would be productive and involved in many activities
o This leads to the ego strength of COMPETENCE

5. Adolescence (12-20s): Identity vs. Role Confusion

• Search for identity, liberation, and relationships

o Children grow physically, intellectually, in terms of their independence and social
relationships
o They have to make important choices about future careers as well as consider
philosophical questions about themselves and the world
o They are confronted by many new roles and views and need to explore different
paths to attain a healthy identity
o If a person has a good sense of direction and is encouraged and supported in their
quest; if their beliefs and values are firm, then they will develop a sense of ego
IDENTITY
o The process generally continues throughout life as people are exposed to more
experiences and deal with their beliefs and values, make decisions and set goals
o This leads to the ego strength of RELIABILITY (accepting of self and loyalty to one’s
social role)/FIDELITY (faithfulness to self)

6. Young Adulthood (20s-30s): Intimacy vs. Isolation

• Establishing close and committed relationships

o The person who is more confident in him/herself is usually more able to conduct a
stable relationship with another person: “finding oneself and losing oneself in
another person”
o If a person develops lasting friendships and ultimately an attachment to another
person as in a marriage relationship, then the person would have developed the
characteristic of intimacy and be comfortable in meaningful relationships with
others
o If a person fails to develop these intimate relationships, then they may retreat into
isolation and loneliness and this will further impede his/her relationships with others
o A healthy person would have a small number of committed relationships with close
friends and a partner and feel comfortable to share in these relationships
o This leads to the ego strength of LOVE/MUTUALITY
7. Middle Adulthood (40s-50s): Generativity vs. Stagnation

• Productivity, mentorship, and community involvement

o The primary efforts of the person are centred around shaping the new generation
to come: passing on the knowledge and experience which they had gained in life to
others such as in child rearing or helping the world be a better place for other
people’s children
o If the person has the opportunity to fulfil this need, they would feel a sense of
people needing them
o If the person does not have this need met, they will feel a sense of stagnation and
meaninglessness, and this will often lead to a kind of self-obsession in which a
person would be totally focused on the self and self-indulge
o The person may experience a midlife crisis: a sense of entrapment and failure at not
having achieved their goals and dreams
o A healthy person will be involved in participating in a society and playing an active
role in the development of others
o This will lead to the ego strength of CARE

8. Late Adulthood (60s-death): Integrity vs. Despair

• Satisfaction with life, wisdom, and connection to humanity

o At this stage, a person will reflect back on their life and knowing that the end is near
is what creates this crisis
o A person who comes to terms with their life: can accept the joys and sorrows, the
successes and failures, and who has resolved the crises of all of the previous stages,
will feel a sense of acceptance and that their life is positively integrated and worth
living
o A person who looks back with regrets will drift into a state of bitterness and
despair: this person may fear death and wish to live their life over again
o A healthy person will have a sense of acceptance and a positive attitude, and
continue to find meaning in activities and have meaningful relationships with others
o This leads to the development of the ego strength of WISDOM

NOTE & SUMMARY

• A person is dealing with all the crises at each stage, but ONE becomes the primary focus as
the epigenetic principle unfolds in a holistic manner: the stages unfold in sequence but are
worked through afresh at each stage
• Past unfulfilled crises from previous stages can be dealt with later on in life
• Note: There is a relationship between the person and society
Ego-Strengths at each stage:
o Trust and hope in one’s partner and the future of one’s family
o Willpower to take autonomous decisions
o A sense of purpose to take the initiative to make decisions
o Competence and industriousness to work and care for family
o Reliability/fidelity as being rooted in their sense of identify to feel accepted and
depended on by the family
o Love/mutuality and intimate relationships in family
o Participation and care for one’s family
o Wisdom and a sense of integration to accept one’s life and feel comfortable with
the decisions made so far

Educational Implications
• Understanding human development and social contexts
• Creating opportunities for exploration and development
• Recognizing diversity and individual differences
• Viewing the holistic makeup of learners (physical, social, moral, spiritual)

BRUNER
The Spiral Curriculum: Fundamental to Complex Knowledge Building

Key Concepts
• Process and content are equally important in learning
• Active learning and connecting the familiar to the unfamiliar
• Guided discovery and scaffolding
• Groupwork and cooperative learning
• Language interaction

Bruner's Theory
• Content and process of learning are equally important
• Understanding the structure and interrelationships of a topic
• Developing learning strategies and neural capacity
• Active learning and passive teaching methods
• Connecting the familiar to the unfamiliar
• Guided discovery and scaffolding
• Groupwork and cooperative learning
• Language interaction
The Spiral Curriculum
• A curriculum design where concepts are repeated with increasing difficulty
• Learners develop deeper engagement and more complex understandings
• Introducing concepts in early schooling and revisiting with increasing complexity

Implications for Teaching

• Prioritize both content and process
• Use active learning and connecting the familiar to the unfamiliar
• Implement guided discovery and scaffolding
• Use groupwork and cooperative learning
• Emphasize language interaction
• Use the spiral curriculum to build complex knowledge