1

UNWANTED

INTERFERE WITH
HUMAN UNDESIRABLE
ACTIVITY

WEEDS?
THEIR HARMFUL
EFFECTS EXCEEDS
THEIR BENEFITS USELESS

OUT-OF-PLACE GROWING IN AN
AREA WHERE IT IS
NOT DESIRED

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CHAPTER 1

WEED SCIENCE AND HISTORY OF WEED SCIENCE

Weed Science- is the study of weeds and their control, whether it be manual,
mechanical, cultural, biological, chemical, or ecological.
-its main goal is the formulation of the most satisfactory, most
efficient yet least expensive method of controlling weeds.
-it is an offshoot of plant physiology, having evolved from the
study of auxins and plant growth regulators.

DEFINITION OF WEEDS
a. A weed is a plant growing out of place.
b. A weed is a plant growing where it is not desired- plant that is useless,
unwanted, and undesirable.
c. A weed is a plant that interferes with man or area of his interest.
d. A weed is a plant whose virtues have not yet been discovered (Ralph
Waldo Emerson)

HISTORY OF WEED SCIENCE

1897-1900- Bonnet (Framce), Schultz (Germany), and Dolley (US), all working
independently at about the same time, found that a solution of copper salts would se-
lectively killed broadleaved weeds in cereals.
1908- Dolley (USA) successfully weed control using common table salts, iron
sulfate, and sodium arsenite in wheat.
1941-Pokorny (USA) reported techniques for the chemical synthesis of 2, 4-D
when tried by other research workers as a fungicide and insecticide, it was found inef-
fective.
1942- Zimmerman and Hitchcock (USA) reported 2, 4-D to be a growth sub-
stance.
1944- P.C Marth and J. W. Mitchell (USA) established the selectivity of 2, 4-D
through the removal of the dandelion, plantain and other broadleaved weeds from a

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bluegrass lawn, C. L. Hammer and H. B. Turkey (USA) used 2, 4-D successfully in field
weed control.
In the Philippines, 2, 4-D was initially tested in 1948 in efforts to eradicate
weeds in laws, vacant lots and pastures (Capinpin and Ocfemia 1948). The study was
followed by trials in weed control in rice. Other new herbicides and growth inhibitors
were studied in 1955.

CHAPTER 2

CHARACTERISTICS OF WEEDS

 Rapid vegetative growth; profuse root production

 Reproduce early and efficiently
 They have the ability to survive and adapt to adverse conditions
 Propagules possess dormancy or can be induced to become dormant
under unfavorable conditions
 Cause significant damage even at low densities
Weeds affect everyone… it should be the concern of all…

DAMAGES CAUSED BY WEEDS

1. Reduced yields of crops due to competition for nutrients, water, and light
2. Increased cost for insect and disease control
3. Reduced quality of products
4. Increased cost of lawn maintenance and beautification projects
5. Clogging of irrigation and drainage canals and hydroelectric gulls
6. Imposed hazards to health
7. There are certainly other incidental damages caused by weeds particularly
in agriculture

HARMFUL EFFECTS OF WEEDS

 Reduce yield quantity and quality of products; Reduced yields of
crops due to competition for nutrients, water, and light.

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 Serve as alternate hosts for other pests; Increased cost for insect and
disease control; Increase production cost
 Clog waterways and irrigation canals; Clogging of irrigation and
drainage canals and hydroelectric gulls
 Release chemicals harmful to other plants; Imposed hazards to health
 Provide habitat for insect predators
 Reduce land value; there are certainly other incidental damages
caused by weeds particularly in agriculture.

SOME BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF WEEDS

a. They reduce soil erosion in hilly areas.
b. Some can be sources of food for man and animals.
c. They prevent leaching of nutrients and return them into the soil.
d. They could be sources of germplasms for crop improvement.
e. Some can be sources of bio pesticides and drugs.
f. They provide habitat for insect predators.

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CHAPTER 3

DISTRIBUTION OF WEEDS
> Some species have limited geographical distribution but some species
that possess more efficient mechanisms for adaptation had invaded
more continents. The principal factors that determines weed distribu-
tion temperature.
> Cyperus rotundus, purple nutsedge, is found in the tropical and sub-
tropical areas of Asia, Africa, South, America, and North America. In
the temperate areas, where it does not thrive, its counterpart, Cyperus
esculentus, yellow nutsedge is found.

SPECIES DISTRIBUTION
Echinocloa crusgalli Widespread in all warm countries. Throughout the Philippines in open wet places
.and rice paddies at low altitudes
Echinocloa colona Pantropic and in some temperate countries. Throughout the Philippines in rather wet
.places
Imperata cylindrica East to South Africa to Asia, Malaysia, and Australia. Throughout the Philippines in
.open; dry lands; sea level up to 2,300m; often gregariously occupying large areas
Rottboela exaltata Tropic Africa and Asia, Malaysia, and Australia. Throughout the Philippines in open
.and well drained grassland thickets and similar places
Eleucine indica .Cosmopolitan; widely distributed in the Philippines in settled areas; very common
Cyperus rotondus Temperate and tropical regions of the world. Throughout the Philippines in open
.areas at low and medium altitudes; very common
Scirpus maritimus .Cosmopolitan; in lowland rice fields especially in Luzon
Commelina Tropical Africa; Asia to Japan and Malaysia. Throughout the Philippines on open
benhalensis .wastes places
Monochoria vaginalis Southern Asia to China, Japan and Malaysia. Throughout the Philippines in open
.wastes places, rice paddies, swamps, and other areas
Eichhonia crassipes Native to Brazil; throughout the Philippines in canals, rivers, swamps, and even rice
.fields, thoroughly naturalized
Pistia stratiotes New and old world tropics; floating on muddy banks, abundant throughout the
.Philippines

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Salvinia molesta New and old world tropics; not represented in the Philippines, prevalent in
.Indonesia
Marsilea crenata Malaysia, Hong Kong and Taiwan. Common throughout the Philippines in shallow
.pools and in rice paddies; disappears as the pools and the mud become dry
Mimosa pudica Native to tropic America, now found in all tropical countries. In open waste places,
.along dikes and canals of rice paddies throughout the Philippines; very common
Chromolaena odorata .Mindanao, the Sulu archipelago, Palawan, Mindoro to Central Luzon
Lantana camara Native to tropical America, now pantropic. In waste lands about towns and barrios
.throughout the Philippines

IMPORTANCE:
They are generally harmful… and cause significant losses in yield if
unchecked

CLASSIFICATION OF WEEDS

Out of 2, 50,000 plant species, weeds constitute about 250 species, which are
prominent in agricultural and non-agricultural system. Under world conditions about
30000 species is grouped as weeds.

BASED ON...
1. Origin
2. Habitat
3. Lifespan
4. Stem structure
5. Growth habit
6. Gross morphology

Based on ORIGIN

ENDEMIC / NATIVE WEEDS -Native to the area where they found.

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EXOTIC / INTRODUCED WEEDS -Not native to the area where they are
growing.

Based on HABITAT
UPLAND / TERRESTRIAL -Grow and complete their life cycle under dry or wet,
but not flooded soils.
LOWLAND / AQUATIC -Grow and complete their life cycles in flooded areas or
FLOATING or EMERGED or SUBMERGED.

Based on LIFESPAN

ANNUALS -Grow and complete their lifespan within a year or less.

PERENNIALS -Grow for more than 1 year, some indeterminately or SIMPLE
PERENNIALS or CREEPING / RHIZOMATOUS PERENNIALS.

Based on STEM STRUCTURE…

HERBACEOUS -Stem is succulent, does not undergo secondary growth;

common in annuals.
WOODY -Stem is hard and with a bark. Common in perennials.

Based on GROWTH HABIT

ERECT -Stem grows vertically upward without the aid of any support
TWINING -Stem needs support in order to grow vertically
CREEPING -Stems grows horizontally along the ground or PROCUMBENT or
DECUMBENT.

Based on GROSS MORPHOLOGY

GRASSES -Narrow leaves with parallel veins; rounded stems with distinct
nodes & internodes; fibrous root system.
SEDGES -Narrow leaves with parallel veins; triangular stems; fibrous root
system.

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BROADLEAVES
-Wide/broad leaves; stems

woody or succulent;

Grass Sedge
usually with tap root system.

BROADLEAF

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Different type of weeds and their characteristics

GRASSES SEDGES BROADLEAVES

LEAVES Elongated; ex- Elongated; narrow Broad and have netted

panded; most nar- with parallel vena- veins
row with parallel ve- tion
nation

STEM Succulent; rounded Triangular and Some are woody and

and compressed succulent and compressed; filled with
some are hollow nodes and internodes.
filled with distinct
nodes.

ROOTS Fibrous roots Fibrous roots Fibrous but most have

top roots

CLASSIFICATION OF WEEDS
I. Based on life span

Based on life span (Ontogeny), weeds are classified as Annual weeds, Bien-
nial weeds and Perennial weeds.
A. Annual Weeds
Weeds that live only for a season or a year and complete their life cycle in that
season or year are called as annual weeds.
These are small herbs with shallow roots and weak stem. Produces seeds in
profusion and the mode of propagation is commonly through seeds. After seeding the
annuals die away and the seeds germinate and start the next generation in the next
season or year following. Most common field weeds are annuals. The examples are
a. Monsoon annual -Commelina benghalensis, Boerhavia erecta
b. Winter annual Chenopodium album
B. Biennials
 11

It completes the vegetative growth in the first season, flower and set seeds in
the succeeding season and then dies. These are found mainly in non-cropped areas.
Eg. Alternanthera echinata, Daucus carota

C. Perennials

Perennials live for more than two years and may live almost indefinitely. They
adapted to withstand adverse conditions. They propagate not only through seeds but
also by underground stem, root, rhizomes, tubers etc. And hence they are further clas-
sified into
 Simple perennials: Plants propagated only by seeds. Eg. Sonchus ar-
vensis
 Bulbous perennials -Plants which possess a modified stem with
scales and reproduce mainly from bulbs and seeds. Eg. Allium sp.
 Corm perennials -Plants that possess a modified shoot and fleshy
stem and reproduce through corm and seeds. Eg. Timothy (Phleum
pratense)
 Creeping perennials: Reproduced through seeds as well as with one
of the following.
 Rhizome: Plants having underground stem – Sorghum halapense
 Stolon: Plants having horizontal creeping stem above the ground –
Cynodon dactylon
 Roots: Plants having enlarged root system with numerous buds –
Convolvulus arvensis
 Tubers: Plants having modified rhizomes adapted for storage of
food – Cyperus rotundus

II. Based on ecological affinities

A. Wetland weeds

Science Lecture…
 12

They are tender annuals with semi-aquatic habit. They can thrive as
well under waterlogged and in partially dry condition. Propagation is chiefly by seed.
Eg. Ammania baccifera, Eclipta alba

B. Garden land weeds (Irrigated lands)

These weeds neither require large quantities of water like wetland

weeds nor can they successfully withstand extreme drought as dryland weeds. Eg. -
Trianthema portulacastrum, Digera arvensis

C. Dry lands weeds

These are usually hardy plants with deep root system. They are adapted to
withstand drought on account of mucilaginous nature of the stem and hairiness. Eg.
Tribulus terrestris, Argemone mexicana.

III. Based on soil type (Edaphic)

A. Weeds of black cotton soil: These are often closely allied to those that
grow in dry condition. Eg., Aristolochia bracteata
B. Weeds of red soils: They are like the weeds of garden lands consist-
ing of various classes of plants. Eg. Commelina benghalensis
C. Weeds of light, sandy or loamy soils: Weeds that occur in soils having
good drainage. Eg. Leucas aspera
D. Weeds of laterite soils: Eg. Lantana camara, Spergula arvensis

Science Lecture…
 13

GRASSES

SEDGES
Broadleaves

CHAPTER 4

Lecture…
 14

WEED ESTABLISHMENT

Determined by the:
Weed seeds in the soil weed seed germination competition
The weed seed bank in the soil is influenced by the:
1. Magnitude of weed seed production
2. Longevity & dormancy of weed seeds
3. Cultural practices & environment

Seed production capacity of some weeds under Philippine condition

Species Produced/Plant Seed Cycle

Amaranthus spinosus 3,272

Rottboellia cochinchinensis 5,048

Echinochloa crusgalli 42,388

Eleusine indica 4,889

Celosia argentea 11 , 312

FACTORS AFFECTING SEED PRODUCTION OF WEEDS

PHOTOPERIOD- affects flowering

VEGETATIVE GROWTH - monocots bear flowers terminally
- Dicots bear flowers on leaf axils
SOIL NUTRIENT STATUS -early flowering in nutrient-deficient soils
- Sexual reproduction is favored when soil nutrients
are deficient
TEMPERATURE - affects anthesis, pollination and nectar secretion
GROWTH REGULATORS – auxin results to sterile spikelets
- GA leads to male sex expression
FACTORS AFFECTING ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION BY WEEDS

Lecture…
 15

1. SOIL TEXTURE -lighter soils (bigger particle size) enhances better tuber/ rhizome
development
-exposure to short day lengths stimulates tuber formation.
2. DAYLENGTH
-the day length favorable to flowering favors tuber production.
-the day length favorable to vegetative growth does not favor flowering.

- Higher
3. LIGHT INTENSITY
-light intensity -favors vegetative Propagules development.

4. SOIL NUTRIENT STATUS - Mineral sufficiency favors asexual more than sexual reproduction.

COMMON VEGETATIVE PROPAGULES OF WEEDS

TUBERS/ BULBS -Cyperus rotundus, Scirpus maritimus

RHIZOMES -Imperata cylindrica, Paspalum distichum

STOLONS (RUNNERS) -Cynodon dactylon

OFFSHOOTS (SUCKERS) -Pistia stratiotes, Eichhornia crassipes

CHAPTER 5

Lecture…
 16

DORMANCY

The inability of a seed or a vegetative Propagules to germinate even under fa-

vorable conditions

Causes: PHYSICAL and/or PHYSIOLOGICAL

BREAKING SEED DORMANCY IN THE FIELD

Hard seed coats: alternate wetting and drying
: Microbial decomposition

Immature embryo: after-ripening under natural conditions

Germination inhibitors: leaching of the inhibitor to the soil

Dormancy explains for the never-ending emergence of weeds in

the field

GERMINATION
The resumption of the active growth of the embryo in the seed or
plantlets/buds in a tuber (stem)
SEED GERMINATION PROCESS

1. Water imbibition
2. Enzyme activation
3. Initiation of embryo growth
4. Rupture of the seed coat
5. Seedling emergence

DISPERSAL -The movement of plants and animals from one area to

another.

DISPERSAL UNIT -A structure, together with its accessory parts, which

is separated from the mother plant, and functions to perpetuate its kind

Lecture…
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Examples: seeds, vegetative Propagules (tubers, rhizomes, stolon, off-

shoots, leaves, etc.)
AGENTS OF DISPERSAL

WIND - light minute seeds, flattened structure, wing-like outgrowth,

feathery structure, hairy structure
WATER- light, buoyant seeds
EXPLOSIVE MECHANISMS - shattering ability
ANIMALS - weeds with edible and fleshy fruits, with sticky
substances or with hooks
MAN - through clothes, shoes, cultural practices, deliberate dispersal

COMPETITION -The struggle between two or more plants for the

limited resources in the environment could be INTERSPECIFIC or
INTRASPECIFIC
ALLELOPATHY -The harmful effects of one plant on another
plant due to the chemicals that it releases to the environment

INTERFERENCE -Any disturbance in the normal growth and function-

ing of the plant includes both the effects of competition and allelopathy

COMPETITION FOR WATER -Water Use Efficiency (WUE). Amount

of dry matter produced per unit of water used Corn - 370L water/kg DM
Portulaca - 253 L water/kg DM Rice - 682 L water/kg DM

COMPETITION FOR LIGHT -Leaf Area Index (LAI) -Leaf area per over
ground area

LIGHT TRANSMISSION RATIO (LTR) -The light intensity reaching

below the plant canopy over the light intensity above the canopy

CRITICAL PERIOD OF COMPETITION

Lecture…
 18

The duration during the lifespan of the crop when it is most affected by competi-
tion by weeds. Usually during the first 1/3 to ½ of the total lifespan of the crop. Most practi-
cal indicator: CLOSURE OF THE CANOPY

CRITICAL THRESHOLD LEVEL

The weed density, higher than which, significant yield losses will be incurred

FACTORS AFFECTING COMPETITION

 Weed species
 Weed density
 Duration of competition
 Crop variety/ cultivar
 Seeding method
 Soil nutrient status
 Environment
CROP-WEED COMPETITION
CRITICAL PERIOD OF COMPITION AND CRITICAL THRESHOLD LEVEL
 Weeds are nourished by the same nutrient and environmental ele-
ments needed by the crop. Because of the limited supply of these vital
elements, their association, therefore, leads to competition for these el-
ements of survival. In weed control, the ultimate goal is to shift competi-
tion in favor of the crop to make it more competitive than the weed.
 During the cropping period, there is a particular duration, the critical pe-
riod of competition, wherein the crop is very sensitive to weed competi-
tion, the presence of weeds above a certain density, critical threshold
level will cause a significant reduction in yield.

HOW TO INCREASE COMPETITIVE ABILITY OF CROP

1. Varying the distance of planting
2. Placement of fertilizers
3. Mulching
4. Planting system
5. Cover cropping

Lecture…
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6. Intercropping
7. Thorough land preparation
8. Zero tillage
9. Water management

CHAPTER 6
WEED CONTROL

The utilization of all feasible methods of prevention and control, in a harmo-

nious combination, to minimize weed populations, at the same time reduce the cost
and the harmful effects.

PRINCIPLES OF WEED CONTROL

1. The aim of any weed control program is the reduce weed populations to levels
that will not cause significant yield losses.
2. Weed control strategies should be directed to organs responsible for
reproduction and spread.
3. Weed control strategies should be started early in the season and sustained
until such time when the crop can compete favorably with the weeds.
4. Ensure efficient weed control with minimal harm to the crop and the
environment.

EXTENT OF WEED CONTROL PROBLEMS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

> Holm (1969) listed the 10 world’s weeds. All the weed species enumerated are
found in Southeast Asia. Different countries may have a different order of im-
portance of the different species and change one of two with local species. The
Echinocloa species may be ranked next to C. rotundus and Sorghum
halepense, and Cynodon dactylon may be replaced with Paspalum sp., and
Rottboella exaltata in the Philippines. In Indonesia, Salvinia molesta may be
considered more serious than Cynodon dactylon.

Lecture…
 20

Scientific Name English Common Name

Cyperus rotundus Purple nutsedge
Cynodon dactylon Bermuda grass
Echinochloa crusgalli Barnyard grass
Echinocloa colona Jungle rice
Eleusine indica Goose grass
Sorghum halepense Johnson grass
Panicum maximum Guinea grass
Eichhornia crassipes Water hyacinth
Imperata cylindrica Cogon grass
Lantana camara Lantana

> Perennial weeds are generally difficult to control with their underground sys-
tems possessing dormancy and resisting usual control measures.
> The diversity and seriousness of weed problem in SE Asia can be attributed to
two factors, namely the predominant cultural practices and the climatic condi-
tions.
> Primitive method of agriculture have produced useless areas of perennial
weeds such as Imperata cylindrica and Sacharum spontaneum to an extent big-
ger than what is employed for agriculture and forestry.
> Climatic conditions in the regions are quite favorable for weed growth. The ab-
sence of extremely cold or dry conditions enables continuous weed growth
which is aggravated by the usual practice of fallowing he field during the dry
season when crops cannot be grown but weeds can still survive.

METHODS OF WEED CONTROL

1. MANUAL -Hand weeding / handpulling

2. MECHANICAL -Use of mechanized equipment (e.g. rotary weeders,
cultivators, etc.)
3. CULTURAL / ECOLOGICAL. -Mulching, flooding, crop rotation, nutrient
management, proper land preparation, etc.
4. BIOLOGICAL -The use of living organisms (insects, plant pathogens, etc.)

Lecture…
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5. CHEMICAL -The use of herbicides

CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL

HERBICIDE -A chemical used to kill or inhibit the growth of plants

HERBA (plant) + CAEDERE (to kill)

2, 4-D (2, 4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid); USA

MCPA (2-methyl, 4 chlorophenoxy acetic acid);

Britain -Discovered in the 1940’s, belong to
the phenoxy group of herbicides.

Pokorny (1941) first reported about the synthe-

sis of 2, 4-D

CLASSIFICATION OF HERBICIDES

BASED ON TARGET PLANTS / BASED ON SELECTIVITY

 SELECTIVE HERBICIDES. Kill specific plants (butachlor,

propanil, 2, 4-D, etc.)
 NON-SELECTIVE HERBICIDES. Kill all plants (glyphosate,
glufosinate, paraquat)

BASED ON TIME OF APPLICATION

 PRE-PLANT. Applied before planting the crop; usually applied
to the soil
 PRE-EMERGENCE. Applied before the emergence of the
crop or the weed; soil applied
 POST-EMERGENCE. Applied after the emergence of the
weed; foliar application

BASED ON MOVEMENT IN PLANTS

Lecture…
 22

 CONTACT / LOCALIZED -The site of contact/application is the

site of action/phytotoxicity e.g. paraquat, glufosinate
ammonium.

 TRANSLOCATED / SYSTEMIC -The herbicide moves inside

the plant until it reaches a specific site of action e.g.
glyphosate, pendimethalin, pretilachlor.

BASED ON THE RAPIDITY OF PHYTOTOXICITY

 ACUTE TOXICITY -Rapid expression of phytotoxicity
 CHRONIC PHYTOTOXICITY -Slow expression of
phytotoxicity

BASED ON CHEMICAL STRUCTURE -Phenoxys triazines

sulfonylureas dinitroanilines bipyridiliums amides phenols carbamates
aliphatic acids benzoic acid derivatives substituted ureas

HERBICIDE SELECTIVITY -The inherent property of an herbicide that

enables it to kill some plants (weeds) but no other plants (crop)
Types of Selectivity
 TRUE selectivity
 PLACEMENT selectivity

HERBICIDE RESISTANCE -The ability of some plants to survive an herbicide

treatment that would, under normal conditions of use, effectively kill that plant
population.

TOXICITY -The inherent property of a pesticide to cause harm.

HAZARD -The risk or likelihood of an adverse effect.

ACTIVE INGREDIENT -The component of a formulated pesticide that is respon-

sible for its phytotoxic effects; also called the TOXICANT.

Lecture…
 23

RECOMMENDED RATE -The amount of active ingredient or formulated product

that needs to be applied in a given area

ADJUVANT / SURFACTANT -Any sticker, spreading agent, wetting agent, syn-

ergist, etc. intended for use as an aid to the application and/or use of the pesticide.
The word SURFACTANT is coined from the words: SURFace ACTive AgeNT

PESTICIDE FORMULATION -Any mixed or unmixed product intended for con-

trolling, destroying or repelling any pest, or for preventing its growth or mitigating its
harmful effects

LD50 -the median lethal dose. The dose that kills 50% of the test animals

EFFECTS WHEN COMBINING PESTICIDES

1. ADDITIVE A+B
(A+B)

2. SYNERGESTIC A+B >(A+B)

3. ANTAGONISTIC A + B < (A +
B ) < A or < B

FPA (Fertilizer and Pesticide Authority) created by virtue of PD no. 1144 promulgated
on May 30, 1977
IPM (Integrated Pest Management) created by virtue of DA Special Order No. 495,
Series of 1997 Categories of pesticides based on level of
phytotoxicity.

REFERENCES

http://flora.huh.harvard.edu/FNA/volumes.shtml or the USDA Plants database at

http://plants.usda.gov. Common Agricultural Weeds of the Coastal Plain, USDA-Natural
Resource Conservation Service, Jimmy Carter Plant Materials Center Americus, Geor-
gia March 2008

Lecture…
 24

B.P. Caton, M. Mortimer, J.E. Hill, and D.E. Johnson, Weeds of Rice in Asia Second
Edition
Dr. Maria Estela Blancaver-Detalla. WEED SCIENCE College of Agriculture Central
Mindanao University

Lecture…