cuapten one have attempted to integrate and present them in away that wil be useful and acesible for anyone-—hopefully wih heginnermind. Armed now ‘with dae fom Bateson, Cilzentnibly and Pesce, let the arguments ‘that make symbolically i dhe fllowing chapters be tested through each readers own indeical experiences I il be satisfied f something here ‘wiggersuew ways to tink about those experiences Participatory and Presentational Performance ‘Because we have the one word —music—iteatrickofthe Englishlangoage ‘ha we tend to think of music making ara single art fore. Certainly we Snow that there are different bands of musi. We have alot of word, ang- Ing from rather broad nes—flk popular asizl, word music—which ate meaat to encompass everything to ever more specific Inbel— (rock) roots, pachael emai, grunge glam punk, (metal bea met, speed retaldeath metal. Misia entegories are created by musiclans, cats, fans, the music industry, and academics alike. These labels are used to dAstingush sls and preducs, but they tll us litle about how and why people make the particular music they do and the values that underpin the ‘ray they make ‘Regudlesy ofthe category in question, when North Americans down: load 2 soug ogo out to buy a CD they believe that they are purchasing _ise, This belief points to cularally specif conception of what music is, When people buy a photograph ofa person, they understand that iis ‘only a representation of tat peeson, nt the ral thing, Older indigenous “Ajanara musicians with whore I worked in Pera during the 1980s tested the recordings that they mae of their Festival masie as we might use photographs After a festival was oer, they often listened together to the recordings that they ad made on thelr boom boxe, largely o remember ‘ud reply what had been happening in the festival t chat pot. Thai they used the recordings mich as North Americans might use soapshots of recent vacation —to show fiends and remember the special times hat ‘were experience. The recordings were a representation of a celebration snd of oc ineratons realized ina special way through plying musicand dancing together For them a recording isto ‘music what, for us, & hotographsto the person the snapshot: representation of something flee, not the real thing. My Peruvian flende tended to think f enue at being asic about the event and the people ax about the sound sel [As often 3 not, wen the next festival came they would record over the ‘previous sonic snap, ts we valne—reminicing with ends during the weeks following the stale, In English the word muse ks a noun, nd coemopoitans more gen erly tend o think of music as thing—an identifiable art objec that ‘an owed bys crestrs through copyrights and purchased by cons fs. The strength and pervasiveness ofthe misie industry and it nas ‘mediated product during the part century have helped wo crete this abit. of thought. If we brily consider the products ofthe muric industry over time, we can glimpre cosmopolitan gradal shift in thinking of music ‘making ta soil activity to muicasan objec fathe nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the major forms of popularimsicindustry product ‘were sheet mse (the Software) and musica instruments such spans, ltrs, banjos, accordions, and mandolins (the “hardware, often sold "through extalgs to be played inthe home after dnner or during times of leisare These prods required and were the basi of active participation in mse making among average people Recordings andthe radio began to change peoples conceptions but not entirely Radio broadeass began by alring lve performances, largely tobe replaced by recoding later By ‘theraid twentieth century the phrase high eit was wed by the industey to efertorecordingy. Atha time the understanding of musicas an act- ity involving live people performing with or for other liv people wa stil predominant and vecorngs were macketed asa faithful (high Beli) Fepresertaton of such performances, Even in the Int owentieth century ‘here was a commercial to selleassete tapes that used the slogan “sit ive rie t Memorex?” sigesting tht the sound recording was not the whole ‘all of wax but rather was capturing, representing, something else (6, see Mowit 98). ‘Nor Americans sil tend lve performance inthe early twenty st ‘century, but in the popular musi realm atleast, such performances are ‘often closely Inked to recordings and other merchandise ther we at tend a concert because we have heard an aris recordings, of once we se here the band wants to sell us their CDs. Many clubs in Nosh Amer- ‘ca no longer even bother with Hive acts that sng or play musa nst- rents and instead hire DJs who use recordings and playback devices as their instrament for pesformance. One ofthe mos poplar nightelubs in my town would sometimes feaare live bands before the DJ bu the musicians, cegarles of thes aternationa stature, had to vacate the stage promptly at 0:00 0 the main entertainment paying and manipulating ‘ecorings—could begin on tm! For the club manager in question, 0 Aiscespect to the bands was intended. I was simply an eonomic reiy that in 2006 more young people came fr the scene Ds reated than for live bands, Yer this lustre a strange reversal among these young people in their very conception of what music ls as compared to an ea when recordings were consiered a representation of live music and would have ‘en considered a poor substitute toa ive band. ‘The cultural conception of music hs shifted toward recordings — the form in which most cosmopolitans experience musie—as the eal thing? not ata representation of something else In capitalist societies, eal orat Jest sucessful musicine and mosie are largely concepeaaized in relation to profesional presentation, recordings (oth video and audio, o (as ally) some combination ofthe two. Even for loeal bar bandit has become ‘equi to make CDs fr promo and sal at gigs if they ae tobe taken, sind ae to take themselves, seriou ‘Yet in the United States a throughout the eet of the word there ae Amultitide ofmusie-dance acts that donot involve formal presentar tions, the sta systema, or recoding nd concert ticket sles. These other ‘ectivies ace more about the doing od socal interaction than about reat ingan artistic produc or commorhty. aging in church and playing music tome with frends ut for fu" ate common example ofthe later ype in North Amerie, but there ace mari other pockets of pstcipatory music ‘aking and dance ranging from contra, sls, hiphop and wing dancing te dnum cicles, garage rock bands, begs or od-time jams, ad com nity singing tat take place in bass, eofeehouses, community center, tnd pevate homes on a weldy bass, Regardless of how important these tetvies ae tothe portcipants, Ihave Requenly heard such people say, “ut {ara not revly a musician” beeause of the broader sytem of value tharhols professionalism athe standard, In what follows Ianto argue __that these situations of partilpatory muse making ate ot jst iaformal or amatews, that les versions ofthe ‘eal matic’ made y the pros but {hat in fc, they ace something elae—a ferent form of art and actly fettely~ard that they shouldbe conceptualized and valued as such ‘Thus rater than thinking abot musica single artform subdivided {nto varios spe and eta categorie, Ihave found It wel to concep: ‘lize musi making in celation to diferent realms or fels of artistic practic, Pike Bours den of sca feld (eg, 1984; 198s) refers toaspecific domaln of activity defined by the purpese and goals ofthe activity ‘hella the values, power eations, and types of apie! (eq, money. Seademic degrees, a hit song, athletic prowess, the ability to playa gtr) ‘etermining the role relationships, socal positioning, and status of actors and activites within th eld. Over the net two chapters I describe four ‘seal elds in uen ns his chapter I dizcus lds involeing real ime tnusial performance—partpatory and presentaonal music making I the following chapter Iintodce the high fel Bld and studi audio ar both of which involve the making of veorded music:* rely defined, participatory prfrmance is a special ype of artiste ‘racice in which there are no artist audience distinctions, only partic [Bans and poten parcpants performing diferent roles and the pr nary goa to involve the maximum numberof people in some perfor mance tle, Presentarional performance, in contrast refers to situations ‘where one group of people, the ass, prepare and provide music for an ‘ther group the audience, whe do not participate ln making the music of ancing Hig idly vefers to the making of recordings that are intended to index or be iconic of ive peeformance. While high fidelity recordings are connected to live performance in a variety of ways, special recording techniques and practices ace necessary to make this connection evident fn the sound ofthe recording, and aditonal artistic roles including the secovdist, producers ad engineers—also hep delineate high delity as |: Atoagh ele osc he er slat che symbols haven trae ie neo ne ly ett Mo any br Spi has Fl doped sey pry epunc” 3 bedy teh at ws npn he ewe am etn be GO 95 Shore gp ol eid stele inbral ning es ta a ante pupa, Hare whe ot pate yak het pricy pene rete lich ke ‘Geant es Sse Ba Cres toe he come Speecpene ond pono mala taco a oe nk ‘oe onsale erm hey fm he mse sy at hcl ory avr nt tn otc es ef cnantng engines (99) 1 bynes my ko 2 Satmeas ope mc ooo ad by ow te of my ent oe Bein tee hee cee sth bw (Sas 004; Ler an Cates Gc sg) Spied oy Ea devon of i amet he ce ‘Sma ctor sora crané sun a he Utero ce Tbe perc om copring yo sa eperencs i Pet Zinta, {datos nh the wool te soln dents 2 separate el of practice, Saou at oles the cretion and ma pulaton cf sounds ina tdi or ona computer o ereste 8 eorded at object (e"nundsculpare’) tat not leaded to epeeent el te formanc, Wheres in high felt eodings slo techniques ae ‘masked or downplayed, n sudo au art processes of electronic ound eeration and manlputon are often celebrated ad ate over repre ‘ented inh lime recording or bund Ses ects this amework eguite shift inte very conception of what imu tie worth emphasing tht the for Sel donot refer om Sal genes rae categories such af, rock, ols, although ies of se wll cme into I Rather, the four Hells of rate and conception often coset our received gene tgore and een the work fsingle artis and Bands. n thei ive performances, one asz ensemble might lngely prac he participatory Bel by emphasing fs role as a dance bund (eg, Duke Elington daring te ving ea, if Nodoo Dac), whl thers aris might primary be geared toward formal concerts nd cub presentations (eg, Caltane, Monk) The ane ‘nd might mitch Sede fom one performance station to anther or 2 ferent points in its carer Flingtons orchestra played for dancing td give coors, The Beatles bean ss prtiptory cub dance band tn ther Harbug day, changed oa presentational and high ety ap proach inthe ecly day ffm, and ceated suo aula ain hele ter peiod—es musa se, modes of practice, and conceptual ton ofthemscve as artist changing a they shifted eld. “Te foc ere is onthe spe facial oe, wales, goal snd pope vole in spect instances of mune mang and dance. Yet, the gol vlc, practie, and ses of actus win a ge Bel are shaped by their coneptios of the ele and cnt of rex ‘he purpne of mee win that adTu the manner of preparing for and plying music or dang in paricpstory events wll ay in 3 rie f predictable ways fom pesettinnal preparation and perfor trance, When the gol high elt recoding, new arte res in raking hems ae added cori, or producer and engineer) ar te sound shaping process sch as micophone pace ning, nd tting The basic manner of performing is often distinct fo igh Bley ‘coding mae in a stdin snd new concerns about ecepuon for 2x {mpl hw the recording wil sound on Aileen pe of playback equ tment and Hw wil wrk foc repeated earings, shape the muse Process in fndamental way “Te eoned mse prodced by one art ona computer in a stowills difer in predictable ways if tis intended tobe used in a disco or ub dance seen a opposed to being heard at an eleco-acoustic compos ‘er forum or conference. In the fst nance, the oid ie shaped fo it intended use for participatory dancing and thas represents a mixing of fields; the second instance is 2 “textbook case of studio ado art. Ifthe sounds produced on the compute for participatory dancing are intended to iconically represent what performers do live, then i isa mix of high fidelity + participatory; if the recording is not imtended to represent & “ive music sound! then ia mix of studio audio ar + parseiptory i the recording combines a presentational se of singing with electronic souads for participatory dancing then it may be intended as» combina tion of high fidelity + studio audio art + participatory. In ll these tn stances, ther cpatcgatory club dance music (eg long, conssteat compelling mosial grooves) wil be evident some gms. AS “Tse camples suggest, there area variety of traditions such as Karaoke, aves, sco, and Djing that combine aspects ofthe diferent fields But these combinations, aswell as historical she inthe social emphasis on diferent fields, can be more clearly understood afer the fields are delin ‘sted as separate types. Participatory Performance as a Separate Art There ae many forms of musical participation. Siting ln sent contem- platon of sounds emanating from a concert stage is ceanly a type of ‘musical partcpaton, as is walking inthe woods or down a city set to the soundtrack of musle coming through the headphones ofan Pod. Here, however, am using the ides of participation inthe ertricted cence of scively contributing tothe sound and retin ofa msicl even rough dancing singlng, capping, nd playing musical instruments when each ofthese acl is considered Integral tothe performance. In fully par tlelpatory occasions there are no artstandience distinctions, only par ‘icpants and potential participants, Atentio ison the sonic and kinesle Sntcration among participants. Paricipstory performance isa particular Feld of activity in which splined sound and motion are conceptualized ‘most importantly as heightened socal iteration. In partspatory music ‘aking one’ primary atertion ion the activ on he dang, a nthe other participants, rather than on an end product that results from the tii ‘Although the quality of sound an motion i very important forthe sucess of participatory prformancs it is important beeaseiinspcee eater partcpation among those present, andthe ality ofthe perfor ‘mance is ultimately judged on the level of parilption achieved. Qua: fy is also gauged by how paccipants fee during the activity, with litle ‘ought to how the music and dance might sound o lok apart from the act of doing and thos involved. That isthe focus is primal inward, mong participants inthe moment, in contrast othe presentational and recorded fields, where arst attention invabes varying degrees of con: ‘ern with listeners no involved in the actual doing The result is that par Ulgstory muse making leads toa special kindof concentration on the cther people one sineracting with through sound and motion and on the acct in self ad fer sl. This heightened concentration on the other participant is one reson that prtepstory music dance is much a trong force for social bonding. It alto lead to diminished selconssousness, because ideally) everfone presents similarly engaged ‘The Participatory Fame A primary dsingulsing feature of participatory performance ie that there are no artist audlence distinctions. Deeply participatory events are founded on an ethos that holds that everyone present can, and i fat should, puticipate in the sound and motion of the perfomance, Such ‘evens ate famed a interactive social occasions; people attending know in advance tha mse and dance willbe central scvties and that they willbe expected to jon in if shy attend. Most people goto participatory vents because they want to make music andlor dance. This s lke atend tnga party inthe United States where people know in advance that conver ‘tion wil be the central social activity and hat they attend they willbe ‘expected to chat, Moa prope oto parties because they want to socialize Tmsome societies, and in certain cultural eohorts within North American society, msi making and dancing ae the central activities during social ‘terns, and nich ples people gow up making music and dancing 4 normal pat of sack ife. For people in the capitalist cosmopalitan formation where music and dance have become more specialized act Ses, might be har to imagine that music making and dancing are 3s basi to beng socal the ality o take part in rendly conversation, but sch ste cae in plces I have visited sic a Zimbabwe and Peru. During putcipstry music and dance occasions thee isa subi and sometimes not ro sulle pressure to participate. While not everyone has {be playing us avg all the die, a genera sense a zeae tha peoplewho donot participate at all are somehow shicking thei socal respons biliy by not being Sociable, Imagine attending a small party among close fends where everyone is laying chrades with the exception of one frend who refuses to play an sts alone in the corner. A similar range of reactions to such a person might be experienced ina partcipatory music setting everyting from direct invitations to join into teasing aa exo ‘ng to ignoring him, to worrying tat something might be wrong. TYE ‘ally people donot want stand out inthis way and 0 might join in, even ‘with token gestures even when they don eal fel lke taking part. AS ‘ith any party, people attend participatory muse occaslons for variety ‘ofressons and ina variety of moods, and engage with what ie gong ona suis them, Performance Roles in Participatory Performance ‘Typically, the members of ensembles specallaing in presentational pes: formance wil be relatively similar in their level of enusieal competence. ‘The responsibilty of proniding «good performance for an audience in spices presentational performers to seek out the best posible ensemble sates. Musial dance sili primary; other aspects such as personaly, the abiltytoworktogether, and, depending on the tration features such as appearance and sage presence also become key eriterin for selecting Individuals forthe ensemble Participatory traditions dies fundamentally in that anyone and everyone s welcomed to perform. The inclusion of people with a wide range of musial investment and abilities within the same performance creates a nique dynamic as walla a seties of con straints on what cana shouldbe done musically. ‘There isa common idea in the United Sats that partcpstry snus smustbe uniformly simple so that everyoneca join in, as, forexample th the singing of camplie songs. In places where partelpatory masie making isthe mainstay this isnot the ere. [Fthere were only simple roles, people ‘who are deeply engaged with music and dance would likely beconte bored and not want to pariipate. everyone isto be attracted, a parcipstory ‘uation will havea variety of roles that differ in difialty and degrees of specialization requzed. This can be understood in elation to Csksceat rihalys ow theory, dsesssed in chapter As was suggested, the most Important condition for Bow is tha the activity must neue the proper balance between inherent challenges ane abl vel ule wo He ctallenges are 10 low, the activity becomes borg andthe mind wanders elsewhere; if the challenges are too high, the activity lads to frustration snd the actor cannot engage fll; When the balance i jus right, sen lances concentration anda tease of being “in the groove” atone with the activity and the other people involved, Partcpatory traditions usualy include a variety of roles demanding diferent degres of specialization, so that people can join in at 3 evel that offers the right balance of cha. lenge and cquired sil. Calkszentuhalyi has observed that because ow ‘perience ae pleasurable, prople return to the activites that provide ‘hem again and again As they 4 so, thei sil for the att increase, ‘equiring eve higher challenges. In places where participatory music and dance are at the center of social ocasions, opportunites to improve one's skill are common, ‘The inclusion of people witha wide range of sis within the same preformance is important for inspiring participation. The presence of ‘ther people with sila abies as oneself makes oining in comfort thle I anlyviruosi performers were presen, the gap between them and neophytes would be ton gret, and inexperienced performers would be kecouraged. When rank beginners, people with some insted hl, inter mediate, and experts all perfo:m together, however, people a ech level ‘cancels aspte to and practical follow the example of people at ‘the nex evel above them. in articipatocy contets, the full ange of the learning curve ie acl and visually present and provides reachable goals for people st al sil level ‘Tolep everyone engige, participatory musical and dance oes must have an ever expanding eng of challenges, ora range of activites that ‘an provide continuing challenges, wile, athe same ime, there must be ‘sexs place for young people to begin and for others who or whatever ‘ezon, do not become dedicated to performing bt sll want to parc pate at some level, Thus some role are quite simple, such as capping the bse beat or singing a chorus melody, while other may requlte a ood ea of practice and specialization uch a playingcor astamental parts ‘or lnprovising lead vocal ineaton to & chorus response. Some roles, rich ae dancing, singing, or plyiag elaboration percussion pats, may allow for wide range of expertise where beginners and highly advanced performers alike ca takepart at their ov level of abil. Tus the terme core and eleoratian to refer to diferent musical roles ‘in elation to thei lative aeesiy to he overall event. na rock roll, dance for instance, the rockband chythm section (drums, ass, rth ‘ila) proven se pst halle the lead guitarist and shgerto pro ‘de elaboration and that allow everyone ele to dace. The rhythm Sec- tion scone relative to the singer and lead guitars and the entre band wrdna coe rle in relation to the dancers Coe and elaboration roles may ‘or may not comespond with levels of expertise. While crucial cove parts axe ically taken or guded by experts, they may include lest klledper- formers (as in the singing of a baie chorss melody) elaboration pasts ‘yplealy encompass the ful range of sll levels, eg, ftom the most base ‘o the most advanced singers and dancers. Thre i more room in eabors: tion pars forthe diferen shil levele because while lf eaboraion certainly enhances the sprit af «performance, the people who take these pars ar nt sponsible for hig hee perms og ak teuefor cot players, ‘Some performance roles inhecently offer an expanding cling of chal lenges (you can always become «beter dancer, lead singer, o lead guitar is), whereas others are more vateicted regarding what is appropiate to Playin support of other soles and activities. For example, the cre sho (gourd shaker) part in Shona mba musi (chapters; aleo Sue 21) must “be played in a staghtforward and relatively simple manner if the rye mic groove required for dancing and the other musical parts isto emai Intact, and the same is true for abythm guitars, bassist, or drummer in s.rock, 2ydeco, or egsne band, Arisicfeedoun and experimentation in these core role are restricted by the esponsibility of providing the nus: cal foundation that allows other to pazticpste comfortably ‘Within participatory tradiins, however, there are a sange of roles svalabletoindvidualsinany en event, Sometimes peopesimply prefer lone typeof activity over others, such as plying a glen instrument, sng sng, dancing, much sivas might prefer, and be beter a, plying Aiferent postions on a sothal eam. But the range of roles also offers variety andthe possibilty for new challenges. The participatory conta square dancing tradition in the United States la cae in pat. Experts in {his tadhion might participate = musicians, dancers, and dance calles (a person who verbally teaches and directs each dance) within a given dance ‘weekend (chapter 6). Often people enter this scene as beginning dane es; but those who master dancing might goon to ake up an instrument ‘ed in contra dance bands or might lean dance calling so tat they can participate in other ways and find new challenges that hep them engaged sth the activ 2 Mie fers to an insrment ith eno met ys atached oa sound eat and aly piped within a shah rsnatae The eae pad wih te lee thamand gh than an nds Gg I the type of stunt emesis tefared was "hum pan inthe Usted Sten Participatory Musical Values (One key feature that diferentes participatory and presentational tad on involves isues of value Parscipatory vals ate distinctive in tat the succes of performance more importantly judged by the degre and intensity of parsicpation than by some abstracted assesment ofthe ms tal sound quality. My Zimbabwean mbira teacher, Chris Mhlanga, once ‘old me thatthe best mbira players could offer this bet performance at ‘ceremony but if no one joined In singing. clapping, and dancing, the perfomance would be considered afallure, Shona ceremonies forthe an ‘estar are deeply participatory and the quality ofthe ceremony is judged bythe intensity of patepation that inspires sprit possession. Although the drummers or bra players perfom the most specialized core sical roles in ceremonies, they ae not considered th stars ofthe event ‘with ther contributions being ecundary Racer, hey. along with hosho (shaker) players, are more lke workmen withthe special responsibilty to provide a fue musical foundation tht allows and infact nape others to participate “Tiere of rerponsiblty wil come upagun ater a egard to shap- Ing the sound of participatory performance. Here would simpy say tht eaten of cove players ably ad desire to pla flashy improvisations ‘orto play faster than people frd comfortable for dancing, they have the responsibility of performing their part in a way chat wil not exclude ‘thes, Participatory values plae «priority on performing in ways that invite patcpation, ever if thimight limit a given performers dese for personal exptesion or experimentation. Each Reld has is own positive Potentials and constrains In presentational music there is muck more om foe personal Innovation, ad infact innovations often highly valued forthe interest provides for the audience. The disintive values and re sponsible that wnderpinpaticipatory and preserational musie mak Ing are fundamental to undetstndng major differences between the In parilpaory events everones contribution tothe performance salut and in fate consdered esentil fora performance tbe deemed ‘accestul. Bu this doce mean chat everyone inthe event i necessr lipbappy abou some people’ inept or eumsy contributions to the music and dazce. ln atypical contra dance, newomers and experienced danc- tre alike ae encouraged to joi in dancing. Newcomers are encouraged, partly because people ina local scene want ito grow and remain vibrant "hey need “new blood.” More general, contra dance scenes operate with a pantcipatory ethos and it i smply considered 2 Good —in the spict ofthe scene —to be welcoming nd helpful to newcomers. Nonetheless, new dancers interrupt the low ofthe dance when they become confused about what they should be doing and st ithe feling af ow (a word contra dancers use themselves) that draws many experienced dancer. I there ‘ate too many new dancers in :gven even or scene, come experienced ances may become favardlyeasporated, comment about this among themselves, or even, sometimes show thee impatience on the dancefloor Shows of impatience, howeves, are generally considered bad manners, ‘because they confit with the weleoming, communal ethos that conta ancers usally value about the scene an themselves, ‘Among indigenous Aymara people of Conima, Pens, music making i highly participatory? Any male commurity member is weleome to pet form panppesor fates with hi community ensemble, and any man ot woman sweleome to dance. Te values guiding musical performance are Part of amore fundamental socal style in which egalitarian relations and Conic avoidance are spical (Turina 1993). At one Besta I participated in, two men showed upto perfoun with ur ensemble with Gute tuned at 4 ilerent pitch level fom the instruments we were using, Nonetheless, ‘they Joined in and performed with us thronghout the tw day eta, The result as thatthe overall sun was extremely out of tune. This drove me rary, and [tried wo stand a faraway fom these individual as I could in my atempe to ignore the sounds they were making Iwas suprised bythe fact that none of the other players gave any indiaton that anything was wrong or sugested to these man that they might try to find Buster that were better in tne with the ensemble. No sign of any kind that might have discouraged their prticpnton was given during the public perfor: mance. returned home with Feber, «deeply dedicated musician and the frend {was staying with. Cne we Were alone, he began to complain bitty about how terrible the sound was. He had felt he sameway {had about thee musician’ contrbaions to the performance. But even he, a colder and well respected usin inthe community, elt that he coulda. say anything to these men dui the Best ‘These stories point toa subtle but erucil point about the pasticps tory ethos, I's not tat peopledo not make qualitative judgments about 4 Totem Amar refers oa maj tv American ngage spon parte of sue Pearland Ader Mounsine Canina tl yan psn, Aisin these of Pano sour Pera candace sesetch wh has ‘rs om 98 t01985, ‘ther participants performance inwarly o that everyone is happy about problematic contributions toa performance—-oveal, people have a bet ter ime when the muse and dance are going well 1 is simply that in participatory traditions a peony i pce on encouraging people jin in regardless ofthe quality oftheir cantributions. In highly participatory tations, the etiguete and quality of scaly is ranted priority over ‘the quality ofthe sound per se, Pu another way, pactiipetory music and dance s more about the socal elation being realized though the pecfor ‘ance than about producing act tht can somehow be abstracted fom al elation “Fo these of us who hall rom a society where presentations and r- carded masie are the mort valued forms aod where musi conceptal- Jnndas Art, pareipatory valves maybe hard to graspand accept in relation ‘tomusicming, Imig be helpful o chinkofpartcpatory performance as being similar pickup softball game. Whea a goup of good fiends came tery vente uy og nor oe uy lye wl ‘beter softball players keep the pane gong and make faa fr everyone, I ‘ho one can hit, atc, or pitch, the game goes nowhere and becomes bor ing, just as ifno one can create a compelling rhythmic groove no one wll ‘want dance. Competitive or deeply invested softball players may gaan inwardly when an inept tearmaate dubs an easy 8y ball, bu if eey have any clas they will shout encouragement, make ajoke ft of ay nothing ‘After al itis ona game for fun and to bring frends together. Partcip- tory performance like tists about the opportunity of connecting in special ways with other and experiencing fow. ‘What if important to understand ie that for cetan socal groups ‘throughout the worl, participatory music, dance, games, spots, and fet vals are not merely the informal sidelines tothe eal" event— profesional athltics, musi, and entertalament—but rather they ae atthe center of toca life The values and practices that underpin patiiptor rts, sports, festivals, and other activities are important because they inspire more people tobe involved with, and to develop sks in, these lfe-enriching vite, As compared with the other masieal eld participstorymusie ‘makingldancing Is the most democratic, the least formally competitive, snd the lear hierarchical. As ch, paticipatory performance doesnot ft ‘ell withthe broader cltual values ofthe capitals cosmopolitan form ‘on, where competition and hierarchy ae prominent and profit making ‘soften «primary gol (who would buy tickets to watcha plckeup softball{ume ora square dance?) Fo this reason, in places like the United States paricipstory tadisions tend w be eegated to special cultural cohorts that "adn opposition to the breader cultural formation. Participatory acti- ties exit beneath the radar of mainstream afical and popular attention in staunchly epitalist societies, and yt they stl exst—some people seek ‘hem out or create them becase they offer special resources for individual sd soda integration and experience, flow, and fun Sounds and Practices of Participatory Performance Ieis not suprising that on the surface, Indigenous Shona music ofZimba ‘owe, Peruvian Aymara music and Midwestern contra dance music sound othing alte, These tree titons are geographically distant and have otbeen directly influenced by common difusian. What is surpesing is ‘hat blow the surlace, these thee types of music making share variety of sound features, basic principles of erganization, and performance prac ties, When frst started tying wilage musi in Zimaawe after having ‘worked in Pers for many yas, was struck by the numberof similarities Sd was at loss to explain therm Moreover found thatthe lis of sound features Charles Klel decused ae participatory disrepancies correlated ‘with dhe parallel features [Sound in the cases I new. This inspired my ‘tudes andme to undertake comparative research ofthe sounds and per formance practices oftraditins meant to lnspire participation in diferent pate of the wold ‘As the result of this work, we compiled list of sound features and pevformance practices tht timed up more often than notin participa tory traditions —the feature summarized and discussed below: Our main conclusions were that theve sound feanures (2) functioned to inspite or suppor participation: (2) functioned to enhance social bonding, «goal that often undediespasticiptory traditions; andor (3) dlalecialy grew ‘out of or were the result ofpriipatory values and pracices, am notas- ‘ering that al of theze sound features wil always be present in traditions tule by participstory goat, but rather that many ely wil be present {nsome form or other because they workto inspire and enhance particps ‘on In it 1964 landmark study The Anchropology of Music lan P. Mer ‘iam suggested one ofthe most widely accepted ideas in ethnomsicoogy, that muse is bese understood in relation to is systemic components of sound, bohavion, ad conor Given this premise, should not be surptis ing that difleent ausical Caditons that are founded on similar values sd socal goals (concepts) should exhibit slr practices (odhavion) and style features (sound). This conclusion seems warranted for prtiipstory ‘music making FORM AND REPETITION. TheformsofFuropean cassia music and ‘most contemporary poplar songs are fixed so tha they pally begin, progress, and end in te same way everytime the plece ie plyed and are Iranced in terms of repeated and contrasting sections for clases music, most aspects ofthe composition are notated in the score dyna ‘cy, siting emphasis on diferent instruments, key modulations, tempo, and meter changes among many othe features are ult no he piece to provide contrast between diferent sections and to provide interest fr lis teners. The details ofa popular song may be fed smilcy in sore or by 4 recording The majonty of presestational musi sn this typeof coed form with predetermined formal contrasts and a set begin idle, and end. Since high Sdelty music and pieces of erudio audio ata, by definition, defined by the recording, they ae the most markedly emus calitems. 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